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The utilitarian spirit of Australian education has meant that since the nineteenth century the notion of tertiary education has embraced all post-school learning, delivered in sandstone universities or working men's institutes or on the job. This is not the definition the peak bodies TAFE (Technical and Further Education) Directors Australia (TDA) and Universities Australia (UA) proposed in late April. They see: "Tertiary" education qualifications as those at diploma level and above, including where these qualifications may embed pathways from the qualification level below. TAFE Directors Australia and Universities Australia say their definition is "generally" consistent with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD) International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). At the same time, it is a departure from the understanding of tertiary education that has prevailed in Australia for the past two centuries, which has embraced the entire gamut of adult learning. In their proposal, they are explicit about certificates I and II, which they see as more equivalent to secondary school. They are silent about certificates III and IV, except to suggest these can be a stepping stone to a diploma... but not, it seems, to a degree. Yet the certificate III is a tertiary qualification in its own right, in high demand as the basis on which tradespeople, technicians and others launch their careers. To concentrate attention on higher-level qualifications is not the way to encourage commencements in the trades and to address the demand for skills. In this address, the author argues how all vocational qualifications should be included in the definition of tertiary education. The author is sceptical about a system that concentrates on acquiring higher qualifications to the exclusion of other credentials or indeed unaccredited skills.

The model currently used to represent the impacts of Australia's technical and further education (TAFE) programs implies a one-way flow of impact from TAFE to student to community. It may be argued that TAFE could better serve its clients by developing a social capital-based, two-way, reciprocal dynamic of vocational education and training (VET) planning and development. The evidence from a 5-year research effort encompassing more than 50 whole communities largely supports an integrated rather than segregated model of VET. The research has identified the following needs ("drivers") of the vocational learning experience: community; culture; enterprise; natural resource management; policy; providers; and industry. Vocational policy depends on two factors. The first is identifying vital checkpoints in the process of vocational learning where quality learning can be seen to have occurred. The second is identifying accurate benchmarks for profiling these checkpoints of quality. The solution to meeting these needs and conditions at the local level while juggling the demands of national strategic measures and data requirements lies in adopting a "community capacity inventory" model and resourcing through key performance measures. An integrated model of VET would be fairer and more accurate to all VET stakeholders, be more cost-effective for TAFE, and be better for enterprise and policy outcomes. (Contains 19 references.) (MN)

Adult literacy is a context-dependent, purposeful, and constantly changing phenomenon. What counts for literacy at the end of the 20th century is not what counted for literacy at the beginning of the century. Literacy is the ability to read, use written information, and write appropriately in a range of contexts. Literacy also includes the recognition and meaning of numbers and basic mathematical formulas within texts. Literacy must change over a lifetime. The 1989 national survey of adult literacy in Australia (No Single Measure) broke new ground by adopting a definition of literacy as social practice. The most recent evidence of the extent of literacy and numeracy difficulties experienced by Australia's population comes from the 1996 Survey of Aspects of Literacy (SAL) (n=9,302). By conducting the SAL, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) became part of the International Adult Literacy Survey. According to the ABS survey, the percentages of Australians with very poor, poor, moderate, and good/very good literacy skills are 19%, 26%, 35%, and 17%, respectively. The decision to base literacy programs on a remedial or developmental approach will depend on how literacy is defined. The ABS survey also showed a clear link between literacy and work. (Contains 32 references.) (MN)

The Group of Eight (Go8) applauds the government's intention to comprehensively reform the skilled migration program, and it welcomes the opportunity to submit this response to the General Skilled Migration (GSM) Points Test Discussion Paper. The Go8 has argued for some time that it is inappropriate to link international education to the skilled migration program. Educational decisions should not be driven by the availability of extra points for studying in Australia nor for undertaking courses with narrowly defined occupational ends. Rather, the level and quality of educational qualifications should underpin the new skilled migration program so that the government, in consultation with relevant stakeholders, can better meet Australia's short, medium and long term human capital needs. This paper provides the Go8's response to specific questions raised by the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC) in its 15 February paper.

This paper was presented at the Professional Historians Association (NSW) Islands of History conference held on Norfolk Island in July 2010. It argues that the reliance on overseas workers to address skills shortages has been present ever since the first white settlement of Australia, which has, in turn, shaped attitudes to the governance of vocational education, in particular the notion of an industry-led system. The paper then suggests some areas for primary historical research. (Contains 4 footnotes.)

This paper was presented to a meeting of the Wellington Exchange, an international group of higher education officials, in December 2008. One of the topics of the meeting was around the issue of possible skills shortages emerging as a result of demographic trends, with the ageing of the population of developed countries. The paper argues that this is not an issue about which we need to be alarmist. There is little evidence of impending skills shortages. This is not to say that there will be no skills shortages in specific areas. In any case, the business cycle could have a much more dramatic effect on the demand for skills than demographic trends. (Contains 5 tables, 8 figures, and 3 footnotes.) [This work has been produced on behalf of the Australian Government and state and territory governments.]

