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This study examined the internal structure of the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance-3 Rating Scale (RS), a teacher-completed RS developed to measure emotional disturbance (ED). As defined in U.S. law and regulations, ED involves five characteristics or patterns of behavioral and emotional maladaptation. RS data obtained on a sample of students with ED were used to examine validity evidence based on the internal structure of the assessment. Of particular interest was the extent to which multivariate factors derived from the RS data conform to the five characteristics of ED stated in the definition. Results indicate that the RS data fit a 5-factor model reasonably well. A subsequent bifactor analysis identified a considerable proportion of common variance across factors, suggesting the presence of a strong general ED factor, two distinct group factors (Inability to Learn and Inappropriate Behavior), and three weak group factors. The findings provided evidence of the validity of the SAED-3 RS based on internal structure and pointed to support for use of the RS in contributing to the process of determining whether a student qualifies for the ED education disability. Implications for improved research on the nature of ED and how students with ED can be better served are discussed.

For years, the research and policy focus on Black students with emotional disturbance (ED) has been on racial disproportionality. The disproportionality issue has sparked professional debate and raised major questions about racial bias, cultural fairness, appropriateness of assessment instruments, the adequacy of special education programs, poverty, exposure to risk factors, and research approaches. Unfortunately, minimal progress has been made on understanding the overrepresentation of Black students in ED programs. The purpose of the present study was to initiate research on the emotional and behavioral functioning of Black students with ED, by comparing the teacher-completed ratings from the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbancefor Black students with ED (n= 139), Black students without ED (n= 421), White students with ED (n= 271), and White students without ED (n= 1,218). The results demonstrated that (a) Black students with ED were judged to demonstrate significantly higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems than their Black and White peers without ED, and (b) Black students with ED differed minimally from White students with ED. Research limitations, directions for future research, and implications for assessment and service delivery are discussed.

Mental health variables, such as psychiatric diagnoses and medications, concerning youth that entered residential group home care in 1995 and 2004 are examined using their admissions data. Findings show that the youth's mental health needs in 2004 were greater than those in 1995.

ABSTRACTChild assessment practices have undergone, and are continuing to undergo, significant changes. Among the most prominent changes is the movement toward measuring child well-being, in general, and emotional and behavioral strengths, in particular. The Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS) is a strength-based instrument which is widely used in the United States and is beginning to be used internationally. The purpose of this review was to assess the translation adaptation process and to determine the psychometric properties of the BERS scores when used in countries other than the United States. Results from 15 international studies indicated that the researchers followed acceptable standards for test adaptation and the BERS scores generally met acceptable professional standards for reliability and validity. The limitations with the review process and the published studies were identified, as well as the directions for future research and implications for professional practice.

Each year a number of youth with a school identified disability are placed in residential care. It has been well documented that these youth enter with elevated rates of behavioral, emotional, educational, mental health, and familial challenges. However, the physical and medical condition of these youth remains unstudied.

The prevalence of weight problems among youth in general and youth in out-of-home care has been well documented; however, the prevalence of obesity/overweight among youth with high-incidence disabilities in more restrictive settings, such as residential care, has not been assessed. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of weight problems in 245 youth with learning disabilities or emotional disturbance at entrance to residential care. Youth intake files were examined to evaluate the association between youth demographic characteristics, medical conditions, prior placements and placement settings, medication usage, and internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems and clinical weight problems. Findings revealed that over one half of the youth were overweight or obese (50.6%), and weight problems were associated with gender, medical conditions, and age. Study limitations, future research efforts, and treatment implications are discussed.

This study investigated the cross-informant agreement among student self-report, teacher report, and parent report on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire translated into Finnish (SDQ-Fin) and estimated mean convergent and divergent correlations with a sample of fifth-grade Finnish students (N = 588) and the cross-informant agreement among student-teacher-parent informants separately for those with and without special education support. In addition, the study estimated the within-rater stabilities of SDQ subscales for students with and without special education support between two measurements at a one year interval. The cross-informant agreement on SDQ-Fin subscales was moderate with cross-informant correlations ranging from .12 to .42. The cross-informant agreement between teachers and students was in general higher for students with special education (SE) support than students without special education (NSE) support. The mean convergent correlations were higher than the mean divergent correlations across raters. The rater stabilities of SDQ subscales for NSE students and SE students between fifth and sixth grade as indicated by stability correlations were all statistically significant. Our findings provide additional evidence of the usefulness of the SDQ in school environments, and underline the importance of a multi-informant approach to the evaluation of emotional and behavioral problems.

