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Markets or market-like mechanisms are playing an increasing role in higher education, with visible consequences both for the regulation of higher education systems as a whole, as well as for the governance mechanisms of individual institutions. This article traces the history of economists' views on the role of education, from Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Alfred Marshall, and Milton Friedman, to present-day debates about the relevance of market economies to higher education policy. Recent developments in higher education policy reflect both the rising strength of market mechanisms in higher education worldwide, and a certain ambivalence about these developments. The author argues that despite the peculiarities of the higher education sector, economic theory can be a very useful tool for the analysis of the current state of higher education systems and recent trends in higher education policy.

This paper analyzes various strategic management models for international programs from an Australian perspective. It presents the results of a qualitative case study of one Australian university faculty of business in the context of the relevance of chaos and complexity theories to strategic management. The case study is organized around the strategies, structures, systems, organizational learning, and leadership dimensions of this institution's management of international-entrepreneurial activities. The paper argues that the model of "structured chaos" or "bounded stability" and the core concepts associated with this model, such as "competing on the edge," may be of critical importance to a sector characterized by rising levels of national and international competition and institutional forays into these areas. Individual sections discuss: international-entrepreneurial activities in Australian universities; international education in the United States; international convergence; the strategic management of international-entrepreneurial programs; and the management of international entrepreneurial programs at "Australia U". (Contains approximately 100 references.) (DB)

This paper notes that vocational education has been associated with economic growth since the turn of the century, when such growth was used as a justification for the funding of early vocational training. Today, vocational education's contributions to economic growth include efforts such as employer demand research, dislocated worker programs, strategies for school/business linkages, and entrepreneurship education. Following a short history and rationale for the connection between vocational education and economic growth, this paper (1) describes a variety of connections between vocational education and economic growth and their underlying theoretical foundations, (2) notes the historical context in which the connections were shaped, (3) lists policy initiatives that were stimulated by the various connections, and (4) suggests future vocational education policy issues to be resolved in order to maximize the effects of vocational education on economic growth. Throughout the paper, the ways in which vocational education supports growth are divided into four types that reflect different periods in the nation's economic history: traditional, locational, emerging, and potential. The discussion is restricted to vocational education provided by the public sector, on which public policy can have a direct effect. Questions and answers on school-business cooperation, entrepreneurship education, and skill training in relation to economic growth follow the presentation. (KC)

The United States requires a coordinated, national approach to human resource development that will result in the establishment of priorities, detailed planning, and the full use of public and private resources backed by adequate state and federal funding. Problems of unemployment, underemployment, skilled worker shortages, national defense needs for well trained armed forces, the fragmentation of government training programs, and conflicting program requirements all underscore the compelling need for a national policy framework for employment development and training. While America's community colleges can and do provide educational upgrading programs, prepare skilled workers, assist local industries, and provide expertise in state and local planning, these institutions must be better utilized in solving the problems of employment development and training. This can be accomplished through occupationally specific training, focus on skill shortage areas, programs promoting entrepreneurship, collaboration with local businesses and labor unions, and productivity studies and local work force planning efforts. However, national leadership and a policy framework are required if these programs are to be implemented. Existing legislation must be reviewed and new legislation initiated to promote school industry cooperation, increase state-level determination of resource allocations, promote preparation for jobs with regional priority, and unify federal job training programs. (KL)

The role of small business and entrepreneurship in today's economy is well documented. Entrepreneurship and small business ownership are an especially attractive option for women. Women have been seeking an escape from traditional, low-paying, dead-end jobs by choosing entrepreneurship at a rate five times faster than that of men. Women now own almost 26 percent of small businesses in America, and the number of female-owned firms in the United States rose 75 percent between 1977 and 1983. Over 91 percent of female small proprietorships fall into the categories of service, retail, finance, real estate, or insurance compared with 73 percent of all sole proprietorships. Education has a key role to play in educating women in the skills and the options of business ownership from the time they are young girls. Programs are especially needed in the following areas: management education (the operation of the free enterprise system, basic business skills, math and risk taking, and money management); marketing, particularly selling and negotiating skills; and business capitalization and financial management. Although federal, state, and local policymakers have already begun to recognize the potential of entrepreneurship as an economic development resource for women, the message has been slow in reaching educators. It is especially important for educators to develop better career orientiation material that reflects the rapid labor market changes taking place, to introduce more female role models with high-growth businesses as speakers, and to develop case studies and materials featuring female business owners. (MN)