This presentation was made to a breakout session at the 2011 Skills Australia and Industry Skills Councils joint conference, "Putting Skills at the Heart of Economy". The paper addresses the challenge of measurement in workforce development planning and discusses the role of the various players in the labour and training markets--individuals, employers, providers, regulators, governments and industry bodies--and the information they need to make optimal decisions. One issue is the extent to which markets should be left to operate freely, noting that the data required by central planners to second-guess the market are particularly onerous. It is emphasised, however, that markets need ample information to function effectively. The presentation's overall assessment is that data in Australia are not too bad, although the lack of a complete collection (covering both private and public) of vocational education and training (VET) activity is an obvious deficiency. There is also lack of data about the VET workforce (which regulators have a particular interest in) and data on job vacancies are limited. Provider-level performance data have also not been published to date. (Contains 3 tables and 1 footnote.)

In this position paper, NCVER's Managing Director, Dr Tom Karmel, argues that the submission of vocational education and training student data should be mandated as a condition of registration for all registered training organisations, including private providers. This will ensure a comprehensive data collection that gives a realistic view of training activity occurring within the sector, which is essential for informing public policy, ensuring quality assurance and providing accurate information to potential students. However, he notes that the process needs to be as painless as possible.

The Higher Education Performance Funding to be introduced in 2011 is a key development in the policy and financing framework for Australian Higher Education. The performance funding framework, along with mission-based compacts, the new equity initiatives, the relaxing of caps on Commonwealth supported places and the establishment of the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) will radically change the drivers of higher education in Australia into the future. It is important these measures are implemented within a well considered policy framework and a strong understanding of the overall impacts. The Government's consultations on performance funding and low-SES participation provide opportunities for important inputs to be made. This response outlines the broader policy implications of the performance funding initiative, the Group of Eight's (Go8) approach to the Government's objectives, explores general policy issues which need further consideration, identifies specific concerns with the proposed measures, and suggests a way forward in partnership. (Contains 8 footnotes.)

The split between higher education and vocational education and training (VET) in Australia is not clean. This paper discusses a number of aspects of this tertiary education sector: the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), which describes the qualifications offered by the three education sectors: schools, higher education and VET; student characteristics of the two sectors; a characterisation of higher education and VET; and student movement between the two sectors. Many education providers operate in both the higher education and VET sectors, and many have links with providers in the other sector. Higher education and VET differ in terms of student characteristics. The number of students transferring between the two sectors are substantial but are relatively small compared to the numbers following traditional pathways of school to TAFE [technical and further education] or higher education. Appendices include: (1) Number of domestic students in TAFE institutes in 2007; (2) Number of domestic and overseas students in higher education in 2007; (3) Actual student load for overseas and domestic students in higher education in 2007; (4) Three examples of articulation between TAFE and higher education in Australia; (5) Higher education provider data by basis of admission; and (6) Student outcomes data. (Contains 1 box, 20 tables, and 12 footnotes.)

This is the fourth paper published by The Centre for Literacy in its Working Papers in Literacy series, which present new perspectives on literacy-related issues relevant to researchers, to practitioners, and to policy-makers. This paper was written in 1998 as an advisory document to the UK Qualifications and Curriculum Agency (QCA) which manages all aspects of the National Curriculum for schools and for vocational training. In this paper, the author has touched on some of the major issues relating to information and communications technology (ICT) and literacy which have until now been treated as separate subjects. He argues for a convergence of the two and recommends that government agencies coordinate their visions instead of sending contradictory messages to teachers and students. His focus was the first three key stages of the literacy strategy, touching ages 5-14, but the concerns he raises are familiar to anyone working in adult basic skills as well and are relevant beyond the UK. A glossary of acronyms and terms used is included.

This paper analyzes various strategic management models for international programs from an Australian perspective. It presents the results of a qualitative case study of one Australian university faculty of business in the context of the relevance of chaos and complexity theories to strategic management. The case study is organized around the strategies, structures, systems, organizational learning, and leadership dimensions of this institution's management of international-entrepreneurial activities. The paper argues that the model of "structured chaos" or "bounded stability" and the core concepts associated with this model, such as "competing on the edge," may be of critical importance to a sector characterized by rising levels of national and international competition and institutional forays into these areas. Individual sections discuss: international-entrepreneurial activities in Australian universities; international education in the United States; international convergence; the strategic management of international-entrepreneurial programs; and the management of international entrepreneurial programs at "Australia U". (Contains approximately 100 references.) (DB)

This paper has been written as a supporting paper to "A Bridge to the Future: Australia's National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 1998-2003" (ED 420 764). Because vocational education and training (VET) activities constitute a major expenditure for Australia's federal, state, and territory governments, effective performance measurement in VET helps to ensure funds are used efficiently and effectively. The primary objectives of key performance measures (KPMs) for the VET system are to demonstrate public accountability and identify continuous improvement opportunities. KPMs determine the efficiency with which resources are used to produce VET outputs and the effectiveness of these outputs in achieving the goals and objectives. They focus on outputs and outcomes. Efficiency, effectiveness, outputs, and outcomes are incorporated into seven KPMs. KPM 1 measures skill outputs produced annually within the domain of formally recognized VET. The four Effectiveness Measures are as follows: KPM 2: stocks of VET skills against desired levels; KPM 3: employers' views on the relevance of skills acquired through VET; KPM 4: student employment outcomes and prospects before and after participation in VET; and KPM 5: VET participation, outputs, and outcomes achieved by client groups. The two Efficiency Measures are as follows: KPM 6: (actual) public expenditure per publicly funded output and KPM 7: (actual) public expenditure per total recognized output. All KPMs are intended to be implemented progressively over the next 3 years with full reporting occurring in 2001 for the year 2000. (YLB)

