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This paper asserts that teachers need to understand the logic of young children's behavior in their joint play and in their conflicts in order to respond sensitively, and that children construct logic-in-action (procedural knowledge) long before they are able to verbalize their logic in narratives. The basic assumption of the paper is that there is a functional continuity between the logic-in-action of young children and the verbalized logic of children's narratives. The paper first examines the concept of "logic" and the basic human motive to construct a "logic" world at the subjective level. The paper then discusses young children's logic-in-action of the sensorimotor period, relating this to some studies of children's co-construction of meaning in peer relations and their prosocial behavior during or after peer conflicts. The paper asserts that in peer conflicts, with or without their teachers' help, young children socialize, a natural heritage also shared with nonhuman primates in situations of conflict resolution. Finally, the paper explores the teacher's role in peer conflicts. (Contains 37 references.) (EV)

If "logic" is defined as a means to create good reasons for accepting clear and unambiguous conclusions, then feminist instructors of composition should use it not only to dismantle traditional male notions of combative discussion, but also to build their own paradigms based on an acceptance of difference. Those feminists such as Sally Gearhart, Joyce Trebilcot, or Andrea Nye who shun logic altogether, maintaining that "any intent to persuade is an act of violence," will often employ logic in their own arguments; furthermore, they are not above attack in their own right. If those in feminist composition are to move ahead in engaging difference for the ultimate goal of an enriched concept of community, they must look at the tools available to them in ways that are not deterministic. They need also to recognize and draw on what is shared with the work of others such as Kenneth Burke. Janice Moulton, among others, has looked for alternatives to the adversarial method in philosophical argument, suggesting that reasoning be used in the context of larger systems of ideas and that experience be allowed as a necessary element of some reasoning processes. An introduction to women's studies class at Albion College used discussion to employ logic in such a manner as to work through differences while still respecting them. When in one class meeting a student indicated that she thought homosexuality was an "abomination," a productive discussion ensued. (Contains 17 references.) (TB)

The essay explores the common threads that wove through John Dewey's "Art as Experience" and "Logic: The Theory of Inquiry" (published 1934 and 1938 respectively). Both works were parts of a system of ideas, not isolated books as some critics suggest. In order to show that there is a common basis for Dewey's two books, literature that has surfaced since 1938 is reviewed. This literature shows how Dewey's theory of aesthetics (in "Art") was received. The essay then goes on to present and analyze some commentaries on "Logic." Dewey built aesthetic appreciation into the experience of the individual; he then attempted to analyze that experience as part of a social network. In the inquiry process, beliefs would be refined and defined as the individual encountered others with differing beliefs. Dewey's later publication naturally resulted from and expanded upon the first. Contains 23 references. (EH)

This paper discusses argumentation and how instruction may facilitate an individual's skill in argumentation. The paper contends that argumentation, defined as the generation and evaluation of arguments is a fundamental tool of reasoning and that skill in argumentation is therefore basic to a person's ability to reason. The paper is divided into two sections. The first section considers the nature and evaluation of arguments and the relation of argumentation to reasoning, while the second section describes some findings on the quality of argumentation found among students and summarizes some initial work on argumentation instruction. The paper suggests that the following points covered should be addressed when teaching argumentation: (1) students need to acquire knowledge about the structure and nomenclature of arguments; (2) students need to know the purposes of argumentation; (3) students need to know the characteristics of a good argument; and (4) argumentation skills can be developed via writing. (TD)

Informal logic, developed in response to the shortcomings of standard introductory college logic courses, stands between formal logic and critical thinking and is consequently subject to two opposing tensions. The first of these tensions concerns analogues to formal principles, context-independent criteria for identifying and assessing arguments. The second demands that informal logicians offer an educational program that is of general utility, enabling students better to assess arguments both in their courses of study and in their everyday lives. Informal logic must move beyond the logical to embrace applied epistemology, the study of the epistemologies in use in the various domains of human understanding, in order to ground the assessment of arguments as they occur in the various domains. This paper is an attempt to move informal logic and critical thinking conceived of as informal logic away from a priorism characteristic of formal logic and towards a methodical and epistemological stance that more adequately reflects the range of practices in knowledge gathering. Informal logic/critical thinking must include awareness and practice in the complexity of arguments embedded in various disciplinary practices. If students are to be helped to think critically they must learn to access relevant information, apply appropriate methodical principles, and look to analyses of issues that reflect the most appropriate methodology in many domains. (IAH)