Within 3-tier behavioral models, universal interventions are expected to prevent the onset of problem behavior in a majority of children altogether and to sustain improvements in child outcomes by the selected and indicated interventions. A cohort longitudinal design was used to assess the extent to which a 3-tier model achieves these expected outcomes. The respective universal, selected, and indicated interventions included Behavior and Academic Support and Enhancement, First Step to Success, and MultiSystemic Therapy. A total of 407 children in Grades K-3 from 1 of 4 longitudinal cohorts participated. The results of 2-level linear growth analyses indicate that the 3-tier behavior model achieved the anticipated outcomes with respect to social behavior. The results, limitations, and implications are discussed.

Multinomial stepwise logistic regression analyses were used to establish the most robust set of risk factors that would best predict low basic reading skills (i.e., a standard score less than 85 on the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test–Revised Basic Reading Skills cluster) of kindergarten and first-grade children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Results showed that among the 11 risk factor domains considered, four were most predictive of low reading skills: demographic characteristics, childhood maladjustment, family functioning, and maternal depression. Within these four domains, the most robust set of individual risk factors were gender, history of psychiatric hospitalization, abusive to animals, and maternal depression. Results, limitations, and implications are discussed.

Logistic regression analyses were used to establish the most robust set of risk factors that would best predict borderline/clinical levels of problem behavior (i.e., a t score at or above 60 on the Child Behavior Checklist Total Problem scale) of kindergarten and first-grade children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Results showed that among the 11 risk factor domains considered, 5 were most predictive of borderline/clinical levels of problem behavior: externalizing behavior pattern, internalizing behavior pattern, early childhood child maladjustment, family functioning, and maternal depression. Within these 5 domains, the most robust set of individual risk factors were difficult child (i.e., temperament, parent management skills, interaction between temperament and parent management skills), destroys own toys, and maternal depression. Results, limitations, future research, and implications are discussed.

As prevention and early intervention opportunities for young children at risk of emotional disturbance (ED) increase, questions regarding the effectiveness of these programs for specific subpopulations of children have emerged. To date, few investigators have examined young children entering early school prevention/intervention programs to determine if clear subpopulations can be identified, and if so, which characteristics are most distinguishing. This study examined the risk factors of 140 kindergarten and first-grade students, identified by teachers as at risk of ED, to determine if distinct profiles exist. Cluster analysis procedures using teacher, child, and parent reports of family, academic, and social/emotional data revealed five distinct clusters: Parent nominated (n = 24), Elevated risks (n = 43), Primarily behavior (n = 25), Primarily academic (n = 27), and False positives (n = 21). Validation techniques revealed that the five clusters were distinguished by clear profiles, which differed across level of severity (i.e., high or low levels of risk per domain) and primary focus of risk (i.e., academic, social/emotional, or familial). Similarities and differences across cluster groups, possible implications for targeted prevention or early intervention programs, study limitations, and directions for future research are presented.

This study investigated the effects of an intensive prereading intervention on the beginning reading skills and social behavior of kindergarten children at risk for behavioral disorders and reading difficulties. Children identified through a systematic screening process were assigned randomly to experimental or nonspecific treatment conditions. Children who received the intensive prereading intervention showed statistically and educationally significant gains in their beginning reading skills relative to their counterparts in the nonspecific treatment condition. In contrast, improvements in teacher ratings of the classroom competence, emotional and behavioral self-control, and self-confidence of children in the experimental and nonspecific treatment conditions were not statistically significant from one another.

This study reviews the status and trends of pharmacological intervention research focused on the academic functioning of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Forty-two studies involving 1,668 participants were included in the review. Results indicated: (1) information on participants is limited; (2) relatively few studies have investigated the effects of psychotropic medications among adolescent populations; (3) the types of medications investigated are limited; (4) dependent measures are often lacking in sophistication (i.e., number of math problems correct); (5) treatments have been limited to short-term interventions; and (6) medication-type interventions resulted in a moderate beneficial effect across academic subject areas for children and adolescents with ADHD.