This paper has been written as a supporting paper to "A Bridge to the Future: Australia's National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 1998-2003" (ED 420 764). Technology has an impact on industry in terms of the work done, how it is done, and how individuals live and do business. Globalization means that business--and the business of education--is conducted on a world stage. Workers must be skilled in technology to get jobs and do them effectively and competitively. Reforms in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) system provide components for providers to respond effectively to demand for customized products. Training Packages and the Australian Recognition Framework provide the elements for training programs that can be tailored to meet clients' needs. "Buyers" can be sure that training programs and products developed by registered training organizations from Training Packages are consistent, of high quality, and customizable to meet specific needs. Under the National Training Framework, "purchasers" of VET products can expect the same quality approach, industry-set competency standards, links to qualifications, and rigorous assessment. The practical impact on individuals is better access to information, access to more modern equipment and technologies, and more providers to choose from. The government's Networking the Nation initiative provides funding for rural and remote communities to identify communication needs and development and implement projects that meet them. Government leadership is needed in the critical areas of infrastructure, standards and product development, professional development, and change management. (Contains 22 endnotes) (YLB)

This paper argues that present institutional settings in rural Australia are inadequate for bringing about a culture that is fair and inclusive. A vision for rural Australia based predominantly on a market economy and its attendant policies and institutions allows the "means" (the market) to determine the ends and may lead to an undesirable type of society. An institutional framework directed solely to market solutions has the potential to contradict important social, cultural, and spiritual values and may lead to overemphasis on materialism, competition, and selfish individualism. These characteristics may undermine "community" and the very fundamentals that make markets work--trust and the security of reliable, honorable transactions. A solution lies in rural policies that support infusion of new values into institutions--values of empowerment, cooperation, spiritual growth, caring, and tolerance. Concepts of "community" must be revived in the context of a lifelong learning culture supported by social capital. This context would include enabling programs and activities that involve information generation and use, facilitation of change, capacity building, leadership development, and action research. Other related issues include the relevance of money and appropriate economic relationships, positive and negative aspects of competitiveness, work as enrichment, the influence of property rights, the role of women, contributions of the arts to a new culture, and policy guaranteeing minimum income. (Contains 64 references.) (Author/SV)

Since the 1960s, the world has undergone transformations in trade, industry, and technology. Some assert that the postmodern society needs organizational structures that allow for diversity, instability, unpredictability, and mobility. However, this paper argues that the headlong rush toward such organizational forms may well encourage the abandonment of commitments to longer term, more stable, and absolutely fundamental social and cultural objectives. During the last decade Australia has been greatly influenced by conservative English think tanks that advocate market solutions to social problems and the abdication of government from social responsibilities in favor of a competitive model of society in which the unfortunate would be supported by the most meager safety nets. Education in Australia is undergoing a battle for control of content, pedagogy, and assessment. The paper focuses on the reconstitution of the schools in Victoria, as it exemplifies tendencies elsewhere. The paper describes how a combination of current developments point toward great problems in the achievement of quality education: the vocationalization of the curriculum; the shifts toward competency-based education and assessment; the nationalization of curriculum and assessment; the nomination of the educational content that excludes notions of cultural difference and social justice; the reduction of resources through benchmarking; the devolution of responsibility for budget shortfalls but the centralization of control through managerial yardsticks in standards and frameworks; and the failures to recognize the complexity of learning, teaching, and schooling. Simultaneously, the reduction of collective mechanisms makes protest and the reassertion of our collective responsibilities that much more difficult. These developments constitute a major challenge to educators concerned with the construction of a culturally diverse, socially just, quality education for all. (Contains 36 references.) (LMI)

A major weakness in the funding base for skill development in Australia arises from a declining investment in training by key stakeholders--employers. Australia is spending less on training and creating fewer high skill jobs than comparable countries and forcing individuals to take greater financial responsibility for their own development. Forces driving the trends are the changing structures of jobs and growth of so-called nonstandard forms of employment that are closely associated with declining levels of employer involvement in training. Public policy has addressed the problem in various ways. The last major initiative directed at increasing employer expenditure on skill formation was the Training Guarantee Levy in the early 1990s. It succeeded in stimulating employer expenditure, resulted in more genuine training, and encouraged managers to take training and skills development more seriously. Its major failings arose from a fixation with supply-side issues, preoccupation with training inputs, and enterprise orientation. To increase employer commitment and national productivity, Australia should institute a skills levy or similar mandatory system of employer contribution to training supplemented by individual learning accounts. Training should be coordinated by collaborative institutions comprising employers, training providers, brokers (public and private) and employee representatives. The institutions would be responsible for developing skills eco-systems on both a regional and industry basis. (Includes 49 references and a 5-page overview.) (YLB)