An important aspect of the composing process is the element of organization--the coherent development of ideas and considerations of relevance. Most investigations of this aspect have focused on prewriting behavior or on "heuristics,""frames," or other approaches that presuppose that organization is something imposed from the outside and that the composing process begins with the choice of a pattern within which individual sentences are fitted. The fields of critical thinking and applied logic suggest a wholly different perspective: logic, which treats organization, coherence, and relevance as integral features of an exposition or argument. If the logical structure of the composing process is examined, it can be seen that individual topics, theses, or sentences themselves guide the production of what follows (a premise points to a conclusion, a question dictates the sort of answer that will be considered, a claim dictates the supporting evidence to be supplied). These constraints and internal patterns can be discovered in bad reasoning as well as good, and affect both the form and the content of the written product. Failure to recognize these constraints, or general lack of attention to the internal organization governed by applied logic, can lead to a distorted or incomplete model of the composing process. (The paper contains examples from student papers to illustrate the constraints imposed by logic.) (Author/FL)

This paper provides an overview of the realm of critical thinking. The document explores the development of a critical thinking attitude and specific skills relative to logic, rationality, and reasoning that must be fostered to facilitate and enhance future learning. The issue of ambiguity also is addressed as a central construct of the critical thinking domain. The paper addresses the history of the development of critical thinking and how philosophers have addressed it through time. Relatively little is being done to address the areas of critical thinking and logic in the schools. A review of the literature related to critical thinking suggests ways in which schools can work to develop critical thinking in students. Questions are raised for areas of further research in this area. (EH)

Trends in pre-college philosophy teaching are discussed. Today philosophy, especially at the elementary level, is becoming fashionable. Research has shown that even minimal training in philosophy improves students' reading and mathematical abilities as well as general skills such as reasoning and creativity. A study examining the formal training and attitudes of teachers of pre-college philosophy showed that many were already engaged in teaching pre-college philosophy in their own sense of what counts as philosophy. Teachers with significant preparation in academic philosophy recognized that philosophy is a distinct academic discipline requiring formal training. Certified teachers with little philosophy preparation did not recognize it as being significantly different from history or social studies. Studies have shown that there is a variability in student outcomes associated with teacher preparation. If pre-college philosophy is to succeed, teachers need formalized training, and all educators must be taught to recognize what counts as philosophy. (RM)

Four philosophers, familiar with the work of economists, comment on the foundations and substance of applied economics. Joseph Pitt, in "Philosophy in Applied Economics," focuses on rationality and rational choice as a foundation for economics and stresses the idea of relevance in relating data to applied economics. He believes rational decision making is based on the notions that choice is necessary and possible and that behavior is predictable. However, Pitt considers the economic model a poor predictor of behavior. Allen Buchanan, in "Comparative Efficiency Judgements, Economics, and Political Philosophy," develops a rationale to show that there are fundamental obstacles to efficiency comparisons of entire economic systems and reviews market suppositions developed by economists and ethicists. Douglas MacLean and Claudia Mills examine the intellectual hazards of confusing normative and empirical statements about behavior in "Normative and Empirical Issues in Economic Theory: A Philosophical Examination." They consider prospect theory a possible solution to problems inherent in expected utility theory. All three papers provide comments on the model-making and testing processes of applied economics. "Postscript: The New Spirit of Inquiry in Economics and Philosophy," by Michael McPherson, considers the effects of economists' and philosophers' collaborative efforts. (JHP)

The paper examines a debate recently at the fore of the philosophical and educational literature on "critical thinking," namely, the claim that critical thinking consists of a set of discrete skills which can be taught separately versus the claim that critical thinking is "field dependent" and is thus part of learning a discipline. The works of Robert Ennis, John McPeck, Harvey Siegel, and Matthew Lipman are considered to support the conclusion that though critical thinking is a ncessary condition of philosophical thinking, it is not a sufficient condition. Philosophical thinking as taught in the pre-college curriculum is characterized as the interplay of dialogue and reflection that has grown out of an initial sense of wonder. (Author/BZ)

Philosophical thinking which has stood the test of time is summarized in this document. The rationale is that all students benefit from studies of philosophical thinking emphasizing moral standards. Thinkers included are: Plato, Aristotle, Peter Abelard, Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas More, Thomas Campanella, Thomas Hobbes, Benedict Spinoza, John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzche, William James, Friederich Hegel, Karl Marx, and Bertrand Russell. (BZ)

