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Minimally invasive biomarkers are urgently needed to detect molecular pathology in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Here, we show that plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) contain quantifiable amounts of TDP-43 and full-length tau, which allow the quantification of 3-repeat (3R) and 4-repeat (4R) tau isoforms. Plasma EV TDP-43 levels and EV 3R/4R tau ratios were determined in a cohort of 704 patients, including 37 genetically and 31 neuropathologically proven cases. Diagnostic groups comprised patients with TDP-43 proteinopathy ALS, 4R tauopathy progressive supranuclear palsy, behavior variant FTD (bvFTD) as a group with either tau or TDP-43 pathology, and healthy controls. EV tau ratios were low in progressive supranuclear palsy and high in bvFTD with tau pathology. EV TDP-43 levels were high in ALS and in bvFTD with TDP-43 pathology. Both markers discriminated between the diagnostic groups with area under the curve values >0.9, and between TDP-43 and tau pathology in bvFTD. Both markers strongly correlated with neurodegeneration, and clinical and neuropsychological markers of disease severity. Findings were replicated in an independent validation cohort of 292 patients including 34 genetically confirmed cases. Taken together, the combination of EV TDP-43 levels and EV 3R/4R tau ratios may aid the molecular diagnosis of FTD, FTD spectrum disorders and ALS, providing a potential biomarker to monitor disease progression and target engagement in clinical trials.

Purpose/Objective: Multiple tumorous lesions in one pituitary gland are rare and mostly described in case reports. Their incidences and combinations are defined in larger collectives. Therefore, we analyzed our large collection for double tumors and combinations of tumors, cysts, and inflammation. Methods: The German Registry of Pituitary Tumors, including cases from 1990 to 2018, served as the database. Our collection comprises a total of 16,283 cases up until the end of 2018. Of these cases, 12,673 originated from surgical and 3,610 from autopsy material. All specimens were fixed in formalin and embedded in paraffin. The sections were stained with hematoxylin–eosin and PAS. Monoclonal (prolactin, TSH, FSH, LH, and α subunit) or polyclonal (GH and ACTH) antibodies were used to detect pituitary hormones in the lesions. Since 2017, antibodies against the transcription factors Pit-1, T-Pit, and SF-1 have been used in difficult cases. The criteria of the 2017 WHO classification have been basic principles for classification since 2018 (Osamura et al. 2017). For differentiation of other sellar tumors, such as meningiomas, chordomas, or metastases, the use of additional antibodies was necessary. For these cases, it was possible to use a broad antibody spectrum. Autopsy pituitaries were generally studied by H&E and PAS sections. If any lesions were demonstrated in these specimens, additional immunostaining was performed. Results: Multiple tumorous lesions with more than one pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (PitNET) respectively adenoma make up 1.4% (232 cases) in our collection. Within the selected cases, synchronous multiple pituitary neuroendocrine tumors (PitNETs) account for 17.3%, PANCH cases (pituitary adenoma with neuronal choristoma) for 14.7%, PitNETs and posterior lobe tumors for 2.2%, PitNETs and metastases for 5.2%, PitNETs and mesenchymal tumors for 2.6%, PitNETs and cysts for 52.2%, and PitNETs and primary inflammation for 6.0%. The mean patient age was 53.8 years, with a standard deviation of 18.5 years. A total of 55.3% of the patients were female and 44.7% were male. From 1990 to 2018, there was a continuous increase in the number of multiple tumorous lesions. Conclusion: From our studies, we conclude that considering possible tumorous double lesions during surgeries and in preoperative X-ray analyses is recommended.

Benzodiazepines are widely administered drugs to treat anxiety and insomnia. In addition to tolerance development and abuse liability, their chronic use may cause cognitive impairment and increase the risk for dementia. However, the mechanism by which benzodiazepines might contribute to persistent cognitive decline remains unknown. Here we report that diazepam, a widely prescribed benzodiazepine, impairs the structural plasticity of dendritic spines, causing cognitive impairment in mice. Diazepam induces these deficits via the mitochondrial 18 kDa translocator protein (TSPO), rather than classical γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors, which alters microglial morphology, and phagocytosis of synaptic material. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a mechanism by which TSPO ligands alter synaptic plasticity and, as a consequence, cause cognitive impairment.