The relationships existing among human capital theory, Australian public policy, literacy education, and the plight of Australia's long-term unemployed were examined. The following topics were considered: human capital theory-based public policies and literacy education; social capital and learning; building and using social capital; the "social justice" and "social coalition" approaches to policy; and the notion of "mutual obligation" in social welfare policies. Next, a case study of the effects of policy changes on the long-term unemployed was discussed. The findings of the study, which involved interviews with 23 people (including 15 long-term unemployed individuals who had been or were currently enrolled in adult literacy courses) were shown to support the following conclusions: (1) to be successful, welfare policy related to unemployed persons must address both human and social capital elements; (2) although the skills associated with human capital are important in accessing and controlling the kinds of social factors that come with globalization, they are not enough to prepare individuals to cope with the knowledge explosion accompanying globalization; and (3) adults requiring the "second chance" learning provided in adult literacy and communication education need help in developing the networks, social norms, and trust that is included in the concept of building social capital. (Contains 29 references.) (MN)

The possibility of using the concept of social capital as an analytical tool for exploring lifelong learning and community development was examined. The following were among the topics considered: (1) differences between definitions of the concept of social capital that are based on collective benefit and those that define social capital as a resource used for the benefit of those individuals with access to it; (2) community development and community division; (3) the role of the concept of social capital in theories of community development; (4) the role of the concept of social capital in research into community development education; and (5) social capital and social cohesion. A social capital framework for analyzing community development was proposed. The framework called for considering the following items when analyzing community development, including adult education: (1) the balance between internal and external networks; (2) the presence and diversity of brokers who are able to operationalize the bridging and linking of networks; (3) the levels of self-confidence and self-esteem of community members and skills in working together, including conflict resolution; (4) norms present in the community (especially norms of inclusion/exclusion and reciprocity); and (5) the extent to which the community of analysis has shared visions for its future. (Contains 60 references.) (MN)

These five working papers present the recommendations of the Australian Early Childhood Association (AECA) regarding accreditation for early childhood education programs in Australia. The papers, written in response to the Interim National Accreditation Council's (INAC) proposed accreditation model, are entitled: "A Suggested Framework for Thinking about an Australian Accreditation System and Responding to the INAC Consultation Kit"; "An Accreditation System for Early Childhood Programs Starting with Centre-Based Long Day Care"; "Submission to the Interim National Accreditation Council"; "Comments on the INAC Draft Accreditation Process"; and "A Suggested Alternative Model for an Australian Accreditation Tool." The papers propose that: (1) accreditation aim to improve quality in all Australian child care centers and provide parents with assurance of quality; (2) the accreditation system needs to balance simplicity, fairness, protection of the service and the reviewer, and openness to variety in the interpretation of good practice; (3) the structure of the accreditation system needs to represent adequately the interests of the child care industry as a whole, starting with long-day care, but be able to be expanded to include family day care; (4) this structure should consist of a council, accreditation panels, and trained reviewers; (5) accreditation assessments should be made by those with demonstrated expertise; and (6) the accreditation process should also involve self-assessment. The AECA model differs from the INAC format mainly by suggesting three types of criteria for accreditation ("required,""self-selected," and "voluntary only"). (AC)

Broad assumptions about the impact of the Internet have created a "cult of hype" where the latest technological advancement is seen as the next best thing, and educators have been swept up in the promise of an educational utopia. The hype tells us that the world is joined by the infrastructure of this new technology and that globalization is now a reality. But the lack of an effective global telecommunications systems is creating a "digital divide," widening the economic gaps among nations. Areas that would benefit most from online education, such as remote areas in Australia and countries with limited economic resources for education, are the very areas that are hardest to reach with new technologies. This may create an even more elitist education system. Because businesses operate virtual classrooms to promote sales instead of learning, online education emphasizes the student as consumer. This approach is reflected in government policies, which have increasingly been influenced by economic rationalism. Online education is more than simply transferring learning methodologies from the classroom onto the Internet. It requires shifting from language-based learning to visual-based learning and understanding how education, technology, and culture impact each other. Little is known about the effectiveness of online education. An understanding of these changes will determine whether online education will become an effective and lasting educational medium or merely another educational gimmick that runs out of steam. (Contains 26 references.) (TD)

Conventional notions of leadership have focused on the leader alone rather than on the situation that leaders must enable. The common threads to successful rural community development in Australia over the last few decades lie in the way the community develops its stores of social capital, which is based on trust, shared values, networks, and collective action. Models of leadership should refocus on situations that demand a leadership of enablement, rather than on any single person presumed to somehow "conduct" the leadership process from beginning to end. This refocusing provides an opportunity to include and value a wider group of people rather than just one "leader." Qualities of interactive processes that foster this leadership of enablement include building internal networks; building links between internal and external networks; building a history of shared experiences and understandings; building shared visions; building shared communication; and building each other's self-confidence. The main role of leaders under these circumstances is developing trust. Tools for community builders include relationship building, collaborative problem solving, and situational analysis. The results of situational analysis can be used to specify the leadership structure for the situation, and local solutions can be woven from the diverse and complementary threads of the overall community fabric. Power is distributed along with the leadership, not vested in one authority figure. An example describes how a community's situation defined its leadership needs during the development of a vocational skills center. (TD)

There are clear signs that community learning is the way to a more sustainable future for Australian communities, especially rural ones. There are also indications that policymakers now recognize that the people who live in communities should play an important role in determining the future of their own communities. Policy must use the best knowledge from research and provide sufficient resources to build community capacity to learn, adapt, and change. That means a policy approach that builds social capital in communities. A learning community is building social capital as it learns, and a community with high levels of social capital will be a learning community. Strategies for building social capital/learning communities include creating opportunities for interaction; developing leadership skills; building ties within and across communities and between public and private institutions; and establishing brokers to build and maintain these ties. Policy that uses and builds social capital in communities and is most likely to produce sustainable outcomes has these features: a degree of program continuity; diversity at the local level; integrity of programs across levels of government and departments; knowledge resources that communities can draw upon; two-way networks between policymakers and communities; and recognition that social capital alone is not enough--policies must also be resourced with human, physical, and financial capital. (Contains 32 references.) (TD)

