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BackgroundInformed decisions on myopia management require an understanding of financial impact. We describe methodology for estimating lifetime myopia costs, with comparison across management options, using exemplars in Australia and China.MethodsWe demonstrate a process for modelling lifetime costs of traditional myopia management (TMM=full, single-vision correction) and active myopia management (AMM) options with clinically meaningful treatment efficacy. Evidence-based, location-specific and ethnicity-specific progression data determined the likelihood of all possible refractive outcomes. Myopia care costs were collected from published sources and key informants. Refractive and ocular health decisions were based on standard clinical protocols that responded to the speed of progression, level of myopia, and associated risks of pathology and vision impairment. We used the progressions, costs, protocols and risks to estimate and compare lifetime cost of myopia under each scenario and tested the effect of 0%, 3% and 5% annual discounting, where discounting adjusts future costs to 2020 value.ResultsLow-dose atropine, antimyopia spectacles, antimyopia multifocal soft contact lenses and orthokeratology met our AMM inclusion criteria. Lifetime cost for TMM with 3% discounting was US$7437 (CI US$4953 to US$10 740) in Australia and US$8006 (CI US$3026 to US$13 707) in China. The lowest lifetime cost options with 3% discounting were antimyopia spectacles (US$7280, CI US$5246 to US$9888) in Australia and low-dose atropine (US$4453, CI US$2136 to US$9115) in China.ConclusionsFinancial investment in AMM during childhood may be balanced or exceeded across a lifetime by reduced refractive progression, simpler lenses, and reduced risk of pathology and vision loss. Our methodology can be applied to estimate cost in comparable scenarios.

PurposeTo develop age-specific and gender-specific reference percentile charts for axial length (AL) and AL/corneal radius of curvature (AL/CR) and, to use percentiles to determine probability of myopia and estimate refractive error (RE).MethodsAnalysis of AL, cycloplegic RE and CR of 14 127 Chinese participants aged 4–18 years from 3 studies. AL and AL/CR percentiles estimated using Lambda-Mu-Sigma method and compared for agreement using intraclass correlation (ICC). Logistic regression was used to model risk of myopia based on age, gender, AL and AL/CR percentiles. Accuracy of AL progression and RE estimated using percentiles was validated using an independent sample of 5742 eyes of children aged 7–10 years.ResultsAge-specific and gender-specific AL and AL/CR (3rd, 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th and 95th) percentiles are presented. Concordance between AL and AL/CR percentiles improved with age (0.13 at 4 years to >0.75 from 13 years) and a year-to-year change was observed for all except <10th percentile from 15 years. Increasing age, AL and AL/CR was associated with a more myopic RE (r2=0.45,0.70 and 0.83, respectively). The sensitivity and specificity of the model to estimate probability of myopia was 86.0% and 84.5%, respectively. Estimation of 1-year change in AL using percentiles correlated highly with actual AL (ICC=0.98). Concordance of estimated to actual RE was high (ICC=0.80) and within ±0.50D and ±1.0D of actual RE for 47.4% and 78.9% of eyes, respectively.ConclusionAge-specific and gender-specific AL and AL/CR percentiles provide reference data, aid in identifying and monitoring individuals at risk of myopia and have utility in screening for myopia. AL/CR percentiles were more accurate in estimating probability of myopia in younger children.

Myopia is an emerging public health issue with potentially significant economic and social impact, especially in East Asia. However, many uncertainties about myopia and its clinical management remain. The International Myopia Summit workgroup was convened by the Singapore Eye Research Institute, the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific and the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness in 2019. The aim of this workgroup was to summarise available evidence, identify gaps or unmet needs and provide consensus on future directions for clinical research in myopia. In this review, among the many ‘controversies in myopia’ discussed, we highlight three main areas of consensus. First, development of interventions for the prevention of axial elongation and pathologic myopia is needed, which may require a multifaceted approach targeting the Bruch’s membrane, choroid and/or sclera. Second, clinical myopia management requires co-operation between optometrists and ophthalmologists to provide patients with holistic care and a tailored approach that balances risks and benefits of treatment by using optical and pharmacological interventions. Third, current diagnostic technologies to detect myopic complications may be improved through collaboration between clinicians, researchers and industry. There is an unmet need to develop new imaging modalities for both structural and functional analyses and to establish normative databases for myopic eyes. In conclusion, the workgroup’s call to action advocated for a paradigm shift towards a collaborative approach in the holistic clinical management of myopia.