The engineering profession and, consequently, the education process for engineers must respond to several new realities in order to be successful in the 21st century. Some aspects of the new reality that are relevant to engineering education are as follows: the globalization of commerce; the information revolution; innovations in technology; the new emphasis on sustainable development; recognition of the need for lifelong learning and gender equality; the role of engineers in nations' future prosperity and the political process; the rise of multinational corporations and new start-up companies; the trend toward transformation of the study of engineering into the "new liberal arts" coupled with emphasis on basic engineering/specialization; industry-university partnerships; the need for engineers to receive training in innovation/entrepreneurship and communication; and the need to attract more women into the field of engineering. In recognition of the new reality, the University of Calgary in Alberta has adopted the position that a four-year university program in engineering is reasonable for producing graduates that either enter the work force as "engineers-in-training" or enter further studies in engineering or in business, law, or medicine. However, the university strongly recommends an additional 16-month internship in industry for students wishing to advance into leadership roles. (MN)

Each year, the Policies Commission for Business and Economic Education develops statements regarding business education. The following are among the commission's guidelines regarding planning the business education curriculum for the new century: (1) making business education an integral and equal partner within schools' educational communities requires that business educators proactively respond to industry needs and connect with changing student learning styles; (2) preparing students for emerging careers in e-commerce and other job clusters requires helping them develop both business knowledge/skills and people skills; (3) business educators must teach soft skills by modeling behavior, establishing the classroom culture, and interacting daily with students in a project-based environment; (4) at all educational levels, business educators must transform classrooms into virtual enterprises and help learners apply their learning "just-in-time" for the business's daily operation. (The following attachments constitute approximately 80% of this document: sample scope and sequence for business education courses; a sample philosophy and general goals for graduates; rationales and descriptions of 22 business education courses; information about the Missouri business education competencies; and an overview of integration and articulation that lists five integration models along with the benefits and challenges of integration and guidelines for articulating business education.) (MN)

The vocational education system was started in the United States by a collaborative effort of employers, educators, and unions. If vocational education is to meet the critical skill needs of industry, Federal policies providing for broader governance and an incremental approach to the planning and delivery of vocational education programs are necessary. Rather than relying on government corrective action to adjust curricula after skill needs have already changed, vocational education planners need to build adjustments to changing technology and labor markets into the system. Federal vocational education policy must encourage States and local school districts to deal with all elements of the school-to-work transition, including job placement, job search education, and employment assistance services. When planning for the delivery of occupational education to adult learners, Federal policymakers need to focus on efforts to assist adults in making occupational adjustments and to aid employers in upgrading their labor force. It is imperative that Federal policymakers take steps to meet national skill shortages, promote entrepreneurship, and integrate the multitude of Federal human resource development efforts currently underway. (MN)

This conceptual paper uses the author's observations and experiences, along with the relevant literature in the field to argue critically for the introduction of entrepreneurial studies in senior secondary schools (S S S) in Ghana. The argument is cast within the framework of career socialization theory, which proposes that the decision to adopt a career is influenced significantly by many factors including exposure to educational and training experiences. The paper suggests the goals, principles, and curriculum content of such entrepreneurial studies and concludes with a recommendation of an effective pedagogy for teaching entrepreneurial studies at the secondary school level.

A rapidly changing environment, marked by decreased government financial support and increased competition within the university sector, means that institutions of higher education in Hong Kong must become more entrepreneurial and customer-focused. This paper proposes a model for managing contemporary universities that examines the relationships between users and suppliers of higher education and emphasizes the need for a new university dynamic that supports substantive change. Following an introduction and a summary of the evolution of higher education in Hong Kong, the paper proposes a taxonomy for managing contemporary universities by integrating undergraduate, graduate, and professional school communities to formulate an institutional mission and direction. The taxonomy presented consists of four quadrants identifying suppliers and users from the educational and business sectors. Next, institutional entrepreneurship for university management is discussed, advocating the adoption of a corporate venturing, or intrapreneurship, model that emphasizes the role of academic staff in capitalizing on market trends, research opportunities, and their own expertise to develop new courses and programs and the fundamental role of senior management to effectively reorient the institution to participate in the lifelong learning paradigm. Finally, policy implications are presented. Contains 20 references. (TGI)

To an unprecedented degree, this is the era of educational entrepreneurship. Dynamic new thinkers have waded into the world of K-12 education, founded influential organizations, and shattered familiar conventions. They have developed new models for delivering instruction and recruiting teachers and at the same time have applied old-fashioned practices with newly inspired fidelity. While their efforts constitute a still-minuscule portion of schooling, they are responsible for many of the most exciting developments in twenty-first century education. Is this a good thing? What does it mean, and what does it imply for school reform and policy? This paper discusses why entrepreneurship is important, how to make it work, differentiating reinvention of education from school choice, characteristics of the entrepreneurial presumption, and creating such an environment, including obstacles to be anticipated. (Contains 18 endnotes.)