This booklet discusses some consequences of internationalization for national training systems from the standpoint of the following two broad approaches often taken by international organizations: (1) the human capital ideology, which assumes human capital is an appropriate basis for education policy; and (2) the human rights and human development ideology, which asserts that education is best conceived in humanistic terms rather than in terms of the instrumentalism espoused by human capital ideology. The booklet is divided into four parts. Part 1 considers the three main ways international organization impact on national education systems and explains why it is important for applied linguists, literacy experts, and human capital economists to engage in "professional conversation." Part 2 focuses on the following three topics: the concepts of internationalization and globalization; nations and the global economy as entities on a collision course; and the concept of the multicultural nation. Part 3 traces how the left and right wings of politics have traditionally regarded states' response to globalization and how most political entities have come to adopt a common ideology of market liberalization. Part 4 explores how human capital has become the theoretical framework that dominates thinking about education in many societies. (Contains 16 references.) (MN)

Rural areas around the world face problems stemming from the globalization of agricultural and other markets, the resulting competitiveness for existing and shifting markets, loss of population, and consequent decline of economic and social infrastructure. Rural communities need to develop the ability to manage change, and this requires engaging in learning processes of both a formal and informal nature. There is a growing recognition that social capital is as important as economic capital in community development. A new model of leadership is needed that fosters social capital by drawing on knowledge and identity resources. Enhanced social relations produce social well-being and cohesion, as shown in a case study of a rural Australian town that revitalized itself through the whole-community activity of producing a huge silk tapestry. Based on 10 lessons gleaned from community development efforts in various U.S. cities, a model of "situated leadership" is postulated. Situated leadership does not flow from a predetermined "right" way to do things, but is determined by the nature of the changing situation at a particular location. The situated leader builds relationships across community sectors to establish common interests; develops relationships from qualities of historicity, externality, reciprocity, trust, and shared values; identifies relevant knowledge and identity resources; connects people with resources to plan futures; ensures the facilitation of networking across groups; and celebrates and documents successes. (Contains 16 references.) (TD)

Schools represent a major social investment in Australia. Assessment of Australian schools' performance depends on how one defines what they should be doing and on how well they can be expected to do it. In the official account, schools are of "high quality and modest cost" when compared with their own past and other school systems. An alternative view, however, assigns Australian schools with an equivocal rating. This paper considers current conditions and trends in schools from each of these different points of view. This second alternative view suggests that the goals of the "official" reform agenda are unlikely to be met, and that a different and more ambitious approach is required. The new approach might include: (1) national targets for improved levels and distribution of attainment; (2) work place and work force reform; (3) changes in the governing structures of schooling (a shift to a devolved, regulated market); and (4) substantial increases in public and private funding to schooling and redistribution of resources according to need. Neither of the two views is clearly right or wrong. The first view is vulnerable to the charge that it is not able to produce the kind of schooling required now and in the future. The second can be criticized as being too ambitious in current and likely future economic and political circumstances. Six figures are included. (Contains 47 references.) (LMI)

This paper offers a critique of the corporate-management culture manifested in Australian education systems and institutions. It is argued that in Australia, the drive toward a market culture is a form of administrative achievement that turns culture into commodities. One of the major features of the current educational reform context is a substantial increase in demands, accompanied by a severe decline in the proportion of national wealth directed toward educational activities. The market model is viewed as a strategy to protect middle-class privilege. A key effect of market policies is the redistribution of public resources away from those most in need. The devolution of education is accompanied by new forms of control: a performance-based national curriculum; a national testing system that allows inaccurate comparisons; budgets that are linked to performance; and a curriculum that ignores social, cultural, and ethic understandings. An examination of the perceived anti-educational impact of a "corporatist" culture concludes with a call to educators to show their commitment to a caring, just, morally responsible, compassionate and ecologically aware society. (LMI)

During the last 5-10 years, a number of countries have introduced methods and systems for identifying, validating, and recognizing prior and nonformal learning that can be viewed as tools for improving the transparency and transfer of skills. In most cases, they have been operational for a comparatively short time, which makes it difficult to decide whether expectations regarding them are justified. Some of the most important initiatives and innovations connected with the identification and validation of prior and nonformal learning include examples from Australia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, and United Kingdom. The French, Australian, Irish, and British methodologies are based on related principles, introducing different versions of portfolios, dossiers, or passports. Finland, Germany, and Japan have been reluctant to introduce the portfolio method. In spite of similarities in design, countries tend to apply the methodologies in different ways. This difference may be seen as a difference between centralized and decentralized systems. Initiatives and ideas on a European level are the Individual Portfolio Project and the Personal Skills Card and the European Skills Accreditations system. Some basic questions related to the legitimacy of the new methods and systems deal with the institutional basis, flexibility versus fragmentation, transparency and visibility, and transfer. (German, English, and French versions appear in side-by-side columns. Appendixes contain 27 references and 18 notes.) (YLB)