Efficient treatment of stress-related disorders, such as depression, is still a major challenge. The onset of antidepressant drug action is generally quite slow, while the anxiolytic action of benzodiazepines is considerably faster. However, their long-term use is impaired by tolerance development, abuse liability and cognitive impairment. Benzodiazepines act as positive allosteric modulators of ɣ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors. 3α-reduced neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone also are positive allosteric GABAAreceptor modulators, however, through a site different from that targeted by benzodiazepines. Recently, the administration of neurosteroids such as brexanolone or zuranolone has been shown to rapidly ameliorate symptoms in post-partum depression or major depressive disorder. An attractive alternative to the administration of exogenous neurosteroids is promoting endogenous neurosteroidogenesis via the translocator protein 18k Da (TSPO). TSPO is a transmembrane protein located primarily in mitochondria, which mediates numerous biological functions, e.g., steroidogenesis and mitochondrial bioenergetics. TSPO ligands have been used in positron emission tomography (PET) studies as putative markers of microglia activation and neuroinflammation in stress-related disorders. Moreover, TSPO ligands have been shown to modulate neuroplasticity and to elicit antidepressant and anxiolytic therapeutic effects in animals and humans. As such, TSPO may open new avenues for understanding the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders and for the development of novel treatment options.

IMPORTANCE: Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is a 4-repeat tauopathy. Region-specific tau aggregates establish the neuropathologic diagnosis of definite PSP post mortem. Future interventional trials against tau in PSP would strongly benefit from biomarkers that support diagnosis. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the potential of the novel tau radiotracer 18F-PI-2620 as a biomarker in patients with clinically diagnosed PSP. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: In this cross-sectional study, participants underwent dynamic 18F-PI-2620 positron emission tomography (PET) from 0 to 60 minutes after injection at 5 different centers (3 in Germany, 1 in the US, and 1 in Australia). Patients with PSP (including those with Richardson syndrome [RS]) according to Movement Disorder Society PSP criteria were examined together with healthy controls and controls with disease. Four additionally referred individuals with PSP-RS and 2 with PSP–non-RS were excluded from final data analysis owing to incomplete dynamic PET scans. Data were collected from December 2016 to October 2019 and were analyzed from December 2018 to December 2019. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Postmortem autoradiography was performed in independent PSP-RS and healthy control samples. By in vivo PET imaging, 18F-PI-2620 distribution volume ratios were obtained in globus pallidus internus and externus, putamen, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra, dorsal midbrain, dentate nucleus, dorsolateral, and medial prefrontal cortex. PET data were compared between patients with PSP and control groups and were corrected for center, age, and sex. RESULTS: Of 60 patients with PSP, 40 (66.7%) had RS (22 men [55.0%]; mean [SD] age, 71 [6] years; mean [SD] PSP rating scale score, 38 [15]; score range, 13-71) and 20 (33.3%) had PSP–non-RS (11 men [55.0%]; mean [SD] age, 71 [9] years; mean [SD] PSP rating scale score, 24 [11]; score range, 11-41). Ten healthy controls (2 men; mean [SD] age, 67 [7] years) and 20 controls with disease (of 10 [50.0%] with Parkinson disease and multiple system atrophy, 7 were men; mean [SD] age, 61 [8] years; of 10 [50.0%] with Alzheimer disease, 5 were men; mean [SD] age, 69 [10] years). Postmortem autoradiography showed blockable 18F-PI-2620 binding in patients with PSP and no binding in healthy controls. The in vivo findings from the first large-scale observational study in PSP with 18F-PI-2620 indicated significant elevation of tracer binding in PSP target regions with strongest differences in PSP vs control groups in the globus pallidus internus (mean [SD] distribution volume ratios: PSP-RS, 1.21 [0.10]; PSP–non-RS, 1.12 [0.11]; healthy controls, 1.00 [0.08]; Parkinson disease/multiple system atrophy, 1.03 [0.05]; Alzheimer disease, 1.08 [0.06]). Sensitivity and specificity for detection of PSP-RS vs any control group were 85% and 77%, respectively, when using classification by at least 1 positive target region. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This multicenter evaluation indicates a value of 18F-PI-2620 to differentiate suspected patients with PSP, potentially facilitating more reliable diagnosis of PSP.