Despite the setbacks of many virtual education programs at the collegiate level, the public's widespread, growing acceptance of electronic learning (e-learning) argues for continued expansion of virtual education. When designing virtual programs, colleges and universities typically follow an administrative model that is hierarchical, bureaucratic, labor intensive, and thus ill-suited to the fast-paced, ever-changing world of virtual education. Most successful players in the world of e-learning have displayed the following features of entrepreneurial organizations: real-time opportunistic responses; reliance on self-generated revenue; localized decision making, the relative absence of hierarchy, small size, and a strong and a culture supportive of risk-taking behavior. Higher educational institutions wanting to be successful in the world of virtual education must adopt the following strategies: (1) apply previously developed expertise in addressing the needs of part-time students; (2) begin with small experiments and rigorously examine the outcomes; (3) study the larger environment of success and failure; (4) follow the ball and try to anticipate where it will bounce; (5) encourage the best people to become involved in developing e-learning programs; (6) promote a supportive environment for experimentation, including following up with additional resources for further growth; and (7) accept that successful strategies must continue to evolve to ensure generating "value" for the organization and the consumer. (MN)

This paper examines the extent to which rural America is digital--has access to the Internet and to newer technologies such as wireless broadband--and discusses rural supply and demand for "going digital." Supply aspects include issues of both infrastructure and public policy. Demand aspects include entrepreneurs (business users) and others with the education and skills to take advantage of digital technologies. Much of the benefit of digital technology involves intangibles, not only products and services of an intangible nature, but also social well-being enhanced by new modes of information and communication. Telecommunications technology is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for rural economic growth. A more fruitful approach to rural development is to build and enhance the capabilities of local firms and to attract a share of experienced entrepreneurs, many of whom are looking for the quality of life offered by rural areas. Attracting migrants should be complemented with education and training of people in existing businesses. Building networks to encourage interaction among entrepreneurs, and between entrepreneurs and other local leaders in education and government will increase information-sharing that might not take place otherwise and will enhance business success. Telecommunications is but one piece in the more complex puzzle of rural development. Because the issue is wrapped up in human capital, it is far more than a simple infrastructure supply issue. (Contains 78 references.) (TD)

This paper provides a framework for discussion of the potential for support of small and medium enterprise (SME) development by training and education, particularly in European Union partner countries. Section I is an introduction. Section II reviews the present position of small and medium enterprises in the partner countries and the role they are playing in the transition to the market economy. It also notes the problems experiences by SMEs in this transition process and the problems of those seeking to foster SME development. Section III sets out the key areas where training and education activities may influence SME development. This provides a basic framework for "areas of action" against which problems, opportunities, and present activities can be evaluated. Section IV reviews the present needs and demands for SME development in the training and education field. This demonstrates the present base upon which further action can be built. Section V reviews the adequacy of present supply offer of training and education. Section VI sets out some key areas for "potential action." Section VII makes three recommendations to the European Training Foundation: develop modular programs of self-employment, create programs to develop core entrepreneurial personal skills, and develop and set standards for trainers and educators. (YLB)

Four papers by John Gnaedinger focus on the Careers for Youth (CFY) program. "CFY: The Model Program" describes the three phases of development incorporated in CFY: career awareness in grades 6 and 7; career exploration that begins at the end of grade 7; and career preparation that continues through the high school years. The sweat-equity program allows students to apply learned skills by rehabilitating buildings or constructing new ones in the community. "CFY Program Principles" discusses six principles: CFY seeks to serve all students; CFY promotes the integration of academic and vocational education; the clusters around which CFY organizes career education are divisions of the economy; CFY emphasizes volunteerism and partnerships; goals and productivity are part of career education; and career education emphasizes community participation. "The CFY Program: A Different View" offers these perspectives: CFY is for all students; each of CFY's 16 career clusters is representative of an area of human need; volunteers are a crucial element; CFY is a broad-based concept of all education and economic activity; and CFY integrates academic and vocational education. "Categories of Economic Activities Serving Human Needs in the CFY Career Clusters" focuses on unpaid activities that serve human needs: those served by the family, those served by the community; those addressed by traditional economic activity; sweat equity and entrepreneurship; education for life; and community entrepreneurship. (YLB)

Institutions of higher education face financial pressure to become self-sustaining (Gumport, 2001; 2000). This rapidly growing economic demand is negatively affecting the social mission of higher education (Kezar, 2004). Scholars suggest the implementation of a new model of higher education, one that blends a for-profit model with the traditional communitarian model (Kezar, 2004). The new model for higher education should be equipped to meet the fiscal demand and maintain the social mission of the academy. Arizona State University introduced the New American University, a new model for higher education, which is revolutionizing the institution's role as an agent of change (Office of University Initiatives, 2010, "A New American University"). This new model is the both/and solution (Love & Estanek, 2004) that scholars have been looking to obtain because continued contribution to the public good is a key component to the model (Office of University Initiatives, 2010, "A New American University"). The university is introducing social entrepreneurship ideology to the academy to create future leaders and social change agents (Office of University Initiatives, 2010, "Entrepreneurship at ASU"), which allows the university to maintain its social mission. The following is appended: Entrepreneurship at ASU 2010--Arizona State University. (Contains 1 footnote.)