Clerks, salespersons, plant and machine operators and laborers, and related workers, defined as operative workers, currently form more than half the work force. They share the following characteristics: comparatively low earnings, limited qualifications, often employed in industries subject to economic restructuring and sensitive to economic cycles, and are subject to higher rates of labor mobility. Although already low skilled, they receive less training both through the publicly funded system and from their employers. Recent Australian and overseas research has found that improving the skills of operative level workers can benefit employers through enhanced efficiency and productivity and a more flexible work force. A retraining strategy that is integrated into the existing delivery of vocational education and training (VET) and meets the specific needs of the existing operative level work force is critical. This would require the following actions: identifying the type and level of training operative workers may require; emphasizing their needs during the profile process so maximum training opportunities can be provided through the public VET system; encouraging public providers and employers to provide more training; and flexible delivery. (Appendixes include state training profiles and the role of Australian state training agencies.) (YLB)

How institutional research can improve the quality of institutional performance of colleges and universities in the face of funding constraints is discussed. An example of the use of instructional research to assist in documenting institutional quality in Australia is noted. Institutional research uses data collection, analysis, and interpretation to support planning, management, and decisionmaking. Strategies to improve the quality of outcomes and/or processes during times of limited resources are grouped under the following headings: environmental scanning and reassessing the appropriateness of mission and goals, concentrating resources on selected core activities and processes, phasing out activities seen as weak or peripheral to the institution's mission, improving management and decisionmaking processes, streamlining administrative procedures, enhancing communication and coordination, simplifying organizational structures, developing cooperative and collaborative arrangements for joint programs and shared resource use, and implementing more effective monitoring and review processes. As illustration, it is noted that institutional research is assisting Australian universities to document their achievement of quality for the Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher Education through a 3-year (1993-95) quality review cycle. (SW)

A study was conducted in Australia, to determine the factors that affect demand for job training. The study consisted of 30 detailed industry case studies, an industry analysis, and a literature review. Each case study examined current training practices, training decision making in the business, and the determinants of training for the enterprise. Industries studied included manufacturing (food processing and electronics) and construction. For each case study, information was provided on the following: the firm, the organization and management of training, the determinants of training, and the impediments to training. The findings were then synthesized across industries. Some of the findings were as follows: (1) training is primarily an operational, not a strategic issue in companies; (2) there were as many outcomes for training as there were companies studied; (3) the quality assurance movement has had a major impact; (4) the mix of company needs and individual needs for training is confusing; and (5) there is a lack of understanding of the national training reforms. (Contains 20 references) (KC)

An analysis of Australia's vocational education market reveals that the Technical and Further Education (TAFE) system is still the dominant provider of postcompulsory off-the-job vocational education and training in Australia. In the education and training (E&T) services market, TAFE is in competition with other public and private schools, universities, adult community education, industry skill centers, and commercial and enterprise training providers. The Australian market for E&T services is not, however, an open competitive market with full and fair competition among the providers of postcompulsory E&T. The desirability of formulating and implementing policies making vocational education more market responsive were considered in light of the following factors/issues: inherent conflicts between policies encouraging competition and those encouraging cooperation; limits of markets as instruments of social choice; the need to balance educational and labor markets; access and equity; quality; the benefits/drawbacks of fee-for-service, joint venture, tendering, and voucher arrangements and incorporating TAFE; and distortions. It was concluded that the general concept of developing a more competitive market is a good one provided it is understood in terms of a regulated rather than laissez-faire market. (Contains 83 references.) (MN)

This paper describes the findings of an OECD project examining ICT impact measurement and analyses based on official statistics. Both economic and social impacts are covered and some results are presented. It attempts to place ICT impacts measurement into an Information Society conceptual framework, provides some suggestions for standardising terminology and methodologies, and advocates for further work in a number of hardware and software areas. (A bibliography is included. Contains 19 footnotes, 4 figures and 3 tables.)

This paper is one of five supporting papers to "A Bridge to the Future: Australia's National Strategy for VET 1998-2003" (ED 420 764). Although some equity client groups in Australia are now relatively well represented in vocational education and training (VET), patterns of enrollment and achievement are not uniform. To respond to this situation and take into account the forces for change and dominant policy shifts that will affect the VET sector over the next 5 years, a new approach is required that must be based upon three critical elements: overcoming or removal of structural inequities; implementation of targeted responses to equity based on workable solutions; and introduction of resource allocation strategies and incentives that encourage responsiveness to client needs. This framework for equity is equally consistent with approaches based on a philosophy of "social justice" as with approaches from the perspective of "managing diversity." It will also supplement focus on selected broad client groups with closer attention to the capacity of the system to respond to particular needs and circumstances. This will be reflected in an approach to the measurement and evaluation of performance in relation to equity that includes measures of outputs and outcomes and participation and is focused not only on the position of particular client groups, but also on the capacity of the system to respond to a diversity of clients. (The document contains 11 endnotes, 29 references, and 2 appendices: analysis of client groups and summary data.) (YLB)