AimsTo investigate the progression pattern of diffuse chorioretinal atrophy (DCA) among Chinese participants with high myopia.MethodsThis is a longitudinal, non-interventional study. Participants with high myopia, defined as ≤−6 diopters spherical power, were included and followed up for 4 years, and underwent cycloplegic autorefraction, best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and fundus photography examinations. Newly established DCA, enlargement of existing DCA and development of other lesions of myopic maculopathy were regarded as DCA progression.ResultsOf the 484 participants with a mean age of 21.5±12.7 years (range, 6.8–69.7 years), 68 eyes (14.0%) showed DCA progression, with 88 lesion changes. The first appearance of DCA was identified in 21 eyes (23.9%). Of 88 eyes with DCA at baseline, 47 eyes (53.4%) showed progression, with 67 lesion changes, including 45 eyes (67.2%) with enlargement of DCA, 17 (25.3%) with a first appearance of lacquer cracks, 4 (6.0%) with development of patchy chorioretinal atrophy and 1 (1.5%) with increased numbers of lacquer cracks. Longer axial length (p<0.001), baseline DCA (p=0.005) and baseline DCA closer to the fovea (p=0.013) predicted DCA progression. Eyes had poorer BCVA at the follow-up if DCA was enlarging (p<0.001) or DCA was closer to the fovea at baseline (p=0.028) after adjusting for age,gender and cataract.ConclusionApproximately half of the participants with DCA had progression over a 4-year follow-up. Enlargement and newly developed DCA were common progression patterns. Larger areas of DCA and foveal involvement with DCA could be indicators of a worse BCVA later.

AimTo prospectively determine the impact of choroidal thickness (CT) on the myopic maculopathy progression.MethodsThis is a prospective, longitudinal, observational study. In total, 434 participants aged 7–70 years with bilateral high myopia (≤-6 D spherical error, range, −6 to −27.0 D) completed follow-up visits for 2 years. The baseline CT centred on the fovea was measured using a swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT). Myopic maculopathy progression was determined by fundus photography. Logistic model was used to examine the impact of CT at baseline on the myopic maculopathy progression. Likelihood ratio test was adopted for model comparison.ResultsThe mean baseline age, spherical equivalence and subfoveal CT (SFCT) of the participants were 23.2±12.5 years, −10.50±3.18 D and 153.20±72.76 μm, respectively. Over 2-year’s follow-up, 74 of 434 eyes (17.1%) had myopic maculopathy progression. Baseline SFCT was thinner in eyes with myopic maculopathy progression than those without (67.26±37.67 μm vs 170.95±65.45 μm; mean difference, 99.31 μm; 95% CI 83.61 to 115.01 μm; p<0.001). The same patterns of differences were observed in 7–18 years, 19–39 years and 40–70 years. In multivariate logistic regression model, SFCT was a significant risk factor (adjusted OR=0.97, p<0.005) when age, gender, axial length and baseline myopic maculopathy category were adjusted for. The addition of SFCT significantly improved the predictive discrimination of myopic maculopathy progression in comparison with that included established risk factors alone (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.899 vs 0.942, p<0.001).ConclusionCT is an independent predictor for myopic maculopathy progression.

Myopia is a major public health problem, particularly in East Asia. In this summary report, we present key findings and recommendations on strategies for myopia control discussed during the meeting jointly organised by the WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, the International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness and the Brien Holden Vision Institute. First, myopia prevalence was reported to be increasing, with up to 80% of junior school students with myopia in East Asia. However, common challenges in implementing myopia control strategies on a national level included lack of school screening programme, and paucity of accurate prevalence data. Second, there continues to be broad public misconception about myopia and myopia control, including lack of parental awareness and resistance to wearing spectacles. Third, best practices for myopia management were shared, and recommendations for policy implementation are presented in this review. Key recommendations from this meeting include increased public education to raise parent and teacher awareness; encouragement of increased outdoor time of 2–3 hours per day for schoolchildren—as a practical public health intervention that has been shown to potentially reduce onset and progression of myopia. Governments and non-governmental organisations are encouraged to collaborate, especially education and health ministries to develop national myopia prevention programme. Lastly, it is important to emphasise that the key recommendations, such as increasing outdoor time for schoolchildren, are specific for East Asian nations in the Western Pacific region and may not be entirely applicable for Western nations.

