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Conventional radiography remains a valuable tool in forensic imaging; particularly where resources are limited. However, employing radiography to document occult fractures in infants less than 1 year old can be challenging. In order to clearly visualise these subtle fractures several technical factors must be taken into consideration. This study will explore and validate a range of radiographic approaches to such forensic cases.

Twenty-three pairs of proximal humeri obtained from human cadavers ranging in age from fullterm stillborn to fourteen years were studied morphologically and radiographically. Roentgenograms of the specimens demonstrated the osseous and cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses, using air/cartilage interfacing. Comparable clinical simulations were obtained by using water immersion of the specimens. The metaphyseal cortex remained thin and trabecular near the physis. Histologically this area had multiple fenestrations, which provide a potential pathway for childhood osteomyelitis into the subperiosteal space, and may also affect the biomechanics of this region (i.e., susceptibility to Salter epiphyseal fractures). As skeletal maturity was reached, thicker cortical (osteonal) bone extended toward the physis. The epiphyseal secondary ossification centers form an osseous connection shortly after the appearance of greater tuberosity ossification center, although this may not be radiologically evident until the child is older. The major intent of this roentgenographic survey is to provide a reference index of proximal humeral development for the adequate interpretation of shoulder radiography in children who have not yet attained skeletal maturity.

Thirty-one pairs of distal radioulnar units were obtained from human cadavers ranging in age from full-term neonates to fourteen years. These were studied morphologically and radiographically. Specimen roentgenography using air/cartilage interfacing demonstrated the osseous and cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses. These roentgenographic aspects of development are discussed and illustrated to provide a reference index.

Detailed examination of a complete chondro-osseous specimen from a patient with duplication of the first ray of the foot revealed the involved metatarsal had a trapezoid-shaped, diaphyseal-metaphyseal osseous unit that was longitudinally bracketed along the lateral side by a functioning physis, epiphysis, and secondary (epiphyseal) ossification center. The physis extended as an arc from the medial proximal side toward and along the lateral side and then back to the medial side distally. The medial side of the diaphysis had a normal periosteum. The longitudinal epiphyseal ossification bracket was a composite of initially separate proximal and distal secondary ossification centers that had progressively extended toward each other and finally coalesced along the laterally placed epiphyseal cartilage. We have termed this deformity the “longitudinal epiphyseal bracket” (LEB). The macroscopic and microscopic anatomy relevant to initial diagnosis and evaluation of sequential roentgenographic changes will be considered.

Thirty-one pairs of clavicles obtained from human cadavers ranging in age from full-term stillborn to fourteen years were studied morphologically and radiographically. Specimen roentgenography using air/cartilage interfacing demonstrated the osseous and cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses. Overall longitudinal growth appeared to occur to a greater degree in the sternal end, which also developed a secondary ossification center. No comparable ossification was seen in the acromion. The curve patterns differed in the acromial and sternal ends. The sternoclavicular joint has a meniscus throughout postnatal development. This was demonstrated by air arthrography. Finally, the sternoclavicular joint was dislocated anteriorly and posteriorly to duplicate trauma to this region. Roentgenographic aspects of development are discussed and illustrated to provide a reference index.

Thirty-six manubriosternal composites from skeletally immature cadavers were examined morphologically and radiographically. Sternebral ossification followed certain patterns. The manubrium (first sternebra) usually had one primary ossification center and one or two smaller centers. These usually were caudad to the major center (longitudinally bifid). The second sternebra invariably had only one ossification center. The third and fourth sternebrae had latitudinal (right-left) bifid ossification centers, undoubtedly a result of the original formation of the sternum from two longitudinal mesenchymal anlagen. Occasionly the fourth sternebra exhibited longitudinally bifid ossification. The usual pattern was ossification of four sternebrae, although a fifth was intermittently present. The xiphisternum (not a true sternebra) was infrequently ossified.

Normal and rachitic, skeletally immature arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) were subjected to physical examination, roentgenographic studies, and in some cases histologic studies. The involved animals had active rickets coupled with antecedent normal diaphyseal bone formation. Evaluation of all the long bones showed highly variable manifestations of the disease, which undoubtedly reflect different rates of physeal endochondral transformation and metaphyseal remodeling. Histologic examination showed distinct patterns of widening of the physes and variable osteodystrophy in the trabecular and cortical bone of the metaphyses and epiphyseal ossification centers. These aforementioned factors certainly would necessitate different regional calcium needs and, therefore, different regional responses to an overall calcium deficiency. The physes involved in the most rapid growth rates in this period showed the most widening of the growth plate, and the most dystrophic changes in the metaphysis. Skeletal injuries, including metaphyseal fractures and slow-down of longitudinal growth (particularly in the ulna) were also evident. Because of apparent dietary differences in the affected and normal fox kits, this juvenile-onset disease was presumed due to calcium-deficient intake following weaning. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report of spontaneously occurring rickets in a wild animal in its natural habitat. There are several possible mechanisms for the variable widening of the physis and the loss of bone mineralization in these fox kits: calcium-deficient diet, binding of calcium in the bowel by high phosphorus intake, secondary hyperparathyroidism, and vitamin A toxicity.

•This is a book review of Advances in Paleoimaging: Applications for Paleoanthropology, Bioarchaeology, Forensics, and Cultural Artifacts.•Ronald G. Beckett, Gerald, J. Conlogue, and Andrew J. Nelson•Kindle Edition•Boca Raton, FL CRC Press, 2020.•Kind regards•Charlotte Primeau

•Mummification of the Gangi mummies was the result of natural desiccation.•The Gangi mummies are in great need of conservation.•Pathologies discovered included osteoarthritis, DISH, lytic lesions, renal/bladder stones, healed fractures and periodontal disease.•Two of the Gangi mummies showed clear evidence of autopsy.•Multimodal imaging proved to increase the efficiency and efficacy of data collection in this study.

The marine leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (Testudines, Dermochelyidae), is the largest known extant reptile, reaching weights >680 kg. It has a cosmopolitan oceanic distribution, nesting in tropical climates but migrating widely into colder temperate and boreal waters1. Recent studies have shown that the leatherback has certain well developed thermoregulatory adaptations: vascular counter-current heat exchangers in the flippers, thick subcutaneous insulation beneath its leathery shell and effective inertial homoiothermy, if not endothermy2,3. Whether this ability to maintain a body temperature higher than the ambient is due to endogenous endothermy or thermal inertia remains unclear4,5. The skeleton of Dermochelys remains extensively cartilaginous even in adult animals6,7, which has been attributed to neoteny secondary to its highly pelagic habitat, based on the assumption that its skeleton resembled that of typical embryonic turtles8. However, up to now there have been no studies of the internal architecture of the leatherback appendicular skeleton. We report here that the chondro-osseous morphology of Dermochelys is unlike that of any other known extant turtle or reptile but is more similar to that of marine mammals, notably Cetacea (whales) and Sirenia (manatees).