Charter schooling continues to grow apace. The nation's four-thousand-plus charter schools now enroll more than a million students and are approaching (or have exceeded) traditional district enrollment in communities like Dayton, Ohio; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Washington, D.C. Many of the most successful charter school providers are embarking on ambitious growth plans; most notably, the famed KIPP Academies hope to nearly double the number of their schools in the next five years, from fifty-seven to roughly one hundred. The climate for expansion seems hospitable: President Obama has called for doubling federal support for charter school facilities. But what will it take for charter schooling to succeed at scale? When it comes to talent management, one approach for building scale is to encourage schools to emulate "best practices." The appeal of mitosis-style growth or "best practice" imitation is undeniable, yet the evidence is that large-scale education reform will not be delivered by following such a course. Instead, the authors of this article argue that a more promising course to help successful new ventures grow effectively is to reconsider, and appropriately retool, the factors that fueled early success. (Contains 22 notes.)

Nearly two decades have passed since the Wisconsin legislature enacted the landmark Milwaukee Parental Choice Program. Advocates had hoped and promised that this experiment in school choice would lead the way in transforming American schools. But it is clear by now that voucher programs and charter school laws have failed to live up to their billing. Frederick M. Hess, editor of the recent volume "The Future of Educational Entrepreneurship," argues that market-based reforms have not delivered because they were never designed to succeed. The challenge for champions of choice is to understand what happened and what comes next. (Contains 18 endnotes.)

Over the last two decades, there has been a surge in public policies seeking to give low-income families more choice about where to send their children to school. These changes in policy have both reflected and accommodated an influx of new educational providers, including school operators, technology firms, back-office service providers, tutors, and recruiting and hiring organizations. What has become clear in these cases and elsewhere, however, is that the quantity of new entrants has not always been matched by quality. While educational entrepreneurship may hold much promise, there are serious challenges and barriers standing in the way of tapping its full potential. These challenges are multifaceted, ranging from a host of obstructive policies toward entrepreneurial activity, to the lack of a well-developed financial capital market for educational entrepreneurship. One crucial barrier is the apparent dearth of talented entrepreneurial individuals willing to enter K-12 education in the first place, or to stay involved past an initial foray, say, as a teacher. The key points of this discussion are organized into three sections. The first frames the issues. The second delves into the challenges that inhibit the entry of more entrepreneurial talent into the sector. The third probes potential strategies and tactics for fueling that pipeline--some currently underway, some easily implemented, and some worth considering for the future. (Contains 1 note.) [This report was published by the Program on Education Policy and Governance, Harvard University.]

Entrepreneurship, both in commercial and social enterprise development, has become an essential component in sustaining thriving communities in the region. An expanded dedication to entrepreneurship can open up economic opportunities while simultaneously furthering the educational missions of colleges and universities by promoting a scholarship of relevance. Today higher education plays an increasingly active role in many local and regional economies. This brief addresses how a focus on entrepreneurship can result in a more engaged academy, more relevant scholarship, and a more vigorous and competitive economy. [This material is based upon work supported by annual base funding through the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture.]

In the six-state region of Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota, 182 counties have been identified as having an agriculturally based economy. Characteristics of these counties have been identified using data from the U.S. Census and the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Agriculturally based counties have lost population, whereas the region overall has gained population. Poverty is greater and more widespread in agriculturally based counties than in metropolitan counties. Residents of agriculturally based counties have significantly lower income and earnings compared to metropolitan counties and have a significant dependence on unearned income. Agriculturally based counties are extraordinarily entrepreneurial in character. A number of policy recommendations are made. States' development policies for rural and agriculturally based communities should be based on cooperation instead of competition. There should be increased support for family-scale farming and ranching that provides food directly to consumers. Federal and state initiatives should cultivate a new generation of farmers through incentives that provide access to agricultural assets. States should support programs that provide lending capital and technical assistance to microenterprises and small businesses. Conservation and community development programs should be integrated. Incentives to private investment in agriculturally based communities should be provided. Federal rural development policy should be regionally based rather than nationally based. Economic development of agriculturally based communities must be accompanied by the building of human and organizational resources. Poverty, income, and job growth are profiled for farm and nonfarm counties in each of the six states. (TD)

This paper, a resource for vocational and adult education teachers who teach entrepreneurship education, reviews selected literature on entrepreneurship published since 1970. It includes periodicals, monographs, books, and miscellaneous publications produced by the U.S. Small Business Administration and similar organizations. The literature reviewed is synthesized into guidelines for use by vocational educators responsible for teaching entrepreneurship skills. The paper organizes the synthesized literature into these five chapters: (1) characteristics of entrepreneurs, (2) industry selection factors, (3) getting started in an industry, (4) the entrepreneurial industry, and (5) learning how to be an industry entrepreneur. Each of the chapters begins with an introduction to the topic with some support from the literature. A list of suggested activities follows, and the chapter concludes with a brief summary. A bibliography of printed materials for and about entrepreneurs is included in the document. (KC)