The authors systematically review the available research on administrative discipline contacts to (a) identify the domain variables (e.g., gender, ethnicity) that influence the use of administrative discipline contacts, (b) identify participant classification variables (e.g., antisocial) related to administrative discipline contacts, and (c) determine the validity of administrative discipline contacts. They drew from 20 independent samples published in 23 articles. A wide range of school (e.g., grade level, size) and student (e.g., achievement, abilities, socioeconomic status, ethnicity) domain variables appear to influence the use of administrative discipline contacts, whereas administrator/teacher (e.g., ethnicity, gender) and family (e.g., parenting style, education levels of parents) variables have less influence. Four participant classification variables appear to be related to administrative discipline contacts: participation in athletics; child neglect; antisocial behavior; and anecdotal suspension report. The concurrent and predictive validity of administrative discipline contacts appears to be relatively limited. The findings and future research needs are discussed.

Although students with or at risk for emotional disturbance present significant academic challenges, few researchers have studied the outcomes of interventions designed to improve the reading skills of this population. In this study we assessed the outcomes of a supplemental daily Direct Instruction reading curriculum, Reading Mastery I., and fluency building program, Great Leaps, on the reading skills of students at risk for emotional disturbance and reading deficits. Over a period of 7 months, 6 students received a supplementary reading intervention and 12 students (6 control at-risk and 6 norm-referencing students without disabilities) received their regular classroom instruction. Curriculum-based measures assessing early phonemic awareness and basic reading skills (i.e., letter sounds, blends, and high-frequency sight words) were collected biweekly to assess student performance. The results of this study revealed that at-risk students receiving the Direct Instruction curriculum intervention met or outperformed their control at-risk and norm-referencing peers in all three reading measures. Implications of these findings and areas of future research are discussed.

The five characteristics of emotional disturbance (ED) as stated in the IDEA definition and a variable called socially maladjusted, were investigated. Participants were African American and European American elementary school boys and girls, 336 with ED and 548 without ED. Variables were measured with the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance. Students with ED exceeded those without ED on all characteristics. Student category and race interacted for all characteristics in various ways. There were also interactions of category and gender. Among students with ED, one form of comorbidity was more prevalent among girls than boys, but there were no differences by race. Results clarify how students with ED exhibit the five characteristics associated with having ED and the socially maladjusted condition and show the need to consider all five characteristics in understanding the ED disability.

The Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance (SAED) was developed to operationally define the federal definition of emotional disturbance (ED) and to assist in the identification of children who qualify for the federal special education ED category. This study reports on the standardization of the SAED and examines the scale's factor structure, reliability, and construct validity. Data were collected on a national sample of children with ED and without ED. Data from the ED sample led to the identification of six behavior problem factors that correspond to the federal definition. The factors were determined to be highly internally consistent. Intercorrelations among subscales based on these factors supported the construct validity of the SAED, as did the fact that all subscales and an overall problem score were rated significantly higher among the ED sample than among the non-ED sample. Future research directions and useful practical applications of the SAED are suggested.

Most assessment is conducted from a deficit perspective and is intended to identify deficits, problems, and pathologies of the individuals who are assessed. However, deficit-based assessment may present a biased picture that limits or ignores a child's strengths. In this article we report data on long-term (6-month) test-retest reliability of the Behavior and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS), which is a strength-based assessment instrument. Participants included 95 randomly selected children from general education classrooms and 26 children identified as having or being at risk for emotional or behavioral disorders. Moderate to high test-retest correlations ranging from .527 to .787 were found across the instrument's subscales. Moreover, the lack of significant differences between ratings indicate that rater drift did not occur. Results suggest that BERS scores are stable over a 6-month time frame. Implications for the use of the BERS are discussed.