Apolipoprotein-E (ApoE) has been implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis, and other unresolvable inflammatory conditions but a common mechanism of action remains elusive. We found in ApoE-deficient mice that oxidized lipids activated the classical complement cascade (CCC), resulting in leukocyte infiltration of the choroid plexus (ChP). All human ApoE isoforms attenuated CCC activity via high-affinity binding to the activated CCC-initiating C1q protein (KD~140–580 pM) in vitro, and C1q–ApoE complexes emerged as markers for ongoing complement activity of diseased ChPs, Aβ plaques, and atherosclerosis in vivo. C1q–ApoE complexes in human ChPs, Aβ plaques, and arteries correlated with cognitive decline and atherosclerosis, respectively. Treatment with small interfering RNA (siRNA) against C5, which is formed by all complement pathways, attenuated murine ChP inflammation, Aβ-associated microglia accumulation, and atherosclerosis. Thus, ApoE is a direct checkpoint inhibitor of unresolvable inflammation, and reducing C5 attenuates disease burden.

Coding variants in the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) are associated with late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We demonstrate that amyloid plaque seeding is increased in the absence of functional Trem2. Increased seeding is accompanied by decreased microglial clustering around newly seeded plaques and reduced plaque-associated apolipoprotein E (ApoE). Reduced ApoE deposition in plaques is also observed in brains of AD patients carrying TREM2coding variants. Proteomic analyses and microglia depletion experiments revealed microglia as one origin of plaque-associated ApoE. Longitudinal amyloid small animal positron emission tomography demonstrates accelerated amyloidogenesis in Trem2loss-of-function mutants at early stages, which progressed at a lower rate with aging. These findings suggest that in the absence of functional Trem2, early amyloidogenesis is accelerated due to reduced phagocytic clearance of amyloid seeds despite reduced plaque-associated ApoE.

We demonstrate a 60 mg light video-endomicroscope with a cylindrical shape of the rigid tip of only 1.6 mm diameter and 6.7 mm length. A novel implementation method of the illumination unit in the endomicroscope is presented. It allows for the illumination of the biological sample with fiber-coupled LED light at 455 nm and the imaging of the red-shifted fluorescence light above 500 nm in epi-direction. A large numerical aperture of 0.7 leads to a sub-cellular resolution and yields to high-contrast images within a field of view of 160 μm. A miniaturized chip-on-the-tip CMOS image sensor with more than 150,000 pixels captures the multicolor images at 30 fps. Considering size, plug-and-play capability, optical performance, flexibility and weight, we hence present a probe which sets a new benchmark in the field of epifluorescence endomicroscopes. Several ex-vivo and in-vivo experiments in rodents and humans suggest future application in biomedical fields, especially in the neuroscience community, as well as in medical applications targeting optical biopsies or the detection of cellular anomalies.

Perturbed intracellular store calcium homeostasis is suggested to play a major role in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer disease (AD). A number of mechanisms have been suggested to underlie the impairment of endoplasmic reticulum calcium homeostasis associated with familial AD-linked presenilin 1 mutations (FAD-PS1). Without aiming at specifically targeting any of those pathophysiological mechanisms in particular, we rather performed a high-throughput phenotypic screen to identify compounds that can reverse the exaggerated agonist-evoked endoplasmic reticulum calcium release phenotype in HEK293 cells expressing FAD-PS1. For that purpose, we developed a fully automated high-throughput calcium imaging assay using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer–based calcium indicator at single-cell resolution. This novel robust assay offers a number of advantages compared with the conventional calcium measurement screening technologies. The assay was employed in a large-scale screen with a library of diverse compounds comprising 20,000 low-molecular-weight molecules, which resulted in the identification of 52 primary hits and 4 lead structures. In a secondary assay, several hits were found to alter the amyloid β (Aβ) production. In view of the recent failure of AD drug candidates identified by target-based approaches, such a phenotypic drug discovery paradigm may present an attractive alternative for the identification of novel AD therapeutics.