Current rural policies at both the federal and state levels do not meet the needs of rural people and communities; they are designed for the past, not the future. Agricultural subsidies absorb most federal resources directed to rural areas, with no evidence of benefits for rural communities. The continuing state-level pursuit of low-wage, low-skill manufacturing jobs is no longer viable. Without public action, rural decline will continue, often leading to the relocation of those with the most intellectual, financial, and social assets. Therefore, we must change both why and how we invest in rural America. Public policy in rural America must produce three societal benefits: survival of the rural middle class, reduction of concentrated rural poverty, and sustainability and improvement of the quality of the natural environment. To achieve these benefits, several outcomes should be pursued: increased human capital, conservation of the natural environment and local culture, increased regional competitive investments, and investments in infrastructure that supports expansion of new competitive advantages. A policy framework is proposed that addresses each of these outcomes for each of four types of rural areas: urban periphery, sparsely populated, high amenity, and high poverty. Human capital strategies focus on the replacement of the land-grant university with postsecondary institutions that better serve rural areas and on the potential of immigrants as risk-taking entrepreneurs. (Contains 27 references.) (TD)

A career is a discontinuous a series of work roles using different personal attributes, skills, knowledge, interests, and wants. Individuals must examine their portfolio, select and rearrange it, and then sell themselves to the manager where they work or prospective clients/employers in the marketplace. Individuals should view career capabilities as a mosaic of great diversity and, as inclination, personal circumstances, and market demand indicate, rearrange employability offerings in packages of differing portfolio content. Career security comes from being continually alert to enhancing employability, skilled at career transition, and prepared to oscillate between worklife as a salaried employee and a fee-charging free agent. A free agent defines worklife fulfillment in terms of freedom to exercise personal integrity and undertake assignments compatible with personal values. Employees applying principles of portfolio career management enhance the security of their employability by regularly evaluating, then selecting from 10 career action step options. They seek out opportunities where they work to use their preferred skills, acquire desired new learning, and prepare a Career Action Step Proposal to those who can approve and facilitate the transition to it. The portfolio careerist--free agent or employee--must acquire and apply self-marketing skills; detective and networking skills to identify job moves; interpersonal skills in conflict resolution; and self-discipline to review worklife objectives and integrate them with lifestyle needs. (YLB)

In the face of changing agriculture, an aging population, and the outflow of citizens seeking livable wages, rural Southern communities are challenged with how to enhance their economies to insure long-term business viability. Home-based businesses are an effective aspect of rural economic development. They allow flexibility and choice of work style while enabling families to remain in their community, and communities benefit by obtaining supplies and services that would otherwise not be available and because home-based businesses generate and spend money locally. However, home-based businesses need community support to make a marked difference in their community's social and economic well-being. Communities can facilitate the development and growth of home-based businesses by providing education and exposure to knowledge and skills that will enhance entrepreneurial ideas; building strong collaborations between state and private agencies and organizations, colleges, vocational-technical schools, and microlenders that are interested in strengthening businesses; increasing home-based business visibility and community involvement; facilitating networking of home-based businesses to other businesses in the community; increasing home-based businesses' access to financing; and developing local entrepreneurial leadership. (Contains 29 references.) (TD)

In 1983, an entrepreneurial engineering class was developed at the University of New Mexico. The course meets for 3 hours 1 evening per week for 15 or 16 sessions. Lectures, reading assignments, group work, interactive class discussions, and presentations by practitioners are used to help learners students develop the research and practice skills needed to produce start-up business plans. The course has evolved based on student and instructor evaluations. The businesses proposed by course participants have targeted industrial, commercial, consumer, and government markets and have been based on the development and sale of products such as the following: hardware, software, systems, chemicals, biomedical products, biologicals, consulting services, and instrumentation. Class members have included engineering students (juniors and seniors), faculty, professional engineers and scientists, and retirees. Many class members have been professionals whose advanced degrees did not prepare them for entrepreneurship. Some course completers have started their own businesses or used the techniques taught in the course within larger businesses. Some businesses planned in the class have incorporated and had sales. One course participant started a company that now has offices in other countries. (An abbreviated copy of a syllabus recently used for the class is appended.) (MN)

The current educational emphasis on the "global community" misses the most immediate and concrete area where students can make a difference: the locality. Without negating the importance of having a sense of responsibility toward the global community, a pedagogy of place argues that children cannot comprehend, much less feel a commitment toward, issues and problems in distant places until they have a well-grounded knowledge of their own place. The place that one inhabits can teach about the interdependency of social and natural systems. Understanding a pedagogy of place is understanding the purpose of education: the development of competence, care, and appreciation in political, environmental, and aesthetic areas. Two public secondary schools serving poor students in Colombia promote a pedagogy of place that defends the integrity of the community and surrounding environment. Fernandez Guerra Secondary School in the semi-urban town of Santander de Quilichao uses an interdisciplinary approach in which each grade focuses on a locally relevant theme and a social or ecological project. Tomas Herrera Cantillo Secondary School in the isolated village of Penoncito engages students in organic agriculture and animal husbandry projects relevant to sustainable community development. Examples show how the schools transmit competence, care, and appreciation in the direction of political, aesthetic, and environmental awareness and also prepare students for national standardized tests and avoid parochialism. (Contains 17 references.) (SV)