Although there has been considerable interest in and research on comorbidity of diagnosed mental disorders among children and adolescents, little is known about comorbidity of the characteristics of emotional disturbance (ED) as defined by the federal definition of that category of educational disability. In this study, we examined comorbidity of the five federal definition characteristics among students already identified as having ED. Each of these characteristics of ED was measured with the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance, a standardized, norm-referenced instrument completed by educators. The effects of setting different criteria for deviance on these characteristics were explored through the use of two different cutoff criteria. Results were obtained for comorbidity overall and for comorbidity by sex, race and ethnic group, grade level in school, and educational placement of the students. The extent of comorbidity of ED characteristics was shown to be related to the criterion for deviance and to each of the student variables. Implications for practice and research are suggested.

Assessment of children referred to and receiving special education services is based on a deficit model. Recently, questions about a deficit-driven assessment model have led to calls for alternative approaches. A strength-based approach to assessment focuses on the strengths, resources, and competencies of a child and family. The purpose of this article is twofold: (a) to provide an overview of strength-based assessment and (b) to discuss the development and psychometric characteristics of the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale(BERS). The BERS is a norm-referenced, standardized test that assesses the strengths of children and adolescents.

Three studies are reported addressing the reliability of the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance (Epstein & Cullinan, 1998), a standardized, norm-referenced measure linked to the federal definition of emotional disturbance (ED). The first and second studies investigated test–retest reliability over a 2-week period to determine the stability of the measure over time. The third study investigated interrater reliability between six pairs of teachers who had worked with a student for 2 or more months to determine the consistency with which the measure can be used by different individuals. In each study, samples were drawn from populations of students identified as having ED. Test–retest reliability coefficients were above .80, the standard recommended for screening tests that will be reported individually. Interrater reliability coefficients were at least .79 for all subscales except Unhappiness or Depression and Physical Symptoms or Fears. Implications for use of the SAED are discussed.

During the past two decades, the field of special education has become politicized and fragmented as a result of internal strife and turf battles among professionals. Special education often is perceived by professionals in other fields as strife ridden, expensive, litigious, consumed with legislative mandates and court orders, and ineffective. These perceptions have damaged special education's status and hindered its ability to pursue its agenda. By association, the field of behavioral disorders also has suffered from these perceptions. We need to rededicate ourselves to empirical inquiry and use our collective expertise to find solutions to problems that are of great concern to children and families as well as the larger society. In so doing, we may achieve a degree of macrosocial validation for our efforts. The term macrosocial validation, as used herein, refers to recognition, approval, and valuing of a field's professional activities by the larger constituencies affected by them, such as the general public, the U.S. Congress, and policymakers.

In this article, two studies that investigate the convergent validity of the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS) are reported. In both studies, special education teachers of students identified as seriously emotionally dis turbed completed the BERS and a second mea sure of child functioning. In the first study, the five BERS subscales and overall strength quo tient were correlated with the five subscales and total score from the Walker-McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment-Adolescent Version. Correlations were generally moderate to high. In the second study, the BERS was correlated to the five com petence scales, the broad-band dimensions (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing), and the Total Problem score of Achenbach's Teacher Report Form. Correlations were generally moderate to high for the competence scales and the externalizing dimension, but not for the internalizing dimension. Recommenda tions for use of the BERS are discussed.

This study examined competencies for teaching seriously emotionally disturbed (SED) adolescents by soliciting expert judgments on the importance of 55 such competencies. Three kinds of personnel with expertise in educating SED adolescents—directorsof residential treatment centers, university teacher preparation directors, and local education agency supervisors of programs for the SED—were surveyed. Analyses showed substantial agreement among the three groups as well as some interesting discrepancies. Implications for further research on competencies and for improved practice are delineated.

A survey of 160 teacher education programs and state certification departments in all 50 states was conducted. The results show a continuing trend for states to establish separate certificates for elementary and secondary level special education teachers. The results also indicate that there are significant differences in collegeluniversity training programs in states that require separate secondary certificates. The implications of these findings for educational policy and teacher training are discussed.

Teachers rated the achievement levels of behaviorally disordered, learning disabled, and nonhandicapped adolescents in four different academic areas: reading recognition, reading comprehension, arithmetic, and written expression. Comparisons across the three groups revealed that behaviorally disordered and learning disabled adolescents were seen as performing significantly below expected levels of achievement. Differences found between behaviorally disordered and learning disabled students' rated achievement appeared to depend upon particular age levels. Results are discussed in terms of the instructional needs of behaviorally disordered and learning disabled students.

