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ABSTRACT Historical evidence shows that wood ash has been used in lime mortar to help absorb moisture from masonry walls. In this study, an experimental programme was designed to assess [...]

ABSTRACTNature-based solutions are seen to benefit both society and biodiversity. However, research into their future resilience is required. Soft capping is a nature-based conservation strategy that mimics the natural colonisation of plants on top of ruined walls and reduces rates of material deterioration. To remain effective, soft capping species must be tolerant of future climatic conditions. We use the Maxent species distribution model to assess the resilience of soft capping species to low and high emission scenarios across Britain and Ireland. We assess the mid- and end-century presence probability of four native and archaeophyte species used in soft capping (Sedum album, S. acre, S. anglicumand Saxifraga granulata). Future presence probabilities were calculated using the climate models HadGEM3-GC31-LL, IPSL-CM6A-LR and MIROC6. Results suggest that current sedum-based soft caps will remain viable until mid-century with additional maintenance (e.g. watering) during droughts, although soft caps predominantly formed of Sedum albummay be prone to failure in south-eastern England. In the future, species more resilient to arid conditions may need to be preferentially selected for soft capping to ensure resilience under a warming climate. Species distribution modelling provides a useful way of predicting the future resilience of nature-based solutions.

ABSTRACTDamage and susceptibility are key concepts in conservation but are rarely explicitly defined. This paper provides definitions for these terms and applies them to mineral collections. Minerals are often overlooked in the context of heritage conservation due to their assumed stability. While many appear to be stable under ambient conditions, at least 10% of known mineral species are susceptible to temperature, moisture, light, or pollutant levels common in museum stores and displays. These susceptible minerals are represented in museums as natural history specimens (as crystals and inclusions within rocks and fossils), pigments in paintings, and deterioration products of other minerals, metals, and many other object types. A new online resource, the Mineral Susceptibility Database, has been designed to facilitate the preservation of minerals by providing relevant information in a single, accessible location. Data were collated and synthesised from various fields of research, many of which are not easily accessible to museum professionals. As an open repository of interdisciplinary research, the Mineral Susceptibility Database encourages informed decision-making and advocates cross-disciplinary communication, both of which are necessary to improve the care of mineral and geological materials.

ABSTRACTMosses are a common type of organism found colonising stone in both the natural and built environment. People responsible for managing and conserving historic buildings often worry that mosses can cause biodeterioration, but there is very little research to date on what controls moss growth and the nature and magnitude of their impact. To help fill this knowledge gap, research has been carried out on limestone walls at Kelmscott Manor, the churchyard at Chipping Norton, and in the laboratory on limestone test blocks, to examine the impact of microclimate variations on both the initial colonisation and spread of mosses, and the impact of moss colonisation on temperature, relative humidity, and moisture conditions. The research used a combination of non-destructive and invasive tests to determine the impact of mosses on moisture relations through direct impacts on surface moisture, water absorption capacity, and open porosity. From the results presented, we can infer that mosses have an impact on water uptake and retention on mortar and limestone at both the surface and subsurface level, and that they may play a role in ‘shielding’ the underlying substrate from light rainfall events. The experimental data also suggests that in certain cases, removing mosses may have more of an impact on moisture regimes than leaving them in situ.

Water plays a major role in the deterioration of porous building materials such as those widely found in built heritage, influencing many physical, chemical, and biological decay processes. This article details a proof-of-principle study using near-infrared cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS) to monitor the release of water and its artificially enriched isotopologues from small (ca. 25 × 25 × 5 mm) samples of limestone subject to drying by a fixed flow of nitrogen with varying levels of humidity and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Under low-humidity conditions, the drying kinetics are consistent with the well-established two-phase drying process exhibited by porous materials, namely, an initial constant drying rate period (phase I) followed by a falling drying rate period (phase II). The water diffusivity during phase II, DII, was measured (for Clipsham limestone) to be 3.0 × 10–9± 1 × 10–10m2s–1. The CRDS measurements allow spectroscopic determination of the total mass of water released by the sample, and the calculated values are in excellent agreement with gravimetric analysis. Importantly, the selectivity and sensitivity afforded by CRDS allows isotope analysis to be carried out, such that the flux of isotopically labeled water out of the sample can be determined under conditions of humidified flow where there may be a simultaneous ingress of water from the environment. Dual-wavelength CRDS distinguishes isotopic species, and it is demonstrated that the drying kinetics and physical properties of the samples are self-consistent when monitoring both HDO and H2O (for HDO, DIIwas 3.2 × 10–9± 4 × 10–10m2s–1). As the humidity levels in the flow increase, a departure from the distinct two-phase behavior is observed in the HDO drying curves. These new measurements of isotopically resolved mass fluxes will help refine models for drying mechanisms in porous media.

