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I. INTRODUCTION "The vagaries of eyewitness identification are well-known; the annals of criminal law are rife with instances of mistaken identification." (1) "[W]e regularly sentence innocent people to death. So [...], Based on over thirty years of extensive scientific research on eyewitness testimony, we have developed a comprehensive, practical solution to eyewitness error, which we present in this article. Our tripartite solution to eyewitness error consists of the following components: (1) Permitting expert testimony when the primary or sole evidence against the defendant is eyewitness testimony; (2) Improving procedures for collecting eyewitness evidence by conducting eyewitness interviews and identification procedures in a manner consistent with best practices identified by scientific research in the field,' and (3) Educating the principal participants in the criminal justice system about eyewitness testimony to sensitize them to the effects of eyewitness factors. The tripartite solution provides judges, attorneys, law officers, and jurors with a conceptual framework for understanding and evaluating eyewitness testimony and gives practical suggestions in the form of ten guidelines for attorneys to use when either supporting or attacking the reliability of eyewitness testimony. The article also serves as a blueprint for the reforms that the criminal justice system must institute to significantly reduce eyewitness error. Finally, the article explains why procedural due process requires the adoption of the tripartite solution.

ABSTRACTA life-threatening traumatic experience can cause physical and psychological distress, but it can also be remembered with pride from having demonstrated one's courage and abilities under severe circumstances. Characteristics of the event, as well as later personal reflection, together determine the individual's response to a traumatic event. This study investigates how traumatic combat experiences and retrospective appraisals of those experiences affect reports of posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms in 324 United States Army medics. Higher levels of combat experiences were associated with both appraisals of threat to life (r= .40) and appraisals of personal benefit of the deployment (r= .15). Threat appraisals were associated with increases in symptoms of posttraumatic stress and depression (r= .33 and .29), whereas benefit appraisals were associated with decreases in those symptoms (r= −.28 and −.30, respectively). These opposing mediation pathways led to weaker or nonsignificant total effects, which concealed the true effects of combat intensity on posttraumatic stress (R2= .28) and depression (R2= .24). Perceiving that combat experiences had beneficial effects on one's life is associated with less intense mental health symptomology and can offset the detrimental effects of traumatic combat experiences.

ABSTRACTThis study assesses potentially traumatic combat and medical provider experiences and subsequent utilization of behavioral health (BH) services among 324 U.S. Army medics 3 months after military deployment. After statistically controlling for socially desirable responding, neither combat nor medical provider experiences directly predicted utilization of BH services; however, both predicted posttraumatic stress symptoms, which predicted BH utilization. Moderation analyses revealed that medics were less likely to utilize BH services after intense battle experiences if they reported a low hardy personality, low unit support, or insufficient sleep. Possible interventions are discussed to promote BH care utilization.

We examined the effects of hardiness on symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTS) in postdeployed U.S. Army medics (N= 322). Medics endure a high level of work-related stress on and off the battlefield. Hardiness correlated negatively with reports of PTS symptoms and moderated the cumulative effects of years of military service on PTS symptoms. After controlling for socially desirable responding, PTS symptoms increased with years of military service for those with low levels of hardiness and decreased with years of military service for those with very high levels of hardiness. The military’s current resiliency training programs would likely benefit from incorporating hardiness measures and principles into its curriculum.

ABSTRACTThis article has been removed.A revised version is available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21635781.2016.1272024.

U.S. Army combat medics who were three months postdeployment reported higher prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and aggressive behaviors than did medics who had never been deployed to a combat zone. Combat experiences were then separated into six categories: killing, fighting, threat to oneself, death and injury of others, providing aid to the wounded, and saving a life. After controlling for socially desirable response bias, providing aid and threat to oneself predicted post-traumatic stress; providing aid predicted depression; and reports of killing predicted aggressive behaviors in postdeployed medics. Despite their noncombatant status and primary role as health care providers, medics report behavioral health symptoms in association with combat experiences.

Killing in combat uniquely predicts elevated PTSD symptomatology among military veterans. This study investigated the effects of combat killing in a sample of 345 U.S. Army combat medics who had recently returned from operational deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan. Combat medics provide frontline medical care before, during, and after battles but also fight alongside other soldiers when under attack. Attempting to kill in combat was a significant predictor of PTSD symptomatology even after accounting for passively witnessing trauma in fellow soldiers. Medics may be well prepared to cope with the passive experiencing and witnessing of war-zone trauma, but may benefit from training to cope with the negative consequences of taking actions to kill.

This study examined the protective effects of hardiness (dispositional resilience) on self-reported posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a sample of postdeployed service members. Hardiness was negatively related to PTSD symptoms. Time in the military, number of deployments, and total time spent on deployment were all positively related to PTSD symptoms. Hardiness moderated the effects of time in the military on PTSD symptoms, such that time in the military had no effect on those who were high in hardiness. Hardiness did not moderate the effects of either deployment measure. Suggestions to modify current military resilience training programs to most effectively enhance the benefits of hardiness are discussed.