An analysis of deficiencies of recent curriculum reform efforts in Australia and recommendations for improvement are presented in this paper. Despite criticisms that have been levelled at the educational system, a conclusion is that educators are well prepared to meet the demands for restructuring. What is needed is not merely restructuring, but a new, holistic, "colligative," spirit based on faith, love, and hope to counteract the present pessimistic, fragmented, and reductionistic approach. Borrowing concepts from Buddhism, Taoism, and global ecology, the new perspective is contrasted with the inherently individualistic, destructive, competitive, and antagonistic Western approach. Nine ways in which teachers can build a balanced worldview for personal and global survival are discussed from within a teaching perspective that instills the values of harmony, community, and gaiety. (16 references) (LMI)

An analysis of Australia's two conflicting trends in school governance and their effectiveness in meeting two major educational challenges is the purpose of this paper. Nationalization, which refers to greater centralization and increased national regulation; and privatization, which refers to decentralization, deregulation, and increased local autonomy, are the two dominant perspectives on school governance. The country's two major educational challenges include the extension of a full, formal secondary education, and the maintenance of teaching quality. A conclusion is that school governance cannot be reduced to simple issues and should include participation in decision making at all levels. A recommendation is made for the development of a comprehensive, unified educational system, with a focus on increased support from higher education for teaching, to meet the nation's two educational challenges. (9 references) (LMI)

This paper focuses on the implications of the Level 1 Technology curriculum for children in Australia. In theory, the outcomes in the curriculum profile could provide useful learning experiences. However, undue emphasis is placed on the designing, making, and appraising components, which have the potential to push young children beyond their state of readiness to learn into a state of perceived inadequacy. The activity of making a sun hat is used as an example that incorporates inappropriate materials for the task and lacks differentiation between the children's stages of development. Teachers should first establish children's developmental level in order to design appropriate learning activities and place learning within the zone of proximal development. There are several phases in the creative process: (1) exploration of the medium, involving introductions to the materials to be used; (2) developing and refining concepts and techniques through making a completed object; (3) developing autonomy in which children identify their own challenges and work through the process using the skills and knowledge about the medium and equipment they gained earlier. As one of the eight key learning areas of the National Curriculum, Technology has the potential to help children develop if it is used correctly. (Contains 5 references.) (KDFB)

This position paper outlines what teachers in English language and literacy positions need to know and be able to do; what professional associations, providers of teacher development, and employers should do; and what action steps the Australian Literacy Federation will take. (SK)

Lifelong learning should be seen as both an educational and a social practice in which learning occurs throughout individuals' lives and throughout society in a wide range of contexts (including the workplace), involves both formal and informal learning, and is facilitated by an extensive range of partnerships and networks. Vocational education and training (VET) must acquire a new humanism with a focus on people as a way of investing in human intellect, imagination, and creativity. Five key dimensions for achieving lifelong learning that can serve as a coherent and integrated template for thinking about how lifelong learning might be achieved are as follows: (1) establish the foundations for lifelong learning; (2) strengthen and develop pathways, bridges, and transitions; (3) foster learning organizations and institutions; (4) extend the role of information and learning technologies; and (5) develop lifelong learning communities. In Australia and elsewhere, a convergence of VET and general education would potentially address the needs of a knowledge-based economy, lead to a more integrated system with stronger linkages to other sectors, and build on current VET reforms. (Contains 17 references. Appended are a diagram illustrating lifelong learning capability, and profiles of the learning organization and the learning city.) (MN)

Adults must understand the development of the child's concept of death to comprehend children's questions about death and answer them appropriately. Children under 5 years of age view death as reversible and not final and may believe that the dead can breathe, feel, talk and continue to grow. While young children may believe in the reversibility of death, separation by death is a painful experience for them. At the age of 5, children become very curious about death and may believe that they and other children do not die. By 7 or 8 years of age, children begin to develop a realistic concept of death and to come to terms with their own mortality. At the concrete level of thinking, death may be personified. Children who have lost a parent through death may exhibit symptoms of bereavement which may be more intense if the child has been lied to and/or has not been permitted to mourn sufficiently. However, even under the best of conditions, bereaved children may commit anti-social acts, be depressed or become extremely good. Bereaved children should be helped to regain feelings of security through love and acceptance and may need the assistance of a substitute comforter. (Author/RH)

An overview of some major current issues in maternal and paternal deprivation is presented. Parts I and II focus on (1) single parents and issues in paternal deprivation and (2) sex stereotyping and issues in maternal deprivation, respectively. More particularly, Part I discusses the effects of divorce and death on children and the problem of providing for nurturance by fathers in modern society. Cross-cultural variability in fathering patterns is accented and paternal influence on child development in terms of sex role stereotyping and intellectual development is discussed. Feminization of behavior and cognitive skills in sons, and effects of father absence on daughters are considered. Part II deals with the issues of sex stereotyping as personality deprivation. The relationship of paternal and maternal deprivation to school phobia, and the issues of schizophrenia, rejection of children and child abuse are explored. Part II explores the issue of maternal employment in terms of sex stereotyping, mother's morale, delinquency, and academic performance. In conclusion, emotional, social and intellectual effects of day care are noted. (Author/RH)