A 25-year-old man presented with headache and intracranial pressure symptoms. On MRI, an intracranial lesion was detected in the right thalamus with exophytic growth into the third ventricle and inhomogeneous contrast enhancement without necrosis. Dual amino acid (18F-FET) and TSPO (18F-GE-180) PET imaging showed high tumor-to-background ratios in both scans and a short time-to-peak in 18F-FET uptake dynamics. Biopsy revealed a diffuse midline glioma, H3K27M-mutant (WHO grade IV), a novel entity in the 2016 WHO classification with poor clinical outcome. Our case shows that the highly aggressive features of this tumor entity can be visualized in vivo by both PET modalities.

Objective: When a stereotactic biopsy is taken to enable histopathological diagnosis of a suspected brain tumor, it is essential to i) do this safely, that is not injure a major blood vessel and ii) to obtain relevant vital material from the tumor. We are investigating the suitability of Indocyanine Green (ICG) fluorescence for blood vessel recognition and 5- Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) induced Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) fluorescence for identification of proliferative brain tumor tissue. Methods: A fiber-optic endoscopic approach was studied to generate and detect both fluorescence signals. PpIX concentrations in brain tumors have been measured by chemical extraction. Preliminary equipment was studied in a mouse model. Results: PpIX-concentrations in glioblastoma tissue showed high inner- and inter-patient variability, but each patient out of 15 with interpretable data showed at least one sample with a PpIX-concentration exceeding 2.4 mol/l, which is easily detectable by state-of-the-art fiberoptic fluorescence spectroscopy and imaging. The imaging fluoroscope with 30,000 pixels resolution could be introduced through a position controlled stereotactic needle. ICG-fluorescence from vessels with diameters ≥ 0.1 mm can be detected with a contrast of 2-2.5 against surrounding tissue. Conclusion: Fluorescence detection during stereotactic biopsy might increase safety and precision of the procedure significantly.

Description

Mutant presenilin-1 (PS1) increases amyloid peptide production, attenuates capacitative calcium entry (CCE), and augments calcium release from the endoplasmatic reticulum (ER). Here we measured the intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration in hippocampal neurons from six different combinations of transgenic and gene-ablated mice to demonstrate that mutant PS1 attenuated CCE directly, independent of the expression of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). On the other hand, increased Ca(2+) release from the ER in mutant PS1 neurons, as induced by thapsigargin, was clearly dependent on the presence of APP and its processing by PS1, i.e. on the generation of the amyloid peptides and the APP C99 fragments. This observation was corroborated by the thapsigargin-induced increase in cytosolic [Ca(2+)](i) in PS1 deficient neurons, which accumulate C99 fragments due to deficient gamma-secretase activity. Moreover, co-expression of mutant APP[V717I] in PS1-deficient neurons further increased the apparent size of the ER calcium stores in parallel with increasing levels of the APP processing products. We conclude that mutant PS1 deregulates neuronal calcium homeostasis by two different actions: (i) direct attenuation of CCE at the cell-surface independent of APP; and (ii) indirect increase of ER-calcium stores via processing of APP and generation of amyloid peptides and C99 fragments.

The pathogenesis underlying the typical findings in Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) such as periodic EEG changes or myoclonus is not fully understood. The thalamus possesses a high density of inhibitory neurones and serves as a crucial pacemaker of rhythmic EEG activity. As inhibitory neurones expressing parvalbumin (PV) are reduced in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in sporadic CJD (sCJD), we studied the distribution and number of PV‐immunoreactive neurones in sCJD thalami in order to determine whether damage to them could account for certain clinical findings. Immuno histochemical analysis was performed on the thalami from 21 sCJD patients and five controls. The number of PV+ neurones was counted in the thalamic nuclei and compared with clinical and molecular findings. In sCJD patients, PV+ neurones were significantly reduced in the ventrolateral posterior (VLp), ventrolateral anterior (VLa), anteroventral (AV), lateral dorsal (LD), mediodorsal (MD) and reticular (Re) thalamic nuclei (P < 0.05). The VLp was especially damaged in sCJD patients with homozygosity for methionine at codon 129 and scrapie prion protein (PrPSc) type 1. Patients with typical EEG changes [periodic sharp wave complexes (PSWCs)] and myoclonus had a predominant loss of PV+ cells in the reticular thalamic nucleus. In conclusion, our data support the hypothesis that the damage to PV‐immunoreactive neurones determines the generation of certain typical clinical features of CJD, i.e. PSWCs associated with myoclonus.