Despite United Nations' efforts, inequality of access for girls and women to technical and vocational education (TVE) persists in India. Challenges of the 21st century with regard to ensuring equal access of girls and women to TVE include: increasing the participation of girls (especially rural girls) in TVE; overcoming gender bias and stereotyping in TVE from educational planning, students, parents, society, and employers; facilitating wage and self-employment for girls; and adopting strategies that take account of cultural, geographical, and ecological variations and also problems relating to poverty and ignorance. Proposed strategies include the following: (1) decentralized and non-restrictive educational planning; (2) an expanded program of nonformal, low-technology vocational training for rural girls; (3) gender-sensitive planning; (4) gender-inclusive curriculum; (5) gender-exclusive educational and vocational guidance and counseling for girls and their parents; (6) upgrading of syllabuses and instructional materials; and (7) creation of gender-sensitive support structures for working women. The Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education in Bhopal has initiated projects to promote equal access of girls to vocational education, including production of videotapes promoting gender equality and vocational programs; research activities related to career aspirations of girls through vocational education; and seminars on economic empowerment of women. (KC)

An "intrapreneur" is an "intracorporate entrepreneur" who works inside rather than outside a corporation, producing new products and services that enable the company as a whole to grow. In educational settings, there are both negative and positive sides to intrapreneuring. The worst intrapreneurs in colleges and universities are those who write "bestselling" textbooks, giving publishers what will sell; those who seek grants for hot topics and build elaborate in-house organizations; expert consultants and grant lecturers, who command high fees often on university time; those who travel around the world imposing the American system; and clinical professors who use the university to extend private practices. The best intrapreneurs, on the other hand, are those who produce plans for solving major problems in higher education; consultants who successfully place chancellors or strengthen the relationship between colleges and industry; lecturers who relate the institutional mission to the public in an inspiring manner; quantifiers whose diverse data bases provide research opportunities for students; and clinical professors who serve interns and residence specialists. Leaders in industry and education have been trying to reach a balance between the worst and best intrapreneurs, while universities have initiated conflict-of-interest and positive disclosure regulations to guard against exploitation by faculty intrapreneurs. (CELCEE, an Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Entrepreneurship Education) (HAA)

As a result of actual and anticipated growth in the level of entrepreneurial activities within the University of Maryland System (UMS), and corresponding growth in licensing and royalty revenues, a threshold policy was recommended in the Joint Chairmen's Report of 1996. Such a policy would establish a maximum threshold beyond which a portion of licensing and royalty revenues would accrue to the State of Maryland's General Fund. This analysis of the recommendation concludes that this proposed policy would negatively impact the expansion of technology commercialization, a key element of Maryland's strategic plan for economic development while raising only a minor amount of revenue for the State's General Fund. It suggests that the proposed policy change would have a negative impact because it would divert commercialization revenues from the technology transfer office, the inventor, or the University. This would diminish the resources available to faculty and universities and thus reduce their incentives for engaging in commercialization efforts. The revenue potential is small because few university patents or licenses generate sufficient revenue to reach a relatively high threshold. The average revenue from an active UMS license was $12,611 in 1994. If the threshold were low enough to impact most licenses, it would be a strong disincentive for commercialization. Further, the total level of UMS royalties ($945,876 in 1994) would remain small in comparison to other potential revenues sources. (JLS)

Entrepreneurship education derives its importance from three factors: a demand among students for information about entrepreneurship; a need to provide students with skills related to making jobs, rather than training to take existing jobs; and a related need for economic growth through job creation. According to a 1994 national Gallup poll, 7 out of 10 high school students wanted to start their own business, but most showed remarkably little understanding of entrepreneurship. To provide students with entrepreneurial skills, educational efforts must focus on the following three attributes of entrepreneurship: (1) the identification of market opportunity and the generation of a business idea to address the opportunity; (2) the commitment of resources to pursue the opportunity in the face of risk; and (3) the creation of an operating business organization to implement the idea. A useful model for implementing and supporting an entrepreneurship program identifies three elements: an "initiator" able to identify market opportunities and lead others; a development team recruited by the initiator to assist with human resources, finance, marketing, selling, development, manufacturing, and quality management; and a constituent group of community members with a stake in the growth of the venture. Unfortunately, current curricula fail to even address the initiator element of entrepreneurship. To facilitate the needs of today's youth, educators must provide true entrepreneurship education by focusing the curriculum on the role of the initiator. Contains 14 references. (MAB)

