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A spike-fork (S/F) general open season (GOS) for bull moose (Alces alces) was introduced with a lottery draw, limited entry hunting (LEH) in the Omineca (1981), Thompson (1993), and Okanagan (1993) regions of British Columbia. The S/F regulation permitted harvest of a bull having no more than two tines on one antler, including the tines on the main antler and brow palms; the LEH controlled the harvest of bulls with antlers >S/F. In the Peace region, the S/F regulation was implemented (1996) as part of SOFT regulations which permitted harvest of bulls with spike, fork, or antlers with 3 or more points on either brow palm; in 2003, SOFT 10 regulations permitted the harvest of bull moose with >10 points on one or both antlers. These combinations with the S/F regulation were meant to control annual harvest of bulls, maintain herd social structure, and maximize recreational opportunity. We used age and antler point data collected through a Voluntary Tooth Return Program (VTRP) from 1988 to 2003 (n = 39,325) to assess vulnerability of yearlings (n = 12,743) and 2-year-olds (n = 8,712) to the S/F regulation as well as a hypothetical spike-only regulation. For each age class, we defined potential vulnerability to the S/F regulation as the proportion of bulls in the harvest with S/F antlers when no antler-based restrictions were in place. We similarly defined potential vulnerability to the spike-only regulation as the proportion of bulls in the harvest with at least one spike antler. Potential vulnerability across British Columbia to the spike-fork regulation was 43% for yearlings and 10% for 2-year-old bulls, whereas potential vulnerability to the spike-only regulation was 8% for yearlings and 1% for 2-year-old bulls. Realized vulnerability to harvest of each age class was defined as the proportion of that age class with spike-fork antlers when there were spike-fork regulations combined with either LEH or other antler-based restrictions. Similarly, realized vulnerability to harvest for spike-only bulls in each age class was the proportion of harvested bulls with at least one spike antler when spike-fork regulations were combined with either LEH or as part of the SOFT or SOFT 10 regulations. Realized vulnerability across British Columbia to the S/F regulation was 49% for yearlings and 7% for 2-year-old bulls; realized vulnerability to the spike-only regulation was 9% for yearlings and 1% for 2-year-old bulls. Potential vulnerabilities and realized vulnerabilities varied regionally and annually, which may reflect different subspecies of moose (A. a. shirasi, A. a. andersoni, A. a. gigas) with different antler architectures, but more likely, differences related to habitat quality across the latitudinal breadth of British Columbia. The S/F regulation provides hunting opportunity, but combined with other hunting seasons/regulations, may not provide adequate protection of yearling and 2-year-old bulls in some regions. The spike-only regulation exposes fewer yearling and 2-year-old bulls to harvest and offers an alternative to regulate bull harvests while maintaining hunter opportunity. ALCES VOL. 57: 139-166 (2021) Key words: Alces alces, antler regulations, bull moose, hunting, spike-fork, spike-only, vulnerability, yearling bull, Licensed hunting of moose (Alces alces) in North America has traditionally focused on harvesting bull moose (bulls) with temporal restrictions on harvest of antlerless animals in a population (Timmermann 1987). [...]

The influence of recent wildfires in British Columbia (BC) on moose habitat and its use by moose are understudied, as are prescribed burning strategies that can be used to enhance moose habitat. Our objective was to investigate how 3 classes of fire severity (high, medium, low) interact with 3 soil moisture regimes (hydric, mesic, xeric) in determining how moose use post-fire habitat. In north-central BC, we studied moose use at 2 different spatial levels in the 5-year-old, 26,500 ha Mt. McAllister burn. At the site level, we estimated the density of fecal pellet groups and the percent of plants browsed by moose within plots of varying burn severity and soil moisture. At the landscape level, we investigated use from GPS locations of 7 radio-collared female moose at 3 orders of selection: we compared: 1) randomly distributed locations within the home range to randomly distributed locations throughout the entire burn (2 (nd) order of selection); 2) use locations to randomly distributed potential locations within the home range (3 (rd) order of selection); and daily use locations with potential movement locations (4 (,h) order of selection). At the site level, moose used areas of low/medium fire severity and hydric soil moisture. At the landscape level, moose preferred areas of medium fire severity at the daily order, and low/medium fire severity at both the home range and burn orders of selection. Our findings highlight that moose use of post-fire habitat varied by spatial scale and by order of selection and that researchers assessing use of burns by moose should consider multiple levels of investigation. Prescribed burning to enhance moose habitat should focus on low/medium fire severity at sites with mesic soil moisture. ALCES VOL. 57:1-22 (2021) Key words: Alces alces, burn, burn severity, forest fire, habitat, habitat management, moose, selection, soil moisture, Moose (Alces alces) are an important component of the predator-prey dynamic in northern British Columbia (BC) as they constitute a large portion of prey biomass, making them an important keystone [...]