Intracellular aggregates commonly forming neuronal intranuclear inclusions are neuropathological hallmarks of spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 and of other disorders characterized by expanded polyglutamine‐(poly‐Q) tracts. To characterize cellular responses to these aggregates, we performed an immunohistochemical analysis of neuronal intranuclear inclusions in pontine neurons of patients affected by spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, using a panel of antibodies directed against chaperones and proteasome subunits. A subset of the neuronal intranuclear inclusions stained positively for the chaperones Hsp90α and HDJ‐2, a member of the Hsp40 family. Most neuronal intranuclear inclusions were ubiquitin positive, suggesting degradation by ubiquitin‐dependent proteasome pathways. Surprisingly, only a fraction of neuronal intranuclear inclusions were immunopositive for antibodies directed against subunits of the 20S proteolytic core, whereas most inclusions were stained by antibodies directed against subunits of the 11S and 19S regulatory particles. These results suggest that the proteosomal proteolytic machinery that actively degrades neuronal intranuclear inclusions is assembled in only a fraction of pontine neurons in end stage spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. The dissociation between regulatory subunits and the proteolytic core and the changes in subcellular subunit distribution suggest perturbations of the proteosomal machinery in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 brains.

We describe histopathological changes in a 2‐year‐old boy who died from myelinopathia centralis diffusa. Despite extensive white matter destruction, surprisingly high numbers of oligodendrocytes expressing proteolipid protein mRNA were detected. In an active demyelinating lesion in the brainstem, oligodendrocytes showed typical signs of apoptosis. We suggest that death of mature oligodendrocytes is the critical event in the disease.

Mutant human presenilin-1 (PS1) causes an Alzheimer's-related phenotype in the brain of transgenic mice in combination with mutant human amyloid precursor protein by means of increased production of amyloid peptides (Dewachter, I., Van Dorpe, J., Smeijers, L., Gilis, M., Kuiperi, C., Laenen, I., Caluwaerts, N., Moechars, D., Checler, F., Vanderstichele, H. & Van Leuven, F. (2000) J. Neurosci.20, 6452–6458) that aggravate plaques and cerebrovascular amyloid (Van Dorpe, J., Smeijers, L., Dewachter, I., Nuyens, D., Spittaels, K., van den Haute, C., Mercken, M., Moechars, D., Laenen, I., Kuipéri, C., Bruynseels, K., Tesseur, I., Loos, R., Vanderstichele, H., Checler, F., Sciot, R. & Van Leuven, F. (2000) J. Am. Pathol.157, 1283–1298). This gain of function of mutant PS1 is approached here in three paradigms that relate to glutamate neurotransmission. Mutant but not wild-type human PS1 (i) lowered the excitotoxic threshold for kainic acid in vivo, (ii) facilitated hippocampal long-term potentiation in brain slices, and (iii) increased glutamate-induced intracellular calcium levels in isolated neurons. Prominent higher calcium responses were triggered by thapsigargin and bradykinin, indicating that mutant PS modulates the dynamic release and storage of calcium ions in the endoplasmatic reticulum. In reaction to glutamate, overfilled Ca2+stores resulted in higher than normal cytosolic Ca2+levels, explaining the facilitated long-term potentiation and enhanced excitotoxicity. The lowered excitotoxic threshold for kainic acid was also observed in mice transgenic for mutant human PS2[N141I] and was prevented by dantrolene, an inhibitor of Ca2+release from the endoplasmic reticulum.