A number of higher order cognitive skills are used in the task of evaluating arguments. Such skills should be assessed because the ability to evaluate arguments is an important one in all subject areas. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume that these evaluative skills will be representative of those required by other cognitively demanding tasks. Specific theories and curricula for evaluating persuasive arguments are not available to guide test construction; in lieu of a theory, reasoning in argumentation is defined and some of the processes involved are explained. Understanding of the difference between logical validity and empirical truth is one component of effectively evaluating formal arguments. Evaluation of informal arguments involves many skills: analysis, judging relevance and weight, synthesis, use of prior knowledge, information seeking and selection, and estimation. Based on the assumption that teachers do teach to the test, it is important to find ways to test the ability to evaluate arguments and to diagnose students' skills. The 31-page appendix describes ways to make multiple choice tests more informative, both to examiner and examinee. (GDC)

Just as rhetoric is a way of knowing, so is poetic, both of which, for Francis Bacon, produce false knowledge. But Bacon is not entirely negative. When the poetic elements of language are used in strategic and public communication, like the scholarly communication Bacon attempts to reform, poetic and rhetoric work together to create a plurality of knowledge about human experience--the crux of Bacon's ambivalence. In the "Novum Organum" he classifies four types of idols or false notions that confound human understanding--idols of the tribe, the cave, the market-place, and the theater. Bacon believes that the mind is attracted to these fancies because human understanding is likely to suppose the existence of more order and regularity in the world than it finds. To insure the communication of true knowledge, Bacon proposes to reform human thought with a new inductive method of reasoning that bases knowledge on sense perception, thereby achieving certainty. Yet, a tension exists between, on the one hand, his desire to restrict the imitative capacity of language--poetic--to words that represent actual sense perception and, on the other hand, the successful use of language in communication. Bacon's consciousness of his ambivalence toward the poetic causes him to err on the side of logic and reason. (Twenty-eight footnotes are appended.) (NKA)

The popular stereotypical view of facts as absolute entities and values as relative entities needs to be rejected, for it stifles understanding of both fact and value. The two are inextricably intertwined: the demarcation of facts rests squarely on considerations of values; evaluations are infused with considerations of fact. A category scheme provides the resources for stating various truths and falsehoods and for demarcating conceptual boundaries. But the values that the schemes realize are not always, or only, the ones people intend to produce. In building a system of thought, people begin with a provisional scaffolding made of the relevant beliefs already held, the aims of the projects already embarked on, and the values they seek to uphold. System building is dialectical. Specific judgments are molded to accepted generalizations, and generalizations to specific judgments. Justification is holistic. Support for a conclusion comes not from a single line of argument, but from a host of considerations of varying degrees of relevance and strength. That which is right relative to one acceptable system may be wrong relative to another. (PPB)

Critiques the logical revisionism of Stephen Toulmin, taking to task his "biased" assumptions about power and knowledge, among other limitations, while advancing his "simplified" system of discursive logic for the teaching of writing and rhetoric. (TB)

Describes the tactics for using "cons" (or intentionally using logical fallacies) in arguments. Explains that the tactics include overgeneralization, the "thin entering wedge" con, the "ignoring the issue and attacking the opponent personally" con, and the "cause and effect" con. Cautions that the cons listed are only a small sampling of those used in logical argumentation. (PA)

Advises that in teaching Kenneth Burke it is important that students understand that his strength is not what Richard Rorty calls systematic reasoning but rather edification. Shows how Burke, like Thomas Carlyle, is prophet or sage who sketches out a Romantic world view. (TB)

Explores the methodology of rhetorical reasoning by looking to J. H. Newman's "Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent." Looks at how Newman prefigures S. Toulmin and C. Perelman, both of whom are interested in how rhetorical reasoning operates and why it is well suited to redress the limitations of formal logic. (TB)

Attempts to resolve an apparent contradiction between Hugh Blair's admiration for the Classical emphasis on rhetorical pathos and emotion and the apparent absence of that emphasis in the style of his own sermons. Characterizes the ways in which Blair's sermons are actually pathetic and explores the moral philosophy of those sermons. (TB)

Asserts that qualitative research will gain acceptance when it takes a significant step toward solving a major problem in the discipline. Provides a tentative outline of an approach to metaphysical problems involving radical empiricism and phenomenolgy. Delineates some necessary cognitive shifts involving dialectical and abductive reasoning processes. (JPS)

Effective moral education requires children to engage in ethical inquiry. Ethical inquiry requires students to cultivate all aspects of their thinking, including critical, creative, and caring thinking (which includes active, affective, and valuative thinking). Only the discipline of Philosophy for Children, the narrative-and-discussion-based "doing" of philosophy, fosters normative application of this broad spectrum of thinking modes. (DR)