ABSTRACTReigate stone was extensively used in medieval London and is prone to rapid decay. A variety of different conservation treatments has been applied in the past; in many cases, these have not mitigated on-going decay. This paper presents an overview of wax, limewash, silane and ammonium tartrate treatment at the Tower of London and Hampton Court Palace. Documentary analysis and visual inspection indicate that whilst these methods have provided protection to some stones, no single method has resulted in the protection of all stones. Non-destructive and minimally-destructive testing is used to more closely assess the effects of ammonium tartrate treatment. The results imply that inherent stone mineralogy, past decay pathways and/or present environmental factors are a greater influence on on-going decay than treatment histories.

ABSTRACTBoundary walls are neglected but important parts of historic urban environments, and they are often prone to serious deterioration. Understanding moisture and salt dynamics within boundary walls can help infer the causes and dynamics of deterioration. This investigation investigates the patterns of moisture, salt, and deterioration on a 300 year old limestone boundary wall in Worcester College, Oxford. Multiple methods to assess moisture and salts within and across the wall (electrical resistivity tomography, handheld resistivity-based moisture meter, paper pulp poultices, scanning electron microscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, and ion chromatography of small scale sampling of deteriorated limestone) were used in conjunction with decay mapping of both sides of the wall. The salt weathering strongly correlates with severely weathered zones at the wall and salts, mainly sulfates, seem to be the main agent of decay processes. The combined results demonstrate that the environmental influences driving stone decay can differ on a very small scale even at a comparatively simple structure like a boundary wall, and that repairs can have adverse effects if the patterns of salt and moisture dynamics are not sufficiently known.

When rain impacts a building façade, it is essential that once it has entered, it leaves by evaporation to help the building dry out. Accumulation of moisture can lead to internal dampness, mould and decay of valuable masonry by salt weathering. In a solid masonry wall where the stone is of low permeability, such as granite which is found in many historic buildings, rain water mainly enters and leaves through mortar joints. If granite stone masonry needs repointing, the repair mortar must allow the overall masonry to dry out. This study evaluates the drying response of various lime-based repointing mortars mixes in small granite stone masonry constructions (test walls) subjected to a simulated intense short rain event and then left to dry. It determines the moisture movement through mortar joints, the influence of materials, joint types and workmanship, and whether repointing could mitigate moisture ingress and help masonry dry out. This study developed a novel experimental protocol which allowed comparison of the drying response of different mortar types in a low-porosity stone masonry system and the effect of repointing. Five test walls were built of Cornish granite with five different lime mortar mixes combining NHL 3.5 (St Astier) gauged with non-hydraulic quicklime (Shap), quartz and calcitic sand and biomass wood ash as additives. Simulated intense rain was sprayed on each wall over a 3.25 h spell. Drying was monitored over a week with a microwave moisture device (MOIST350B). Measurements were done at surface and depth on both mortar joints and granite units. Each wall was then repointed with the same mortar mix initially used when built and the same rain simulation was performed to evaluate differences repointing could make to the moisture dynamics. The importance of mortar in dealing with moisture movements in the test wall and absorbing moisture from the stones was demonstrated. Gauged binder and wood ash additives decreased the capillary absorption capacity of mortars while retaining a good drying rate. This study has also showed that after repointing water did not penetrate as deep under the same conditions. Therefore repointing reduces the threat of water ingress and shows that it could be a suitable conservation intervention to mitigate water ingress and accelerate drying.