The prion protein (PrPC) has a primary role in the pathogenesis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Its physiological function is not known yet. Altered late afterhyperpolarization has been observed in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells of prion protein-deficient mice (Prnp0/0mice) presumably caused by a disruption of Ca2+-activated K+currents. An alteration of these currents has been recently described in scrapie-infected animals, and loss of function of PrPChas been put forward as one possible pathophysiological mechanism in prion diseases. This work focuses on patch-clamp studies of Ca2+-activated K+currents in cerebellar Purkinje cells in the slice preparation of Prnp0/0mice as well as of transgenic mice. A significant correlation between PrPCexpression in Purkinje cells and the maximal amplitude of TEA-insensitive Ca2+-activated K+currents was observed, with reduced current amplitudes in Prnp0/0mice and a rescue of the phenotype in transgenic mice where PrPChad been reintroduced. Further studies of the intracellular free calcium concentration revealed an alteration of the maximal increase of intracellular calcium concentration with depolarization in the Prnp0/0mouse Purkinje cells. These data provide strong evidence that Ca2+-activated K+currents in Prnp0/0mice are reduced due to an alteration of intracellular calcium homeostasis.

We screened 26 ependymomas in 22 patients (7 WHO grade I, myxopapillary, myE; 6 WHO grade II, E; 13 WHO grade III, anaplastic, aE) using comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and fluorescence in situhybridization (FISH). 25 out of 26 tumors showed chromosomal imbalances on CGH analysis. The chromosomal region most frequently affected by losses of genomic material clustered on 13q (9/26). 6/7 myE showed a loss on 13q14‐q31. Other chromosomes affected by genomic losses were 6q (5/26), 4q (5/26), 10 (5/26), and 2q (4/26). The most consistent chromosomal abnormality in ependymomas so far reported, is monosomy 22 or structural abnormality 22q, identified in approximately one third of Giemsabanded cases with abnormal karyotypes. Using FISH, loss or monosomy 22q was detected in small subpopulations of tumor cells in 36% of cases. The most frequent gains involved chromosome arms 17 (8/26), 9q (7/26), 20q (7/26), and 22q (6/26). Gains on 1q were found exclusively in pediatric ependymomas (5/10). Using FISH, MYCN proto‐oncogene DNA amplifications mapped to 2p23‐p24 were found in 2 spinal ependymomas of adults. On average, myE demonstrated 9.14, E 5.33, and aE 1.77 gains and/or losses on different chromosomes per tumor using CGH. Thus, and quite paradoxically, in ependymomas, a high frequency of imbalanced chromosomal regions as revealed by CGH does not indicate a high WHO grade of the tumor but is more frequent in grade I tumors.

Epithelial differentiation in glioblastomas (GBM) may be associated with circumscribed growth and focal keratin expression resembling carcinoma metastasis. Therefore these rare lesions can pose a diagnostic problem suggesting coincidental occurrence of two separate neoplasms. However molecular analysis should succeed in establishing a common origin of seemingly unrelated tumor samples. Five GBMs exhibiting epithelial differentiation were microdissected and analyzed for mutations in the TP53gene. SSCP analysis of exons 5–8 was followed by direct sequencing of aberrantly migrating fragments. TP53mutations were identified in tumors from two of five patients. A G → T transversion in codon 176 was detected in a tumor, initially diagnosed as metastases of unknown origin, however, a later autopsy revealed GBM. In this lesion, the mutation was observed in both, areas of astrocytic differentiation and areas of epithelial differentiation. One tumor diagnosed as GBM with epithelial differentiation carried C→T transition in codon 211 in both, areas of astrocytic and epithelial differentiation. Thus, molecular analysis proved clonality in two GBMs with epithelial differentiation, thereby excluding a collision tumor. The present data support the concept of clonal origin of these morphologically heterogeneous lesions.