Worldwide, approximately one in three people are myopic or short-sighted. Myopia in children is of particular concern as younger onset age implies a higher risk of progression, and consequently greater risk of developing vision-threatening complications. The importance of sleep in children’s health has long been acknowledged, but evidence for its role in childhood myopia is fairly new and mixed results were presented across studies. To facilitate better understanding of this relationship, a broad literature search, up to and including October 31, 2022, was performed using three databases (PubMed, Embase, and Scopus). Seventeen studies were included in the review, covering four main aspects of sleep, namely duration, quality, timing, and efficiency, and their associations with myopia in children. The present literature review discussed these studies, revealed potential limitations in their methodologies, and identified gaps that need to be addressed in the future. The review also acknowledges that current evidence is insufficient, and the role of sleep in childhood myopia is far from being fully understood. Future studies that primarily, objectively, and accurately assess sleep and myopia, taking other characteristics of sleep beyond duration into consideration, with a more diverse sample in terms of age, ethnicity, and cultural/environmental background, and control for confounders such as light exposure and education load are much needed. Although more research is required, myopia management should be a holistic approach and the inclusion of sleep hygiene in myopia education targeting children and parents ought to be encouraged.

PurposeWe used systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and assimilate evidence quantifying blindness and visual impairment (VI) associated with myopic macular degeneration (MMD), then derived models to predict global patterns. The models were used to estimate the global prevalence of blindness and VI associated with MMD from 2000 to 2050.MethodsThe systematic review identified 17 papers with prevalence data for MMD VI fitting our inclusion criteria. Data from six papers with age-specific data were scaled to relative age-dependent risk and meta-analysed at VI and blindness levels. We analysed variance in all MMD VI and blindness data as a proportion of high myopia against variables from the place and year of data collection, with a model based on health expenditure providing the best correlation. We used this model to estimate the prevalence and number of people with MMD VI in each country in each decade.ResultsWe included data from 17 studies comprising 137 514 participants. We estimated 10.0 million people had VI from MMD in 2015 (prevalence 0.13%, 95% CI 5.5 to 23.7 million, 0.07% to 0.34%), 3.3 million of whom were blind (0.04%, 1.8 to 7.8 million, 0.03% to 0.10%). We estimate that by 2050, without changing current interventions, VI from MMD will grow to 55.7 million people (0.57%, 29.0 to 119.7 million, 0.33% to 1.11%), 18.5 million of whom will be blind (0.19%, 9.6 to 39.7 million, 0.11% to 0.37%).ConclusionThe burden of MMD blindness and VI will rise significantly without efforts to reduce the development and progression of myopia and improve the management of MMD.

To measure the power profile across the optic zone (OZ) of four commercially available soft contact lenses and establish the impact on the peripheral refractive error of the eye.

Type and incidence of adverse events and rate of discontinuations for 2 years of daily wear with silicone hydrogel contact lenses in Chinese children with myopia.

Significant advances during the past decade in silicone hydrogel lenses have made them the primary mode for new contact lens wear. Their dominance in the market place is driven largely by the elimination of structural and physiological changes induced by contact lens–induced hypoxia, as exemplified especially by the reduction in limbal redness. However, end-of-day dryness and discomfort still drives many to discontinue lens wear. Evidence also indicates that the rate of serious adverse events, such as microbial keratitis, have not been impacted with the use of silicone hydrogel lenses. Moreover, there are additional challenges relating to ‘corneal staining’ and corneal infiltrates associated with the incompatibility of lens care product with contact lens polymers. On the other hand, technological advances enabled by the high oxygen platform present opportunities for expanding the use of contact lenses in areas that have exhibited limited uptake in the past such as astigmatism, presbyopia, and importantly myopia control. The challenges and opportunities facing the field will be discussed.