Climate change poses an ever-increasing risk to our stone built heritage. Among conservation actions, the use of consolidant products is considered a possible response to this challenge, and the adoption of nanolimes has been widely studied showing promising results. However, while the effectiveness and method of application has been assessed, few studies have probed the changes in drying kinetics following treatment. In fact, a drastic alteration of the water transport might lead to further anomalies. This study investigates the influence of nanolimes dispersed in ethanol on the drying kinetics of Clipsham limestone using cavity ring-down spectroscopy. The degree of treatment was assessed by gravimetry, Raman spectroscopy, optical microscopy, colorimetry, optical profilometry and thin section analysis. Results showed an increase in the dry mass, observable colour changes and decrease in surface roughness. Small but reproducible increases were observed in the evaporation flux for phase I behaviour following treatment, however, no changes were observed in the total mass of water released or the phase II diffusivity. Determination of the activation energy associated with phase II drying was unchanged following treatment . These results indicate that following treatment there has been little-to-no change in the internal surfaces and structure of the stone to affect vapour transport.

Purpose: This paper questions the common perception within heritage science that the environment is seen primarily as a risk factor that can change or impact heritage. The purpose of this paper is to reconceptualise the relationship between heritage and the environment within an Earth System Science framework, enabling a more sustainable approach for understanding and conserving heritage sites to be implemented. Design/methodology/approach: To explore the relationship between heritage and the environment, this paper considers how perceptions of the environment within heritage science have been shaped in response to the conservation challenges facing movable heritage. Furthermore, as heritage encompasses a wide array of immovable buildings and sites whose relationships with the environment are complex and nuanced, this paper premises that the environment cannot be considered separately from heritage as it is intrinsically related by: providing components of heritage; modifying heritage; being modified by heritage; adding to heritage value; and acting as a co-creator of heritage. Findings: This paper proposes that heritage science should learn from, and work within, the well-established Earth System Science framework. This enables interactions and feedbacks between heritage and components of the environment to be explored across a range of scales. Practical implications: This systems-based approach allows heritage science to consider the environment more holistically and sustainably within its research and practice and better equips it to conserve movable and immovable heritage in the Anthropocene. Originality/value: This paper provides a novel approach for viewing the relationship between heritage and the environment by using a well-established framework from other highly interdisciplinary fields.

There is great practical and scholarly interest in the identification of pigments in works of art. This paper compares the effectiveness of the widely used Raman Spectroscopy (RS), with hyperspectral imaging (HSI), a reflectance imaging technique, to evaluate the reliability of HSI for the identification of pigments in historic works of art and to ascertain if there are any benefits from using HSI or a combination of both. We undertook a case study based on six Armenian illuminated manuscripts (eleventh–eighteenth centuries CE) in the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. RS, and HSI (380–1000 nm) were both used to analyse the same 10 folios, with the data then used to test the accuracy and efficiency of HSI against the known results from RS using reflectance spectra reference databases compiled by us for the project. HSI over the wavelength range 380–1000 nm agreed with RS at best 93% of the time, and performance was enhanced using the SFF algorithm and by using a database with many similarities to the articles under analysis. HSI is significantly quicker at scanning large areas, and can be used alongside RS to identify and map large areas of pigment more efficiently than RS alone. HSI therefore has potential for improving the speed of pigment identification across manuscript folios and artwork but must be used in conjunction with a technique such as RS.

Water plays a vital role in the deterioration and conservation of built and rock-hewn heritage and it is generally agreed that climate change is significantly changing the environmental controls on stone decay. We here introduce the framework of heritage hydrology as a holistic way of conceptualising the flows and stores, processes and impacts of water interacting with building materials. We distinguish the basic types of stone-built buildings, ruins and free-standing walls, and rock-hewn sites. Analogous to catchment hydrology, heritage hydrology can be subdivided into water fluxes and water reservoirs, further subdivided into inputs (e.g. wind-driven rain, capillary rise), throughputs (e.g. runoff down façade), storages (moisture content) and outputs (evaporation and runoff). Spatial patterns of moisture are different between buildings and rock-hewn sites, both presenting hydrological complexities. The interaction between mean and short-term precipitation, wind, radiation and resulting evaporation may lead to very different impacts at different heritage sites. We here differentiate between the detail scale, the façade scale and the building or site scale. Patterns at different sites can be very variable on different scales due to the multitude of influencing parameters and it is not clear which scale of moisture variations is actually relevant for decay processes. Temporal patterns are equally scale-dependent and include short-term fluctuations in temperature and rainfall, high-magnitude episodic events such as floods and storms, and longer-term changes as a result of seasonality, interannual variability and secular trends or climate change. Based on the outlined framework we advocate a research agenda for heritage hydrology in the future. This should focus on (1) finding the best combinations of methods to measure and model spatio-temporal patterns in moisture; (2) researching the major factors controlling spatio-temporal patterns in moisture; (3) figuring out which spatio-temporal patterns are most important for driving deterioration and how their respective scales interact.