To identify prognostic factors in medulloblastoma, a common malignant brain tumor of childhood, expression of the oncogene c-myc was examined at the mRNA level by in situ hybridization. c-myc mRNA expression was observed in 30 of 72 tumors (42%). The c-myc gene copy number was determined by quantitative PCR from genomic DNA of paraffin-embedded tumors. c-myc gene amplification was present in 5 of 62 cases (8.3%). Therefore, c-myc amplification was obviously not the cause of c-myc mRNA expression in most samples. Kaplan-Meier estimation revealed a significant correlation between c-myc mRNA expression and survival (total mean follow-up 4.6 ± 3.6 years, log-rank p = 0.02). Multivariate logistic regression analysis including sex, age, histological type, degree of surgical resection and expression of synaptophysin, GFAP and c-myc, was carried out on 54 patients who received both radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The analysis identified expression of c-myc as an independent predictive factor of death from disease. Int. J. Cancer 89:395–402, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Immunity against mycobacteria is almost exclusively confined to epithelioid cell granulomas, where a long-lasting but labile balance exists between host and bacilli. The relationship between immunity and mycobacteria results in regression, growth, or caseation of granulomas. To prove whether caseation is associated with apoptosis, biopsy specimens of patients with tuberculosis were analysed by electron microscopy and by in situ end-labelling combined with immunofluorescence. Apoptotic cells were not detected in regressive granulomas. Whereas productive granulomas without histologically recognizable caseous necrosis revealed only single apoptotic cells, large numbers of apoptotic CD68+ macrophages and apoptotic CD3+, CD45RO+ T cells were observed within caseous foci. As prime candidates undergoing and/or eliciting apoptosis, vital cells surrounding caseous foci were characterized. Immunohistochemistry showed that the majority of vital CD68+ macrophages surrounding caseous foci are negative for the anti-apoptotic protein bcl2, but positive for the pro-apoptotic protein bax. In situ hybridization combined with immunofluorescence demonstrated that the majority of the adjacent lymphocytes are activated CD3+, CD45RO+ cells expressing the pro-inflammatory cytokine interferon γ (IFNγ) and the death ligand FasL. These results suggest that caseation is strongly associated with apoptosis of macrophages and T lymphocytes; that the onset of apoptosis in macrophages may be promoted by the lack of bcl2 and the abundance of bax; and that activation-induced cell death (AICD) may be responsible for the apoptosis of T cells. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Alzheimer's disease and prion diseases such as Creutzfeldt‐Jakob disease are caused by as yet undefined metabolic disturbances of normal cellular proteins, the amyloid precursor protein and the prion protein (PrP). Synthetic fragments of both proteins, β‐amyloid 25–35 (βA25–35) and PrP106–126, have been shown to be toxic to neurons in culture. Cell death in both cases occurs by apoptosis. Here we show that there are considerable differences in the mechanisms involved. Thus, PrP106–126 is not toxic to cortical cell cultures of PrP knockout mouse neurons whereas PA25–35 is. The toxicity of both peptides involves Ca2+uptake through voltage‐sensitive Ca2+channels but only PrP106–126 toxicity involves the activity of NMDA receptors. The toxicity of PA25–35, but not PrP106–126, is attenuated by the action of forskolin. These results indicate that PrP106–126 and βA25–35 induce neuronal apoptosis through different mechanisms.

THE prion protein (PrPc) is a normal cellular protein expressed by neurones and astrocytes. An altered isoform, PrPScis thought to transmit spongiform encephalopathies. Here we show that microglia also express PrPc. Sensitivity of microglia to activation is enhanced by increased expression of PrPc. Bacterial endotoxin increases superoxide production and inhibits profileration of microglia more effectively when micro-glia express PrPc. PrPcexpression is therefore important for the normal function of microglia.

The expression of the c-erbB-2 oncogene was studied in childhood medulloblastoma to evaluate its prognostic value, which has been claimed previously.

THE localization of PKCγ mRNA expression during the maturation of rat cerebellum has been studied by in situhybridization. We found a transient expression over the granule cell layer and persistent high expression in the Purkinje cells during postnatal development. Expression in granule cells appeared as early as postnatal day 5 over the external granule cell layer, when Purkinje cells are multiply innervated by climbing fibres in contrast to their mono-innervation in the adult. As the regression of the poly-innervation during the following weeks is known to require granule cell input, our findings suggest that the PKCγ expression over the migrating granule cell layer is linked to the process of selective stabilization of synapses during the maturation of the cerebellum.