Moose (Alces alces) may be among one of the most susceptible big game species to climate change. Development of long-term circumpolar databases of this species' densities and distributions, combined with biological, ecological, and management-related metrics, can help guide research and future international management strategies. We emulated methodology previously used to summarize North American moose population and harvest densities for Eurasian countries with free-ranging moose populations. From these data, we created a GIS layer that summarized the circumpolar distribution and density of moose. The following summary analysis of these data indicates that moose have both expanded and contracted along their southern range boundary in recent decades--with losses along the southern range in eastern Asia, particularly China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. In contrast, we documented distributional gains along the western and southwestern range in Europe (Poland, Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia). In total, 21 countries have free-ranging moose populations; 8 with sustainable populations and hunting seasons, 5 with sustainable populations but no hunting season, and 8 with vagrant individuals occasionally sighted. A region of high-density moose populations spans from the Scandinavian and Baltic countries into the Russian oblasts of Perm and Sverdlovsk. Distributions ca. 2010 indicated that moose occupied an area of about 16,712,600 [km.sup.2] in Eurasia. Primary range (management units with [greater than or equal to]0.11 moose per [km.sup.2]) composed only 18% of the occupied range while supporting more than 66% of the estimated 1.2 million moose in Eurasia. Additionally, 47% (149,860) of the moose harvested were taken on 10% (1,722,660 [km.sup.2]) of the range. The 2010 circumpolar moose population was estimated to be more than 2.2 million and occupied a range of 26,205,000 [km.sup.2]. Time-series analyses can offer a simple and cost-effective approach to monitor the status of moose populations across large geographical regions and might be particularly insightful given the current and predicted future influences of climate change on moose. Other analyses might address population dynamics, habitat, environmental constraints, and harvest management, among other issues. We encourage jurisdictions to cooperate strategically in implementing and coordinating GIS analyses to monitor, assess, and manage moose populations around the world. We believe these maps can serve as a useful tool for educating the public and policy makers about the importance of habitat and land use practices with respect to maintaining sustainable populations of moose and other species that are dependent upon boreal, temperate broadleaf, and mixed forests. ALCES VOL. 56: 63-78 (2020) Key Words: Alces alces, Asia, distribution, Eurasian elk, Europe, GIS, harvest, moose, population density, Peterson (1955) provided a map showing the general circumpolar range distribution of moose (Alces alces). The most recent attempt to map circumpolar moose populations in both Eurasia and North America [...]