Discusses the use of logical imaging in information retrieval. Topics include the use of nonclassical logic in information retrieval; imaging and possible worlds semantics; retrieval by imaging; evaluation processes; worlds mass and worlds distance; and future work. (LRW)

A model is proposed for the general abstracting process (using disciplines such as linguistics, logic, and psychology) that is based on a system of combined strategies with four stages: reading-understanding; selection; interpretation; synthesis. (Author/JKP)

Some arguments of E. Callan for the need for common education and the importance of early training are well-founded, but his conclusion that limited separate education may be advisable is not. This discussion on the logic of educational policy defends a common schooling to obtain a common education. (SLD)

Introduces the concept of abductive reasoning; discusses its importance for instructional designers in education; and describes the development of a computer program called the Abductive Reasoning Tool (ART) that helps students learn and understand abductive logic. Highlights include abduction and creativity, and field-testing ART with undergraduates and with adult learners. (22 references) (LRW)

Considers three aspects of Robert Kozma's (IR 529 138) and Richard Clark's (IR 529 139) debate on the role of educational media: (1) the logic and definitions of the debate; (2) what the debate says about the field of instructional technology; and (3) the consequences of adopting one position or the other. (KRN)

Presents a conceptual framework for a model of professional education based on an interdisciplinary approach developed at the University of Calgary. Highlights include professional growth; experts' behavior; mentorship; professional knowledge base; elaboration theory; and fuzzy logic. (Contains 21 references.) (LRW)

An optimistic view of the potential of evaluation to be a force for social improvement is presented. The most important unfinished task for evaluation may be to expand the logic of value judgments. In addition, the social usefulness of evaluation will depend on its credibility and the professionalism of evaluators. (SLD)

Groundwork is laid for a theory of education, as opposed to "educational theory," pointing out the logical primacy of a theory of education in the context of which theories in education could be developed. A clear and defensible concept of education is required for educational theory and practice. (SLD)

Outlines six principles for the rhetoric of communication, identifying as distinctive the organizational and collaborative nature of the field. Argues that communicators can more effectively collaborate with experts and with users if they understand two contrasting metaphors for typical thought patterns: logic and narration (or list and story). (SR)

Examines Stephen Toulmin's system of logic and its application to the teaching of composition. Claims that Toulmin's approach is deficient for classroom applications. Argues that composition teachers would do better to retain principles from traditional logic rather than using Toulmin's form as a substitute. (HB)

Piaget's last writings in the 1980s and early 1990s contained both a coherent constructivist account of explanation in science and specific suggestions for revising the logic of operations as a logic of meanings. Demonstrates the interdependence of these two aspects of his work by examining the merits of Piaget's revised logical competence model as a logic of causal explanation. (MDM)

"Properties, Types and Meaning (Vol. I, Fundamental Issues and Vol. II, Semantic Issues)," by Gennaro Chiercia et al., is reviewed. The book contains revisions of essays originally presented at a 1986 meeting at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. A critique and application of Richard Montogue's Intensional Logic unites the two volumes. (Contains 31 references.) (LB)

The works of certain rhetorical thinkers contain strategies directed at achieving assent or cooperation. Such writings demonstrate means by which readers' rational responses can be deliberately challenged and disrupted. While people often cite Aristotle's maxim "Man is a rational animal," critics have asserted that the statement misrepresents both Aristotle and rhetoric. In practice, rhetoric unites reason and emotion by applying techniques that disrupt reasonable thinking to trigger new perspectives. For instance, Francis Bacon realized that imagination and emotion are essential to some kinds of purposeful discourse. In the contemporary era, Annie Dillard's writings legitimized the reader's indulgence in intuitive and emotional responses to the contrarities of nature, while Eldridge Cleaver's rhetoric called for a revolution in the reader's view of what is moral and just. Such appeals are subversive in a profoundly creative way, as they blur the comfortable window of reason through which nature is perceived, giving rise to new perspectives on experience. (SG)

Piaget's last two works may add a new level of coherence and generality to his theories, which are grounded in an insight about the interdependence of reality and knowledge about reality. Piaget expanded Kant's epistemology to encompass three systems operating in the frames of biology, psychology, and culture. (MDM)

Addresses moral choices that lie behind practical proposals made by Joseph Schwab in "The Practical 4: Something for Curriculum Professors to Do" (Curriculum Inquiry 13:3, Fall 1983). Choices include (1) a problematic/inquiry approach to the theory/practice relationship; (2) a sense of community in planning groups; and (3) an operative, self-validating approach to liberal education. (TE)