The urbanization and industrialization of a society based on commercial competitiveness has resulted in the marginalization of rural communities and the disempowerment of rural people. An alternative view of the future is needed, and rural schools have a part to play in creating it. Four sets of forces are driving society toward a different future: (1) emerging realization that the concentrated economic power of multinational corporations has run amok, creating insecurity for many workers; (2) transition from an industrial to an information society, creating a need for information generalists and a shift in social values and tastes from standardization to diversity; (3) recognition of the ecological limits of the planet; and (4) yearning by many people to become a part of"community" and to reestablish control of their lives. Sustainable rural communities are a part of the alternative future. If rural schools are to contribute to community development, they must reconsider the purposes of schooling, shift the focus of curriculum to the local community context, provide students with the skills to create their own jobs, and maximize benefits to the community from investments in educational facilities and resources. Rural schools can function as information resources for community development, support economic development directly and indirectly, and make real contributions to the physical and cultural health of communities. Various examples are presented of student entrepreneurial projects and school activities supporting community development. (SV)

Rowan College of New Jersey has adopted an "enterprise model" for strategic planning that is seen as central to attaining the mission of the college during a time involving a substantial decline in state support. Rowan pursued a strategy termed "growth by substitution." This new process was cast in a more entrepreneurial mold and led to greater innovation. The basic premise was to generate funds for new initiatives by reducing or eliminating outdated or less productive programs. New initiative financing would be balanced by reductions and phase-outs among academic programs and administrative units for which there was marginal need and quality as well as projected retirement savings. The plan provides for phasing out of 23 degree, teacher certification, and specialization programs and reducing 5 others. It reallocated $2.7 to $3.5 million and called for personnel reduction through the layoff or retirement of 51 full time employees over 5 years. The plan's biggest accomplishment in financial terms was in academic support, with emphasis on developing technological capabilities within the library and academic computing, and computerizing the advisement process. The 17-member strategic planning steering committee included faculty, staff and management. None were to act as "representatives" of their units or groups. Members were not permitted to participate in discussions about their program nor to vote on priorities regarding that program. (Contains 30 references.) (JB)

The economic shifts of the past decade represent a new era in the U.S. workplace. Many of the millions of dislocated managers and professionals will not be reemployed in similar jobs because those jobs have disappeared. The economy has changed from the pyramid shape that most people envision, with a large blue-collar base and a smaller white-collar top, to a diamond shape, with a small tip of managers and owners, a large middle of worker-producers, whether white or blue collar, and a small layer of clerical workers. In this new economy, people must find new ways of working. Many are becoming entrepreneurs. Others are retraining in a variety of technical occupations. All, however, must constantly learn new skills and new ways to apply old skills as the economy continues to change. Workers must become generalists, able to do a variety of things. In order to do so, they need college programs to which they can return throughout their lives. Lifelong learning must become a way of life for the workers of the present and the future. (KC)

A seminar was held in Alexandria (Egypt) to bring together African university presidents, vice-chancellors, rectors, and top-level administrators to discuss the following themes: privatization, entrepreneurship, policies of international financial institutions with regard to African universities, and regionalization and the establishment of networks among African universities. This proceedings document summarizes the presentations made and the discussion that took place in these theme areas. Appendixes provide "The Alexandria Statement on the Resources and Management of African Universities," which presents the participants' views; the texts of three seminar presentations; a list of reference documents; and a list of participants. (JDD)

If the purpose of industry is the good of society or of the planet as a whole, then how does higher education meet the needs of industry, particularly in the United Kingdom? Industry needs a trained work force of high quality recruits who are both educated and morally and environmentally aware. However, in the current debate over moral training, there is no consensus as traditional Christian morality is regarded as too idealistic and impractical and the promises of the "capitalistic" ethic have not been fulfilled for the bulk of society. Higher education's role in helping capitalism and furthering the good of both society at large and the planet may involve introducing ethical dimensions into degree programs, particular in science, technology and business affairs. From a material scientist's point of view graduates of science and technology programs must understand that technical change is the outcome of social, cultural and political factors. From the educator's point of view current educational policy includes school-industry collaboration and points up the need for students to understand the moral values under wealth creation and entrepreneurship. (Contains 16 references.) (JB)

Seven small business owners, professors, and leaders answered the question of whether academia can help small business owners. In the opinion of a small business owner, academia offers too much theory and too few real skills. According to the president of the National Federation of Independent Business, academia can play a role in the development of small business, but colleges and universities must first overcome many barriers. From a chief executive officer's point of view, business and academia must form a dynamic alliance; if the premise of universities is to provide pure theory and no specifics, the premise is wrong. The president of the Association of Small Business Development Centers finds that strains exist because small business owners and academics both question the value of the relationship. A professor presents educators' viewpoint: academia can help many entrepreneurs, but there are barriers to a successful working relationship: client-counselor mismatches, antigeneralist bias, and entrepreneurs' ignorance of all available sources of help. According to another professor, if research and insights could be expressed clearly to small business owners and emerging entrepreneurs, a great deal of experience, research, and knowledge could be networked among those interested in improving the competitive edge. The administrator of the Small Business Administration reports that the traditional role of universities has never been more important to small businesses. (YLB)