Vehicle collisions with moose (Alces alces) and deer (Odocoileus spp.) pose a serious threat to all motorists travelling highways traversing habitats of these two ungulates. In British Columbia, mitigation measures to reduce such collisions are based on spatially-accurate records of collisions involving moose and deer that are collected by the province's highway maintenance contractors. To date, the British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (BC MOTI) uses the paper-based Wildlife Accident Reporting System (WARS) established in 1978 to maintain carcass records. We compared carcass location data collected in 2010 to 2014 by BC MOTI using WARS to that collected by Northern Health Connections bus drivers using a newly developed GPS-based system (Otto[R] Wildlife device). In total, 6,929 carcasses (1,231 moose, 5,698 deer) were recorded using WARS and 474 (167 moose, 410 deer) using the Otto[R] Wildlife device. We compared data collected along 2,800 km on the same highways in the same seasons of the same years. We found more carcass locations were identified with the WARS method, but that in certain geographic regions, the Otto[R] Wildlife system identified several unique locations. We contend that more complete and finer-scale carcass location data is possible using a GPS-based system such as Otto[R] Wildlife, than currently collected solely with the paper-based WARS method. ALCES VOL. 56: 49-61 (2020) Key Words: Alces, car, collision, deer, GPS, moose, Odocoileus, roadkill, survey, vehicle, British Columbia is a province richly inhabited by large mammals and where populations are abundant and highways traverse their habitat, wildlife vehicle collisions (WVC) are a management concern. Between 2013 [...]

ABSTRACT: Browse use surveys such as the twig-length method typically used to assess browsing by ungulates are time-consuming and costly. Here, we describe a modification of the twig-length method that [...]

ABSTRACT: Urban expansion produces obvious and deleterious ecological effects on wildlife habitat. Land development plans continue to be approved in Prince George, British Columbia, both within and on proximate land [...]

ABSTRACT: To gain a better understanding of the behavioral aspects of moose-train encounters, we reviewed videos of ungulate-train interactions available on YouTube™ and from train operators. Video footage consisted of [...]

ABSTRACT: We analyzed the morphometry of 1,965 sets of antlers from hunter-harvested moose (Alces alces andersoni) taken in the central interior of British Columbia. We describe the variation and age-related [...]

ABSTRACT: Antlers from bull moose (Alces alces andersoni) harvested in the Omineca subregion of central British Columbia were submitted by hunters for inspection, measurement, and comparison by age in 1982-1989. [...]

The Distinguished Moose Biologist Award was presented to Dr. Roy V. Rea at the 52 (nd) North American Moose Conference and Workshop held in Spokane, Washington in May of 2018. [...]

ABSTRACT: Moose (Alces alces) browsing influences plant growth and architecture. We sought to determine the impact of the timing of moose browsing on bud development and growth in aspen shoots [...]

ABSTRACT: Regression estimates for determining browse shoot biomass from bite diameters and shoot basal diameters are commonly used to estimate biomass consumption and the impacts that herbivores have on range [...]

ABSTRACT: Study of activity and behavior of moose (Alces alces) has generally been undertaken during daylight hours because research at night is logistically complicated. However, some believe that moose are [...]

ABSTRACT: Despite an increasing body of knowledge about the predictable use and functional role of naturally occurring mineral licks in the ecology of ungulates such as moose (Alces alces), no [...]

Ungulate habitat use and movements are highly variable among individuals, populations, and regions. Factors that influence annual and seasonal movements are important to understand for management purposes. Within some populations, moose (Alces alces) are known to migrate between seasonal ranges, generally in response to changes in the environment. A total of 45 female moose were fitted with GPS collars between March 1, 2014, and February 28, 2018, in and around the John Prince Research Forest in north-central British Columbia, Canada, to determine the prevalence and timing of migration. Using the model-based net squared displacement approach, we classified 67 (74%) annual trajectories as migratory, of which 43 (48%) were migrant and 24 (27%) were mix-migrant. We classified 22 annual trajectories (24%) as resident and one (1%) as a disperser. Moose with migratory trajectories exhibited a consistent pattern of leaving their winter range (WR) in April and returning from November to February after spending the majority of the year in their non-winter range (NWR). There was a significant negative correlation between mean monthly elevation and mean monthly snow on the ground for migratory moose. The mean distance separating migratory moose WR and NWR ranges (δ) was 32 km (SD = 30 km) but varied greatly from a minimum of 5 km to a maximum of 61 km. We discuss the potential implications of our results on surveys used to estimate moose population abundance and trends. We contend that a better understanding of moose seasonal habitat use patterns would aid moose management, help delineate important seasonal rangelands and migration corridors, inform population survey designs, and expand our understanding of moose populations in general.