Sir: Charles Moore has lost his bearings and entered 'terra incognita' in his recent exploration of the Royal Geographical Society's remit and work in the 21st century (The Spectator's Notes, [...]

The zoogeomorphological impact of burrowing animals varies in time and space as a result of the particular life history traits of the organisms involved, the patchy distribution of habitat resources, and fluctuations in population size. Such ecological complexity presents a major challenge for biogeomorphologists wishing to upscale from individuals to populations. Using a unique ecological data set for Eurasian badgers (Meles melesL.) in Wytham Woods, Oxfordshire, UK, we show that direct zoogeomorphological impact (soil displacement during sett excavation) is constrained by fluctuations in overall population size. Modeled digging rates for individual badgers (0.19–4.51 m3 yr−1) varied depending on the ecological function of the sett they are associated with, and we estimate that the whole population has displaced 304–601 ± 72 m3of soil during the construction of 64 setts. This represents an overall excavation rate of 6.7–19.4 m3(6.0–17.5 t) yr−1in sett areas or 1.42–4.12 g m−2 yr−1when averaged over the whole 424 ha woodland. As well as direct soil displacement, badger digging exposes material that is initially susceptible to erosion by water relative to undisturbed and litter-covered soils. Over time, setts become stabilized, representing unique landforms that persist in the landscape for decades to centuries.

AbstractIvy is often blamed for damaging masonry walls and seen as something that should be removed wherever possible. However, under some circumstances the positive benefits of ivy can outweigh any deteriorative effects. This paper reports on findings from a three-year research project, commissioned by English Heritage, and their implications for managing ivy on historic masonry walls. From field monitoring at a range of sites in England, it was found that ivy provides a thermal blanket for walls, protecting them from extremes of heat and cold and fluctuations in relative humidity. Similarly, studies in and around Oxford show that ivy can minimize particulate pollution reaching walls. Field experiments in Oxford also reveal that ivy rootlets adhering to stone generally only create minor (if any) damage to the stone surface. However, it was also found that ivy can penetrate existing voids and cause damage. A balanced appraisal should inform decisions to remove, leave or even plant ivy. If ivy is allowed to grow on walls, regular and careful maintenance and monitoring are essential.

An argument is presented that, despite popular assumptions, many limestones, especially the wide range of clastic and, in general, granular limestones, do not decay in a steady and predictable pattern in response to slow dissolution. Instead these stones, especially when used in construction in polluted environments, invariably decay episodically through physical breakdown. Most commonly this is accomplished through a variety of salt weathering mechanisms that, if unconstrained, can lead to the rapid, catastrophic decay of building blocks and their complete loss – a process that has driven the extensive programmes of stone replacement that are typical of buildings constructed of these stones. In polluted environments, especially those rich in sulphur and particulates, the most common constraint on accelerated decay has been the rapid development of gypsum crusts that, for example, could rapidly ‘heal’ the scars left by contour scaling. It is ironic, therefore, that any reduction in pollution could conceivably lead to increased erosion by retarding this healing process. Because of this temporal variability of decay and its translation into spatial complexity, it is important that further research is undertaken to understand controls on the decay of these important building stones so that future conservation strategies can be appropriately informed.

Stone decay is the result of the interaction of stone with its environment. It is therefore important to understand why certain materials, sometimes not the most suitable, were used to shape the built heritage of specific areas. The historical evolution of these areas conditioned many of the combinations of materials we see today, which in some cases can interact to accelerate decay. These combinations were driven by availability during construction, architectural fashion or the simultaneous utilization of materials that are aesthetically similar but differ significantly in their physical and chemical properties. A microcosm of the complex decisions that determine stone selection and subsequent interactions is provided by the City of Oxford, which is an excellent example of how such historic evolution can work with material characteristics to accelerate decay.