Three perspectives from which to study the implementation of educational innovation are explored in this document. Using the comparative policy perspective, the author compares and analyzes federal programs supporting educational change in the United States and Australia. Noting that Australia is more homogeneous, centrally organized, and oriented toward society seen collectively than is the United States, the author discusses how the increasing role of the federal government, the various forms of federal involvement, the relationships between different levels of government, the governmental policies on parochial and private education, and the "doctrine of transferability" affect educational change in both nations. From an organizational perspective, the author focuses on the implementation of innovations in schools as organizations, citing the results of a survey of the innovative projects funded by the Australian Schools Commission in Western Australia that had been underway for at least 2 years by 1976. This research explored four categories of characteristics possibly affecting the implementation of innovations: those of the innovation itself, the implementation strategies employed, the organizational settings, and the personnel involved. Finally, the author discusses how personal involvement in a series of case studies helped develop an interactionist perspective on the less objective characteristics of educational change. (PGD)

Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act is similar to the Disadvantaged Schools Program of Australia in some ways and distinctively different in others. This comparison of the two programs by an Australian educator points out the similarities and differences in program purpose, regulation, funding targets, and local control. Both programs provide federal funds to schools operated and funded primarily at the state level, and both are aimed at improving schooling in poorer communities. The extent of financial inequality among American districts, however, prevents the American program from bringing low income districts up to the national average, whereas the Australian program allows schools with above average needs to receive funding above the generally equal level already provided. The American program has more stringent regulations, is targeted at individual low-achieving students in low income districts, and establishes specific standards for achievement, particularly in basic skills areas. The Australian program is targeted at schools and permits local authorities to determine the most effective use of resources. The author suggests that the programs serve different social functions and that American conditions have so changed that a program like Australia's might now prove more appropriate. (PGD)

Prior to considering the ability of infants to think, this discussion attempts to dispel prevalent myths about babies' thought processes. The fact that infants do not intentionally manipulate their parents; are not identical; are not simply hedonistic seekers of bodily pleasures; and are not passive, disorganized beings needing training into regularity is pointed out. In fact, infants are well-organized, individual in their responses, curious, active, and capable of learning. After establishing these premises, the question of the precise nature of infants' thinking abilities is explored in discussions of perception, physical activities with objects, the development of intention, the development of causality, construction of the permanent object, person permanence, motor memory and symbols, cognitive representation, development of self-awareness, and self-recognition. It is pointed out that (1) a baby's developing perceptual competence is remarkable; (2) processes of intentionality and causality have to be learned and are at first comprehended through infants' own bodies and their handling of objects; (3) symbolic representation at first appears to be of a motor nature; and (4) infants learn about themselves as reciprocating persons in interaction with caretakers. Throughout the discussion, emphasis is given to the need for parents to accept and facilitate children's development without feeling threatened. (RH)

Discussed are adults' egocentric attitudes about children, particularly toddlers, and ways in which such attitudes can creat unnecessary stress in the caregiver and toddler. Emphasis is given to: (1) hostile myths about toddlers that obscure reality and muddy relationships; (2) misunderstandings about ways in which toddlers think; (3) young children's need to develop embryonic feelings of competence or self-esteem; and (4) toddler behaviors that adults view as undesirable. The section on hostile myths about toddlers discusses power, discipline, and ways of coping with anxiety. The section on toddlers' thinking explores physical activity as the basis of mental development, perspective taking, concepts, pretending, fantasizing, and language. The section on toddlers' development of self-awareness deals with toddlers' limited objectivity, growing self-image, sensuality, gender development, will and competence, use of possessions to promote the sense of individuality, negativism, aggression, and need for clear-cut guidelines. The concluding section explores aspects of toddlers' play, social relations, sibling rivalry, toilet training, and parents' mental health. (RH)

Nine papers present either discussion of the issues or practical answers to the issues of nonstandard dialects, pidgins, and creoles in the classroom. They include: "The Case Against a Transfer Bilingual Program of Torres Strait Creole to English in Torres Strait Schools" (Anna Shnukal); "Summary: A Survey of Teachers' Attitudes Towards the Use of Tok Pisin in Community Schools in Papua New Guinea" (Joseph Alfred Nidue); "English in the Education of Speakers of Aboriginal English" (Ian G. Malcolm); "Kriol and Education in the Kimberley" (Margaret Mickan); "Teaching Initial Literacy in a Pidgin Language: A Preliminary Evaluation" (Jeff Siegel); "Reading Creole English Does Not Destroy Your Brain Cells!" (Ronald Kephart); "Teaching English to Kriol Speakers: The Kartiya Game" (Gary Ovington); "Educating Speakers of Caribbean English Creole in the United States" (Katherine Fischer); and "Summary: Fostering English Language in Kimberley Schools: An In-Service Course for Teachers" (Joyce Hudson). (Contains chapter references.) (NAV)

Vocational education for 15- to 19-year-olds in England and Australia was compared. Recent literature was reviewed, and 20 individuals concerned with the planning and delivery of vocational education in England were interviewed to identify local and national practices and policies that are worthy of consideration for adoption in Australia. The following were among the topics and specific programs/policies considered: key competencies, politics, funding, Technical and Vocational Education Initiative, National Vocational Qualifications, National Curriculum, General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), apprenticeships, Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs), and 1994 National Development Agenda. It was concluded that, although the English system is based on sound concepts whose adoption in Australia merits consideration, many of England's vocational education practices are questionable. The following concepts underlying the English system were praised and recommended for incorporation into Australia's system: GNVQs as a bridge between training and education, TECs as an approach to local control and delivery of training, a national assessment framework, and three-stage funding model. (The bibliography contains 18 references and lists 44 documents examined. Appended is a list of individuals interviewed.) (MN)