New research aims to reduce animal-vehicle collisions by deactivating roadside mineral deposits. Why did the moose cross the road? The answer, according to researchers, often is to visit a wet, [...]

Several mammals have adapted to harsh winter conditions by adopting hibernation strategies that enable them to survive periods of unfavourable environmental conditions. At northern latitudes, black and brown bears can be in a state of hibernation for up to seven months. As a result of this prolonged occupation of one small space, bears can be vulnerable to environmental and human caused disturbances. In this study, we developed a predictive model that identifies potential den habitat for black bears that can assist with management planning for industrial land development activities. We identified 40 dens (17 excavated in soil and 23 natural rock cavities) and used fine-scale information to determine how dens were positioned in forest stands. We found that bears denned in areas on mid to upper slope positions and that soil dens were located mainly in clay-loam soil complexes while rock cavity dens were either caves or cavities in boulder piles. Den location was distant from portions of the study area with relatively high road density. We then used resource selection functions to predict where bear dens might be located on the landscape. When applied to the GIS data, the averaged coefficients suggested that 3.1% of the study area had a high suitability ranking as den habitat while 9.1%, 14.6%, and 73.2% had mid, low, and limited suitability, respectively. In our study area, habitat for den sites is reasonably predictable and should be considered during the planning of industrial activities.

North-central British Columbia is home to two species of deer and three subspecies of moose. In north-central British Columbia, between 2006 and 2010, over 8900 deer and 3100 moose vehicle collisions were reported to the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia. The actual number of these collisions is estimated to be even larger due to underreporting. Wildlife vehicle collisions can result in: injury/death to both the people and animal(s) involved in the collision, the need for first responders, healthcare system costs, vehicle damages, repair costs, and more. Through the use of a survey, we compared and contrasted the physical and emotional impacts resulting from moose and deer vehicle collisions. Additionally, we determined the actions of first responders directly following the collision and the variety of healthcare services accessed by those involved in the collision.

Track plates are an inexpensive, non-intrusive and widely used wildlife monitoring tool. Almost all track-plate media are not suited for use during rainy conditions, because rain or heavy dews can distort tracks or render the medium ineffective for registering further animal visitations. Furthermore, available track-plate media may also produce tracks of varying quality and hard-surfaced media produce inaccurate two-dimensional imprints. We experimented with the utility of using Biofoam™, a phenolic foam used in orthotics, as a track-plate medium. Domestic animals were utilized to produce track imprints on track plates constructed of casting foam, coarse sand, fine sand, very fine sand and sooted aluminum. Resulting tracks were photographed and images were used in a questionnaire which was completed by expert wildlife trackers who rated the quality of the tracks. Tracks in the casting foam are three-dimensional, register claws, clearly depict all pads, accurately record shape and size, and convey very fine anatomical details. Track imprints on the casting foam were rated consistently better by experts than track imprints left on the other media. Field trials demonstrated that the casting foam and tracks in the casting foam can endure lengthy periods of inclement weather conditions in the field without being damaged or distorted. In summary, where three-dimensional, high-quality prints need to be recorded in variable field conditions, we recommend the use and further experimentation with track plates made of casting foam.

We examined the initial effects of brush cutting (removal of all aboveground biomass), as well as clipping (removal of current annual shoots) and ungulate browsing (collectively referred to as shoot removal) on the morphology and nutrient quality of Scouler's willow (Salix scoulerianaJ. Barratt ex Hook.) for ungulates on sites 2 and 4 years after brush cutting. We specifically assessed changes in the biomass, tannin content, digestible energy, and digestible protein of shoots from brush-cut willows relative to shoots of uncut willows to determine how browse plants respond to this form of vegetation management. In winter, the resprouted current annual shoots of willows that had been brush cut were larger in mass and lower in digestible protein than shoots of uncut willows for at least 4 years after brush cutting. Shoots of brush-cut willows were also lower in tannin and digestible energy than the shoots of uncut plants for two winters after brush cutting. In the second winter after brush cutting, shoot biomass decreased and tannin content increased with increasing shoot removal during the previous winter. In the fourth winter after brush cutting, shoot mass increased and digestible energy decreased in shoots with greater shoot removal. Nutrient quality was otherwise unaffected by the amount of shoot removal during the previous winter. Because of the occasional importance of site effects in this study, we recommend that long-term studies maximize the number of sampled sites. Because brush cutting alters the quality of regenerating browse and can affect how ungulates utilize such browse for several years after brush cutting, we further recommend that forest vegetation managers consider potential impacts of brush cutting on ungulate winter range.