Dikau, R., Mollenhauer, K.-M. & Bedehäsing, J. (Hrsg.) (2006): Die Erdoberfläche – Lebens- und Gestaltungsraum des Menschen. Forschungsstrategische und programmatische Leitlinien zukünftiger geomorphologischer Forschung und Lehre. – Z. Geomorph. NF. Suppl. Vol. 148. 149 S., 21 Abb., 9 Tabellen. Gebr. Borntraeger Berlin, Stuttgart 2006; Henningsen, D. & Katzung, G. (2006): Einführung in die Geologie Deutschlands. 234 S., zahlr. zweifarbige Graphiken, 32 Farbfotos, Farbkarten auf den Umschlag-Innenseiten. 7. Aufl., Elsevier Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, ISBN 978-3-8274-1586-8; Scheffers, A. & Kelletat, D. (ed.) (2006): Tsunamis, Hurricanes and Neotectonics as Driving Mechanisms in Coastal Evolution. Proceedings of the Bonaire Field Symposium March 2–6, 2006 – A contribution to IGCP 495. – Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl. 146, 265 pages, 158 figures, 10 tables, Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart. ISSN 0044-2798; Stauch, G. (2006): Jungquartäre Landschaftsentwicklung im Werchojansker Gebirge, Nordost-Sibirien. – Aachener Geogr. Arbeiten Heft 45, 176 S., 96 Abb., 17 Tab., Selbstverlag Geographisches Institut RWTH Aachen, Aachen, ISBN 978-3-9810903-5-2; Demoulin, A. (2006): La néotectonique de l’Ardenne-Eifel et des régions avoisinantes. Mémoire de la Classe des Sciences, Académie royale de Belgique, Band XXV, 252 pp. ISSN 0365-0936, ISBN 2-8031-0228-5; Deutsch, M. (2007): Untersuchungen zu Hochwasserschutzmaßnahmen an der Unstrut (1500– 1900). – Goltze Druck GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen. 221 Seiten, zahlr. s/w-Abbildungen, 16,5 cm x 23,5 cm, ISBN 3-88452-117-9; Ford, D. & Williams, P. (2007): Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. – John Wiley and Sons, Ltd: Chichester, ISBN 978-0-470-84996-5; Glaser, R., Gebhardt, H. & Schenk, W. (2007): Geographie Deutschlands. – Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 280 S. (unter Mitarbeit von zehn weiteren Autoren). ISBN 978-3-89678-591-6; Verwitterung und Morphogenese im Dekkan – eine Prozessanalyse. Teil 1: Laufenberg, M.: Tropische Verwitterung und Bodenbildung in basaltischen und kristallinen Gesteinen Indiens. Teil 2: Bremer, H.: Morphogenese im Dekkan. – Relief, Boden, Paläoklima, Band 18, 511 S., mit 4 Fototafeln, 23 Abb. und 4 Tab., Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart, 2003; Walter, R. (2007): Geologie von Mitteleuropa. – 7. neu bearb. Aufl., X, 511 Seiten, 184 Abbildungen, 24 x 17 cm, E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung Stuttgart, ISBN 978-3-510-65225-9 gebunden; Huhmann, M. (2005): Landschaftsentwicklung und gegenwärtige Bodendegradation ausgewählter Gebiete am oberen Dnister (Westukraine). – 299 S., 186 Abb. und 20 Tab., Marburger Geogr. Schriften 142. Selbstverlag der Marburger Geogr. Ges., Univ. Marburg.

Understanding landscape dynamics in arid and semi‐arid areas is becoming increasingly important, as global change threatens to upset linked ecological and geomorphological systems with potentially serous impacts on livelihoods and environments. Biological crusts (composed of lichens, algae, fungi and bacteria) cover many rock, soil and sediment surfaces in arid and semi‐arid areas and provide a key to understanding future dryland landscape dynamics. Such crusts have been found to play a number of key geomorphic and ecological roles, and are identified as important ecosystem engineers and biogeomorphological agents that could be used in environmental restoration. However, they have also been reported to be highly fragile and susceptible to disturbance, and damage to them may result in non‐linear consequences for linked dryland geomorphological and ecological systems. This paper outlines the current state of knowledge on biological crusts in arid and semi‐arid areas and calls for increased collaboration between geomorphologists and ecologists and better links between studies of biological crusts on rock and soil surfaces.