The article presents information on the wrongful conviction in rape or murder trials and the errors in case of eyewitness identification. The need of enhancing the ability of judges and other legal professionals in assessing the accuracy of witness identification and the methods for analyzing accuracy of eyewitness testimony are discussed. The importance of law enforcement and better performance of judicial functions are also discussed.

Ninety mothers were interviewed in a pediatrician’s waiting room about their reasons for seeking care. We compared their answers, and the pediatrician’s judgment of the visit’s necessity and timeliness to a model which distinguishes appraisal, illness, and utilization stages in seeking medical treatment. Clearly defined symptoms and the use of few home treatments predicted a more rapid assessment that one’s child was ill. No factors predicted how quickly a mother would decide that her child needed professional care, nor how rapidly she would then seek that care. The pediatrician judged visits to be necessary when the child had many physical symptoms, pain, and/or fever, and when the child’s mother was employed. He judged visits to be delayed for mothers who reported that cost of treatment may influence their decisions to seek care. He indicated that only 39% of the visits were both necessary and on time. We discuss ways to encourage appropriate utilization of pediatric visits.

Factors affecting delay were studied in patients seeking treatment for the first time for a particular symptom at clinics in a major, innercity hospital. On the basis of the patients' retrospective report, the total time from first noticing a symptom to the seeking of treatment was divided into three sequential stages: 1) appraisal delay—the time the patient takes to appraise a symptom as a sign of illness; 2) illness delay—the time taken from deciding one is ill until deciding to seek professional medical care; and 3) utilization delay—the time from the decision to seek care until the patient goes to the clinic and uses its services. The variables used to predict the length of delay for each of the three stages and for total delay included reports on concrete, sensory perceptions and abstract, conceptual beliefs about one's symptoms, behavioral factors such as strategies for self-appraisal and techniques for coping with illness, emotional reactions, negative imagery elicited by the illness threat, situational barriers, and socio-demographic factors. Patients experiencing a very painful symptom and patients who did not read about their symptom had a short appraisal delay. Patients with old symptoms and those who imagined possible, severe consequences of their illness had long illness delays. Utilization delay was shortest for persons who were not concerned about the cost of treatment, who had a painful symptom, and who were certain that their symptom could be cured. Patients who had short total delays were persons who did not have a competing personal problem and who had a painful symptom. AH of these predictors were significantly correlated with the measure of delay at or beyond the p = .01 level. It was concluded that different factors mediate delay in each of the three stages and that studies which use only a single measure of total delay are likely to be of limited value in understanding delay.

After seeing Milgram's Obedience film, students apparently conclude that people are evil and would harm a stranger if given the opportunity. Students overestimate the shock level which subjects deliver when uncoerced by the experimenter.

Two studies assessed the potential impact of health education messages at worksite blood pressure screenings. The messages sought to: (1) motivate hypertcnsives to enter or return to treatment, (2) motivate normotensivcs to improve health habits and (3) discourage inappropriate use of blood pressure screening by normotensives. A total of 473 participants in the two studies viewed slide/tapc shows about blood pressure and/or health promotion. Individuals with elevated readings at screening viewed either a show containing standard blood pressure information or an experimental show which emphasized the asymptomatic nature of high blood pressure and which described some concrete strategies for coping with high blood pressure. In both studies, individuals with normal readings at screening viewed a standard show or an experimental show which emphasized coping strategies for preventinghigh blood pressure. In addition, in Study 2, some normotensive individuals viewed one of several experimental shows which focused on health promotion. Results indicate that the experimental programs were significantly more effective than the standard programs in achieving appropriate followup of screening results for both normotensives and hypertensives. Implications for worksite blood pressure screenings are discussed.

The models used in the study of communication and health behavior have changed from those describing how to impose health actions on relatively passive respondents to models describing how respondents regulate their own health practices. We have traced the change from the fear-drive model, which described how fear induced change, to the parallel response model, which described how subjects processed information and generated coping responses to solve the problem posed by both the objective health threat and by their subjective fear. The data supporting this change showed that increasing fear led to more favorable attitudes but that fear alone was insufficient to create action: Specific action instructions had to be added to both high and low fear and both combinations produced the same level of health action. Neither the data nor the parallel model specified what subjects learned about the threat that made exposure to a high or low fear message necessary for behavior change. The parallel response model has been elaborated into a more complete systems model and new studies show how health threats are represented. They have found attributes such as IDENTITY (label and symptoms), CAUSES, TIME LINES or duration, and CONSEQUENCES, that set goals and criteria to generate and evaluate problem solving (coping) behavior. Suggestions are made for applying this more complete model to public health practice.