Simulated browsing treatments were imposed on an important browse species of the North American moose (Alces alcesL.) to see if the development and extent of subsequent stem dieback in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloidesMichx.) could be used to determine the time of browsing during the growing season. Two hundred naturally growing aspen saplings of similar size and form were randomly selected in a 20-ha area near the endowment lands of the University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada. Plants were randomly assigned to treatment categories so that the apical meristems of 50 plants each were assigned to a control or were clipped on one of the following dates 6 weeks apart: 1 June, 16 July, and 30 August 2005. The leader of each aspen was clipped and dieback was left to progress until the onset of winter dormancy. Our results showed that the earlier the simulated browsing occurs in the growing season, the greater the length of stem dieback, up to the maximum of the subapical axillary node below the point of clipping. The average rate at which dieback progressed varied between treatments and decreased throughout the growing season. Our results suggest that the ratio of the actual length of stem dieback to the overall length of stem between the clip point and the subapical axillary node serves as a good indicator for estimating the time at which aspen meristems have been browsed during the growing season.

University course evaluations are replete with student comments expressing frustration with taking time out of work, paying money for, and putting energy into field education projects that lack authentic “real-world” problem-solving objectives. Here, we describe a model for field school education that borrows on pedagogical tools such as problem-based learning, hands-on instruction, field-based education, and teaching through research, and employs modularized teaching in a way that incorporates numerous resource management issues and values into a case study that addresses an authentic forest management issue. In presenting the model, we present data from student comments and course evaluations on the effectiveness of our approach and describe and underscore those elements that have served as the guiding force in refining the field school curriculum that we currently use at the University of Northern British Columbia. Additionally, we make recommendations on how to integrate other key elements into the curriculum that appear to be critical for conducting a successful field school.

Vegetation management practices currently used within transportation corridors are primarily aimed at minimising encroaching shrub and tree growth in order to increase driver visibility and road safety. Such practices create prime foraging habitat for ungulates such as moose Alces alcesby inhibiting forest succession and maintaining early seral shrub communities. Increased foraging activity within the corridor increases the likelihood of encounters between moose and motorists. Moose-related vehicular collisions are costly in terms of material damage claims and have significant negative impacts on public safety and moose populations in many parts of their range. Although several countermeasures have been developed in an attempt to reduce the frequency of these collisions, few have proven effective and even fewer have taken into consideration possible links between roadside vegetation management, the quality of browse regenerating from cut vegetation, and how moose use browse within the transportation corridor. To better understand these relationships, I reviewed the literature on ungulate-related vehicular collisions in combination with literature on plant response to mechanical damage. Many authors recognise the need to reduce the attractiveness of vegetation growing within transportation corridors. To date, diversionary feeding, forage repellents, establishment of unpalatable species and elimination of roadside brush have been used. Unfortunately, such techniques are only semi-effective or are not cost-efficient when applied across the landscape. It has long been recognised that the ability of plants to regenerate following mechanical damage is influenced by the timing of damage. Current research suggests that the quality of regenerating plant tissues for herbivores also depends on when plants are cut. Plants cut in the middle of the growing season produce regrowth that is high in nutritional value for at least two winters following brush-cutting as compared to plants cut at other times of the year, and uncut controls. Because roadside brush is generally cut during mid-summer, possible links between the quality of regenerated browse and increases in ungulate-related vehicular collisions during the autumn and winter should be elucidated. Based on this review, I recommend cutting brush early in the growing season and emphasize the need for collaborative long-term research to properly address this issue.