AbstractMost studies in the area of stone soiling and decay research focus on relatively short periods, usually less than ten years. This study attempts to consider changes over a century using archival photographs, and to relate them to changes in traffic-related air pollution as recorded in surveys and monitoring data. The façade of Magdalen College is an often-photographed component of Oxford's cultural heritage. Its location adjacent to Magdalen Bridge, which is a major traffic artery into Oxford, makes it vulnerable to traffic-related pollution. Traffic surveys reveal a recent decline in traffic, dating from around the time of the Oxford Transport Strategy, only partly matched by nitrogen dioxide reductions. The photographic records show the façade of Magdalen College to be blackened well before traffic became a serious threat. The study illustrates the problems of the archival record, but also its value in providing some insight into long-term changes in air pollution and the consequences for cultural heritage.

The kinetics of calcite dissolution in aqueous acidic solution following various surface treatments was investigated using the channel flow cell method with microdisk electrode detection. Pretreatment of calcite with solutions of polymaleic acid, phosphoric acid, or oxalic acid for up to 24 h is shown to provide protective coatings over the calcite, which substantially reduces further acid attack on the surface. Quantitatively each pretreatment was found to lead to a rate constant for proton-induced calcite dissolution of as low as 0.003 cm s−1, an order of magnitude less than that observed for untreated calcite, 0.035 cm s−1at 21°C.

The rate of dissolution of surface-treated calcite crystals in aqueous acidic solution has been studied using an adaptation of the channel flow cell method with microdisc electrode detection. Surface treatments of calcite with sulfuric acid lead to the nucleation of gypsum overgrowths, which reduce the rate of dissolution of calcite. Rate constants for untreated calcite and calcite pretreated with sulfuric acid conditions of 0.01 M for 1 h, 0.05 M for 5 h, and 0.1 M for 21 h are found to be 0.035, 0.018, 0.006, and 0.004 cm s−1, respectively. Deterioration of calcite materials caused by acid deposition was investigated by field exposure of untreated and sulfate pretreated calcite rocks under urban conditions for 12 months. The rate constant for both pretreated and untreated calcite exposed to weathering is 0.003 cm s−1. This suggests that calcite self-passivates the surface from further reaction when exposed to acid deposition. However, surface studies indicate that the surface undergoes erosion and dissolution before passivation. Pretreatment of the surface with sulfate protects the surface from acid deposition so it remains less reactive toward acid compared with untreated calcite.

Wolman & Miller (1960) haben in ihren Überlegungen zu Häufigkeits- und Magnitudenkonzepten die Verwitterung kaum berücksichtigt. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht das Konzept von Häufigkeit und Größe zum einen im Kontext einiger wichtiger, oft studierter Verwitterungsprozesse (z. B. Lösung, Feuer, Hitzesprengung, Salzsprengung, Frostverwitterung und biogene Verwitterung) und ihrer Effektivität bezüglich des Gesteinszerfalls, zum anderen in Bezug auf die Gesamtheit der Verwitterungsprozesse und deren Bedeutung für geomorphologische Veränderungen in kleinen Maßstäben. Schließlich wird auch die Bedeutung der Idee von Häufigkeit und Größe in Zusammenhang mit Verwitterung in der heutigen Geomorphologie untersucht.

Reigate Stone was used in high profile projects across London during a key growth period and represents an important chapter of architectural heritage. Historic Reigate masonry is subject to inherent variability. It is prone to rapid decay; however, highly decayed and well-preserved stones are frequently adjacent. This inherent variability in masonry can present a challenge to the design of conservation strategies by obscuring or complicating the identification of decay processes. This paper presents a model for assessing the combined impact of construction economies and mineralogical variability (Graphical abstract), by synthesising archival research on the history of Reigate Stone with experimental analysis of its properties. The limitations of the local geography coupled with the demands of the medieval building industry are shown to have introduced inherent variability into the built fabric at an early stage. Later socio-economic factors are shown to have compounded these by contributing to selective recycling, replacement and contamination of Reigate Stone. These historic factors augmented pre-existing mineralogical variability. This variability makes classification according to commonly used stone types difficult. Experimental analysis correlates variable cementing components with hygro-physical properties related to resilience. Calcite content influences strength properties and capillarity; clay content influences moisture adsorption and retention; opal-CT forms a weakly cemented, porous matrix. These presented different decay pathways to a range of environmental mechanisms and agents of decay. The findings suggest that inherent mineralogical variability, environmental changes, and historic contingency must all be considered in the design of ongoing Reigate Stone conservation strategies.