To elucidate whether the neurotoxic effect of a prion protein fragment (PrP106–126) is in some way mediated by the cellular isoform of the prion protein (PrPC), dissociated cortical cell cultures were prepared from mice in which the PrP gene had been disrupted (PrPo/cmice). Cell survival after 10 days in culture was tested with an MTT assay. PrP106–126 applied every second day for 10 days in cultures from normal mice resulted in the death of 34 more cells than in untreated cells. When PrP106–126 was applied to cultures from mice lacking PrPCexpression, survival was equal to or greater than that of untreated control cells. These results support the notion that expression of PrPCis required for the neurotoxic effect of PrP106–126.

Synapsin Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb are neuronal phosphoproteins, which are supposed to play a role in the short-term regulation of neurotransmitter release. Besides a high degree of homology among the four synapsin subtypes, there are structural differences in the 3'end of their coding region. Here we present the first extensive study of the expression of their gene transcripts by using in situ hybridization and northern blot analysis. Our results show regionally and temporally distinct expression patterns of synapsin Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb, which suggests different functional properties of the four synapsin subtypes. There was no specific messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of synapsin IIb in most brain regions apart from the cerebellum, suggesting a minor functional role of this synapsin subtype. Synapsin Ia, Ib, and IIa mRNA were expressed earlier in ontogenetically older brain regions such as the piriform cortex, the thalamus, and the hippocampus and later in ontogenetically younger areas such as the neocortex and the cerebellum. Owing to the distinct expression pattern of the synapsin subtypes, we suppose that the synapsins might be essential for the underlying molecular mechanism of pattern formation and plasticity in distinct brain regions during different states of rat brain development.

Abstract: Medullomyoblastoma is a rare variant of medulloblastoma containing myoblastic elements. A 9-year-old boy developed a cerebellar syndrome and signs of increased intracranial pressure, the cause of which was a tumor of the cerebellar vermis measuring 7 × 4.5 × 4.5 cm. Morphologically the tumor largely consisted of a medulloblastoma component but displayed glial, myoblastic and ganglionic differentiation on light microscopic, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural examination. The non-enhancing rim of the tumor on magnetic resonance imaging showed extensive ganglionic differentiation. The tumor did not express bcl-2, c-myc, or c-erb-B2 oncoproteins and was negative for the p53 gene product. On molecular genetic studies, the tumor did not show allelic loss on chromosome loci, frequently altered in medulloblastomas, such as 17p, 1q and 9q.

Synapsin I is a synaptic phosphoprotein that is involved in the short-term regulation of neurotransmitter release. In this report we present the first extensive study of the developmental expression of its corresponding messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) by in situ hybridization and northern blot analysis in rat brain. Synapsin I mRNA showed pronounced differences in expression in different brain regions during postnatal development. The early expression of synapsin I mRNA in ontogenetically older regions such as the thalamus, the piriform cortex and the hippocampus coincides with the earlier maturation of these regions, in contrast to its later expression in ontogenetically younger areas such as the cerebellum and the neocortex. An intriguing expression pattern was found in the hippocampus. In all hippocampal subregions synapsin I mRNA expression increased from postnatal day (PND) 1 to 17. After PND 17, however, there was a marked dissociation between persisting high expression levels in CA3 and the dentate gyrus and a strong decline in synapsin I mRNA expression in CA1. The persistence of synapsin I in some adult rat brain regions indicates that it plays a part in synapse formation during plastic adaption in neuronal connectivities.

In the version of this article originally published, a sentence was erroneously included in the author contributions, and information regarding second shared authorship was missing from the author contributions. The following should not have been included in the author contributions: “C.W. and A.J.R.H. supervised the work presented in Figs. 1, 2, 5, 6; P.Z. and C.S. supervised the work presented in Figs. 3, 4.” Additionally, this sentence should have appeared at the beginning of the author contributions: “These authors contributed equally: C.W., P.F.Z., C.S., and A.J.R.H.” The errors have been corrected in the print, PDF and HTML versions of the article.

A glass window constructed by Ritsma, Steller et al.(this issue) allows chronic, high-resolution imaging of metastasis in the mouse abdomen.