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Adaptations allowing dogs to thrive on a diet rich in starch, including a significant AMY2B copy number gain, constituted a crucial step in the evolution of the dog from the wolf. It is however not clear whether this change was associated with the initial domestication, or represents a secondary shift related to the subsequent development of agriculture. Previous efforts to study this process were based on geographically limited data sets and low-resolution methods, and it is therefore not known to what extent the diet adaptations are universal among dogs and whether there are regional differences associated with alternative human subsistence strategies. Here we use droplet PCR to investigate worldwide AMY2B copy number diversity among indigenous as well as breed dogs and wolves to elucidate how a change in dog diet was associated with the domestication process and subsequent shifts in human subsistence. We find that AMY2B copy numbers are bimodally distributed with high copy numbers (median 2nAMY2B=11) in a majority of dogs but no, or few, duplications (median 2nAMY2B=3) in a small group of dogs originating mostly in Australia and the Arctic. We show that this pattern correlates geographically to the spread of prehistoric agriculture and conclude that the diet change may not have been associated with initial domestication but rather the subsequent development and spread of agriculture to most, but not all regions of the globe.

EVEN THE WEATHER The air was still today-no wind to move the trees, the merest brush of cloud fixed, as the earnest daub of white on a child's blue canvas. [...]

Background: Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections have traditionally been associated with animal products, but outbreaks associated with produce have been reported with increasing frequency. In fall 1996, a small cluster of E. coli O157:H7 infections was epidemiologically linked to a particular brand (brand A) of unpasteurized apple juice. Objective: To define the extent of the outbreak, confirm the source, and determine how the apple juice became contaminated. Design: Descriptive epidemiologic study and traceback investigation. Setting: Western United States and British Columbia, Canada. Patients: Patients with E. coli O157:H7 infection who were exposed to brand A apple juice. Measurements: Clinical outcome and juice exposure histories of case-patients, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis of case and juice isolates, and juice production practices. Results: Seventy persons with E. coli O157:H7 infection and exposure to brand A unpasteurized apple juice were identified. Of these persons, 25 (36%) were hospitalized, 14 (20%) developed the hemolytic uremic syndrome, and 1 (1%) died. Recalled apple juice that was produced on 7 October 1996 grew E. coli O157:H7 with a pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pattern indistinguishable from that of case isolates. Apple juice produced on 7 October 1996 accounted for almost all of the cases, and the source of contamination was suspected to be incoming apples. Three lots of apples could explain contamination of the juice: Two lots originated from an orchard frequented by deer that were subsequently shown to carry E. coli O157: H7, and one lot contained decayed apples that had been waxed. Conclusions: Standard procedures at a state-of-the-art plant that produced unpasteurized juices were inadequate to eliminate contamination with E. coli O157:H7. This outbreak demonstrated that unpasteurized juices must be considered a potentially hazardous food and led to widespread changes in the fresh juice industry., Current techniques for producing unpasteurized apple juice may be inadequate to prevent transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Seventy people developed Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection after drinking a particular brand of juice. Twenty-five patients required hospitalization, 20% developed hemolytic uremic syndrome, and one patient died. All cases were traced to apple juice produced on Oct 7, 1996. Apples contaminated with deer feces or from a lot with decaying fruit accounted for transmission of the infectious bacteria. Unpasteurized juice should be regarded as potentially dangerous to health.

Background Shortly after a measles supplementary immunization activity (SIA) targeting children from 9 months to 14 years of age that achieved high coverage, Burkina Faso had a large, serologically confirmed measles outbreak. To investigate the causes of this first reported failure of a widely successful measles control strategy we conducted a case–control study. Methods Serologically confirmed measles cases aged ≥9 months at the time of the SIA in 6 heavily affected districts were frequency matched on age to 3 controls recruited from people frequenting health centres in the same districts. Results Between January and July 2002, 1287 measles cases were reported throughout Burkina Faso. Of the 707 cases that were serologically confirmed, 358 (51%) were from 9 months to 14 years of age and 265 (37%) were ≥15 years of age. Among cases and controls from 9 months to 14 years of age significant risk factors for measles were lack of measles vaccination and, in the unvaccinated, recent travel to Côte d'Ivoire. Of the recent measles cases in Côte d'Ivoire 54% were there when exposed to measles. Among adults, risk factors included non-vaccination and the lack of school attendance during childhood. Vaccine effectiveness was estimated to be 98%. Conclusions Migration of children between Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso played a major role in the failure of the SIA to interrupt measles transmission. Synchronization of measles control activities should be a high priority in countries with regions where much migration occurs.