A process to assess a college's external environment and audit its internal environment in order to pursue options available to postsecondary education is described. Essentially the concept is one of matching opportunities in the external environment with institutional strengths as determined by an internal audit. Strategic planning must consider a critical analysis of forces, trends, and their effects, and must be firmly based on demographic, social, political, and economic data sets. Data are the foundation upon which to build the multi-year institution or system plan. Institutions pass through various stages of development and have different characteristics of organizational functioning. Stages of organizational development are identified as: emergence, growth, development, regeneration, and decline. Types of organizational functioning can be listed as hierarchical, Theory X; collegial, Theory Y; and political, collective bargaining. In addition, tools of strategic planning can be labeled as needs assessment, trend analysis, environmental scanning, and market analysis. The challenge to postsecondary institutions is to diagnose where they are with regard to the first two dimensions and develop elements of strategic planning appropriate for their context. The purpose of the external environment assessment is to formulate assumptions that guide the institutional decision-making process, particularly in the areas of goal setting and human resource development, and to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in the external environment. It is recommended that management information systems include the integration of data on the external environment and internal operations of institutions, such as registration, scheduling, and student aid. (SW)

In recent years, many dramatic changes have occurred in the field of adult and continuing education. Enrollments in the Federal adult basic education (ABE) effort alone have increased from 536,000 in 1970 to over 2.5 million students in 1985, with over one-fourth of these participants being Black or Hispanic. In 1985, Congress has reauthorized the legislative mandates for the adult vocational education programs, the national literacy effort has continued its efforts to bring the issue of adult literacy to national focus, and private sector involvement and support have continued in all areas of adult education. Included among the many projects in the area of adult education currently receiving support from the Department of Education (DOE) are the following: ADVOC-NET, a telecommunications network designed to increase cooperation among leaders in adult and vocational education; the National Literacy Awareness Campaign, an effort to recruit volunteer leaders and tutors; and the Federal Employee Literacy Training (FELT) Program. In addition, DOE has established a number of task forces to examine ways of enhancing opportunities in adult education. Two particularly noteworthy task forces are one focusing on ways of infusing entrepreneurship education throughout the U.S. educational system and another that is involved in devising ways to increase the Nation's defense preparedness by raising basic skills levels among members of the Armed Forces to meet military job needs. (MN)

Given the statistic that 97 percent of all new businesses fail, it is unwise to enter into a new small business venture. Many aspiring entrepreneurs lack the characteristics and background they need to survive and instead display several common characteristics which predispose them to failure, such as being non-aggressive and casual, failing to develop an action plan or seek professional advice, and lacking sufficient managerial experience. Moreover, they often do not realize the number of uncontrollable factors working against the success of a new business. These negatives are presented as a six-point argument, following which readers are invited to make tape-recorded rebuttals to each point, then wait a week, then play back the tape as detached observers while mentally asking a set of objective questions about the person on the tape as a potential business owner. The person who can answer all these questions positively might be among the three percent of new business owners who succeed. (LP)

This document contains transcripts of oral and written testimony given at six days of Congressional hearings on women entrepreneurs, held in April and May 1988. Many of the witnesses were women who run successful companies that they started by themselves, in a variety of fields, from service industries to construction and manufacturing. Other witnesses were representatives of the National Association of Women Business Owners and of groups such as nonprofit economic development corporations. The witnesses' testimony centered on the difficulties women entrepreneurs face in starting businesses, gaining access to capital, working through Small Business Administration (SBA) red tape, and trying to win bids for government contracts. Testimony supported legislative ideas for setting up commissions on women, for making federal contracts more accessible, and for persuading banks to end discrimination. It was also pointed out that corporations and the country as a whole are missing a vital force for economic development by denying some women the chance to move up in their firms. Testimony supported easier access to the SBA, more government contracts for women-owned businesses, and stronger antidiscrimination regulations. (KC)

This edition of "Noteworthy" stresses the interdependence of rural schools and their communities, and offers ideas for developing both. Americans are becoming more open to school-community cooperation and to expanding the school's mission to include community development. Such cooperation involves communication among community leaders, local business people, the media, the school, and its students. Each of these parties has a defined role to play. Students should be encouraged to study the community to learn about its economy, about research methods, and about themselves as citizens. The results of students' research can then be used to make decisions and chart plans for development. A "blueprint" for studying the community is offered, beginning with simple observation and interviews. Other "blueprints" include strategies for school-based entrepreneurship, schools and community development, community input and investment, and integration of community material into school courses. Several examples are offered of schools that improved their programs by using the communities as their focus of study. A sample community survey and a sample business plan are provided. The document concludes with more ideas for developing schools with a vision toward the 21st century, and a projection of what schools might be like in the year 2000. (TES)