Examines Plato's characteristics of ideas and guidelines for definitions in rhetorical arguments. Discusses several classroom assignments based on Platonic rhetoric with emphasis on definitions. (HTH)

A discussion of the problems inherent in verbal test taxonomies not based on the schematic domain of logic is presented. This discussion is made in the context of syntactically complex tests. A suggested structure for a logically constructed taxonomy developed for use in a federal testing program is delineated. (Author/DWH)

Concepts from the logic of modalities are applied to the life cycle to elaborate a new theory of adult and late-life development. Four logical modalities are described, each cognitively and emotionally governing discrete periods of life. It is hypothesized that optimal development in adult life includes explicit awareness of these modalities. (RH)

Maintains that in spite of obvious interest in language by those in other disciplines, it is a mistake for linguists to assume others have special insight into the nature of language and meaning which is denied to linguists. Furthermore, a general theory or set of principles relating to meaning for linguistics can only be arrived at by linguistics themselves. (SL)

Explains why systems theory and its applications, which examine outcomes in terms of resources applied, are emerging as an alternative explanation method in business, government, and education. Explains the planning, programming, budgeting system (PPBS) and describes teacher responses to similar rationalized systems operations. (SB)

An emphasis on logic is the basis of argumentation theory and practice, both past and present; the policy systems model of debate--which is based on the assumption that argumentation is a means for injecting rationality into choice--sharpens and clarifies traditional ideas and suggests significant new approaches, while retaining existing principles. Rational decision making may be divided into two categories: single value choice and multivalue preference. Single value choice involves questioning whether the system can promote the goal, the extent to which the system achieves the goal, how long it takes to achieve the goal, and relative costs, consequences, and concomitants; multivalue preference differs only in complexity. Barriers to rational preference include information gaps regarding crucial information, theories, causality, or predictable outcomes, as well as inherent human limits. The argumentation process is accomplished by identifying areas of agreement, isolating areas of disagreement, offering quasi-logical arguments, seeking to predict the outcome of future events, and allowing the audience--the advocate, the opponent, the judge, or a universal audience--to check the method of the advocate. The style of public debate and tournament debate should be essentially the same. (GT)

Computer programing and problem-solving steps in mathematics are viewed to have related concepts. Some heuristics are compared with some suggestions for structured programing. The one fundamental difference between problem solving in general and when using the computer is seen as the computer solution must be finite. The computer is viewed as a useful tool in solving those problems where the method of solution is a finite step-by-step procedure. Many examples of areas of study where the computer would be a useful tool in investigation are identified. It is suggested that teachers who include computer programing in their problem-solving classes may find pupils learn programing and problem solving more quickly and easily than they would learn either separately. (MP)

Semiotic analysis is a method of analyzing signs (e.g., words) to reduce non-numeric data to their component parts without losing essential meanings. Semiotics dates back to Aristotle's analysis of language; it was much advanced by nineteenth-century analyses of style and logic and by Whitehead and Russell's description in this century of the role of language in logic. Recent writers have applied semiotics to sociological data and content analysis. The method of semiotic analysis comprises, first, definition reduction and, second, identification of interrelationships. In definition reduction, a frequency dictionary of all words used is created, from which synonyms are drawn and categories created. The categories are then combined in a symmetrical matrix and logical decision rules are used to identify their interrelationships. An example of semiotic analysis illustrates how to apply it to a set of descriptive propositions concerning a new administrator in a school organization. Semiotic analysis may be used in case or policy studies or in any area where many words are used to describe phenomena. Organizational theorists can use semiotic analysis to reduce inconsistencies, identify central issues or parameters, and analyze observational notes. (Author/RW)

Restatement and paraphrase, and the syntactic operations that generate them, can serve as the basis for techniques involving explanation, and the production of new sentences in the second language classroom. The basic operations involved are known intuitively by the native speaker but must be taught and practiced if the ESL learner is to get a functional knowledge of English. In addition to practicing paraphrases by such transformations as active-passive, the logical operations underlying the transformations can be defined. Selected with particular purposes in mind, individual sentences can serve as the starting point from which classroom exercises can be created which train or test the students in the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of the language. When students are made aware of the underlying logic, systematic application of paraphrase activities results in increased risk-taking, participation and group correction, and a rapid grasp of the logical concepts and operations. Using the operations and concepts defined here, the teacher can design exercises centered on a particular structure which can help the student get a better command of meaning at the same time. Examples are given of the technique as well as of exercises in the four skills, and testing and review exercises. (AMH)