Individualized education programs (IEP) of 107 junior high students with behavioral disorders were reviewed. The review focused on the current types of behavior problems displayed by the students and the types and frequencies of the annual goals listed for each of the students. An average of 2.4 behavior problems were noted per student, while an average of approximately 4 goals were listed for each. There was a low correlation between the nature of the problems cited and the goals stated. The implications of these findings for an understanding of educational services for students with behavioral disorders and as a basis for change in current practices are discussed.

Thirty-three impulsive learning- disabled males, aged 9–12 years, were assigned to one of three treatment conditions: (a) Modeling, in which subjects were exposed to a videotape of a boy demonstrating reflective problem-solving activities and instructing himself to perform cautiously; (b) Modeling Plus Self-Verbalization, in which subjects observed the same videotape and were additionally required to verbalize similar reflective instructions; and (c) Control, in which subjects were shown a videotape of the task materials used in the modeling videotape, but without the model. Subjects were tested immediately after exposure to treatment, and again 3 weeks later, on different forms of the Matching Familiar Figures test. Both Modeling and Modeling Plus Self-Verbalization conditions were superior to Control in reducing errors on the immediate test, but the three treatments did not differ on the delayed test. No significant differences among the three conditions were found with regard to response latency. Discrepancies between the present results and those of previous related studies were noted, and potential research directions were suggested.

Psychotropic drug treatment in learning-disabled (LD), educable mentally retarded (EMR), and seriously emotionally disturbed (ED) children and adolescents receiving public school special education services was examined. The findings indicated that while treatment prevalence rates for EMR and ED groups were comparable, the rate for LD students was much lower. In the LD sample, pharmacotherapy was associated with higher ratings of behavioral deviance, longer placement in special education, less social integration, and greater peer rejection, which suggests that symptom severity is an important determiner of pharmacotherapy in this population.

Male pupils identified as behaviorally disordered, learning disabled, and educable mentally retarded, as well as nonidentified normal boys, were rated by their teachers on the Behavior Problem Checklist. Analyses of the ratings indicated significant differences for pupil category, Behavior Problem Checklist dimension, and category by dimension interaction, but no significant differences for age alone or in interaction with other factors. Categories of pupils were best discriminated from one another on the basis of Conduct Disorder and Personality Problem dimensions of the Behavior Problem Checklist. Results were discussed in terms of some implications for special education and further research suggested by the present findings.

Dealing effectively with adjustment problems requires a knowledge both of the problems and of current interventions.

With an increased emphasis on the evaluation and accountability of educational programs, it appears that education professionals need to identify reliable and valid assessment instruments to measure intervention outcomes. The purpose of this study was to determine the interrater reliability and internal consistency of the Homework Problem Checklist (HPC) (Anesko, Schoiock, Ramirez, & Levine, 1987) with learning disabled students. Sixty-five pairs of teachers and parents of elementary and secondary school learning disabled students completed the HPC. The HPC demonstrated moderate to high levels of interrater reliability. Acceptable levels of internal consistency were reported for both teacher and parent ratings. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

A national survey of elementary and secondary general education teachers (N= 368, response rate of 52%) was conducted to determine the classroom grading practices of general education teachers, including grading adaptations for students with disabilities. Results of this self report survey indicated that teachers find letter and number grades more helpful for students without disabilities than for those with disabilities. Results also indicated that teachers find certain grading adaptations—such as pass-fail grades, portfolios, multiple grades, and grading for effort—helpful for students both with and without disabilities. Implications for training, research, and practice are included.

Recent critiques of special education combined with pressure for school reform may result in effective strategies and programs for students with emotional and behavioral disorders being overlooked in the press in favor of new approaches and radical restructuring. Using current data, members of the group examined several major problems confronting special education for such students. To prevent elimination of beneficial strategies, members together identified successful practices and programs that are available for use with these students. Then explored were factors that probably contribute to continuation of inadequate practices and recommendations were developed for improving educational practice, policy, research, and professional preparation. Group members believe that if the benefits of special education are to be extended to children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders, reform efforts must incorporate these recommendations.