To characterize seasonal variation in the myopic progression of Chinese children.

To conduct a meta-analysis on the rates of myopia progression in urban children of Asian and predominately European ethnicities who are corrected with traditional single-vision spectacles.

To determine whether carriage of microbes on the contact lens or ocular surfaces during extended wear (EW) with soft hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA)-based contact lenses predisposes the wearer to adverse events.

To identify risk factors for contact lens-related corneal inflammatory events and mechanical events in wearers of silicone hydrogel lenses on a 30-night extended wear (EW) schedule in India.

To report the results of 12-month wear of three novel spectacle lens designs intended to reduce peripheral hyperopic defocus and one standard design control lens and their effect on the progression of myopia in Chinese children aged 6 to 16 years.

To determine the impact of wearing single-vision spectacle lenses (SVLs) on the refractive errors at the periphery of the retina in myopic eyes of Chinese children.

To determine the types of microorganisms and their frequency of isolation on the external ocular surface in children wearing soft contact lenses on a daily wear schedule.

To investigate whether the level of IgE is increased in the eyes of patients during general contact lens–induced papillary conjunctivitis (CLPC) events, which involve enlarged papillae across the entire palpebral conjunctiva, or local CLPC events, in which papillae are confined to one or two parts of the area.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the Complete Ophthalmic Analysis System (COAS) G200 Aberrometer (Wavefront Sciences Inc., Albuquerque, NM) and Canon RK-F1 Autorefractor (Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) for measuring refractive errors in young children.

ABSTRACTMicroorganisms, especially gram-negative bacteria, are considered to play a role in the etiology of certain corneal infiltrative events (CIEs) observed during soft contact lens wear. This study explored the possibility of microbial colonization of soft contact lenses as a risk factor leading to CIEs. In a clinical trial conducted from March 1993 to January 1996, 330 subjects wore disposable soft contact lenses on a 6-night extended-wear and disposal schedule. During this period, 4,321 lenses (118 during CIEs; 4,203 during asymptomatic lens wear) were recovered aseptically and analyzed for microbial colonization. A greater percentage of lenses were free from microbial colonization during asymptomatic wear than during CIEs (42 versus 23%;P< 0.0001). The incidence of gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria and fungi was greater during CIEs than during asymptomatic lens wear (P< 0.05). During asymptomatic lens wear, gram-positive bacteria were isolated most frequently and were usually normal external ocular microbiota. Of the gram-positive bacteria, the incidence of Streptococcus pneumoniaewas greater during CIE than during asymptomatic wear (7.6 versus 0.6%; P< 0.0001). While gram-negative bacteria were seen in few cases during asymptomatic wear, their incidence during CIE in comparison to asymptomatic wear was substantial and significant (23.7 versus 3.8%; P< 0.0001). Also, the level of colonization was high. Of CIEs, events of microbial keratitis, contact lens acute red eye, and asymptomatic infiltrative keratitis were associated with lens colonization with gram-negative bacteria or S. pneumoniae. Colonization of soft contact lenses with pathogenic bacteria, especially gram-negative bacteria andS. pneumoniae, appears to be a significant risk factor leading to CIE.

Ten episodes of adverse responses to contact lens wear, including contact lens-induced acute red eye (CLARE), in which Haemophilus influenzae was isolated from contact lenses and/or from one of the external ocular sites at the time of the event, are described. All episodes occurred in patients wearing disposable hydrogel lenses on a 6-night extended-wear schedule. Two of the patients had recurrent episodes. H. influenzae was usually isolated in large numbers, and other bacteria or fungi colonizing the contact lens or the external ocular surface were usually present in low numbers. Those patients who were colonized with H. influenzae were more than 100 times as likely to have had a CLARE or infiltrative response than those subjects who were not colonized with this bacterium. H. influenzae colonization of the contact lens and eye may be subsequent to colonization of the nasopharynx because four of the seven patients presented with fever at the time of the event, with concurrent upper respiratory tract infection. Contact lens wearers should be made aware of the potential risk of CLARE associated with the wearing of contact lenses for extended periods during and subsequent to upper respiratory tract infection.