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Commonsense knowledge helps individuals naturally make sense of everyday situations and is important for AI systems to truly understand and interact with humans. However, acquiring such knowledge is difficult due to its implicit nature and sheer size, causing existing large-scale commonsense resources to suffer from a sparsity issue. This thesis addresses the challenge of acquiring commonsense knowledge by using word associations, a resource yet untapped for this purpose in natural language processing (NLP). Word associations are spontaneous connections between concepts that individuals make (e.g., smile and happy), reflecting the human mental lexicon. The aim of this thesis is to complement existing resources like commonsense knowledge graphs and pre-trained language models (PLMs), and enhance models’ ability to reason in a more intuitive and human-like manner. To achieve this aim, we explore three aspects of word associations: (1) understanding the relational knowledge they encode, (2) comparing the content and utility for NLP downstream tasks of large-scale word associations with widely-used commonsense knowledge resources, and (3) improving knowledge extraction from PLMs with word associations. We introduce a crowd-sourced large-scale dataset of word association explanations, which is crucial for disambiguating multiple reasons behind word associations. This resource fills a gap in the cognitive psychology community by providing a dataset to study the rationales and structures underlying associations. By automating the process of labelling word associations with relevant relations, we demonstrate that these explanations enhance the performance of relation extractors. We conduct a comprehensive comparison between large-scale word association networks and the ConceptNet commonsense knowledge graph, analysing their structures, knowledge content, and benefits for commonsense reasoning tasks. Even though we identify systematic differences between the two resources, w

We examined word associations in Swedish children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) compared to their typically developing (TD) peers. Furthermore, the study aimed to explore the dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (breadth, depth, and fluency) in these children. Fifty children (15 DLD and 35 TD) participated in the study, aged six to nine years. This age span is commonly associated with substantial lexical reorganisation, by some referred to as the syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift. Fifty items from the Kent-Rosanoff list were used to elicit word associations (say the first word that comes to mind). Word associations were coded as paradigmatic (lion-tiger), syntagmatic (chair-sit), phonological (moon-poon), and other/no answer (foot-hello/bed- -). A semantic depth score (paradigmatic and syntagmatic associations) was calculated and analysed. The children with DLD showed significantly lower semantic depth scores than their TD peers, in line with previous research in English-speaking children. However, the vocabulary dimensions were uniformly affected for the DLD group, contradicting previous findings of semantic depth as a particular area of weakness in this group.

We examined word associations in Swedish children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) compared to their typically developing (TD) peers. Furthermore, the study aimed to explore the dimensions of vocabulary knowledge (breadth, depth, and fluency) in these children. Fifty children (15 DLD and 35 TD) participated in the study, aged six to nine years. This age span is commonly associated with substantial lexical reorganisation, by some referred to as the syntagmatic-paradigmatic shift. Fifty items from the Kent-Rosanoff list were used to elicit word associations (say the first word that comes to mind). Word associations were coded as paradigmatic (lion-tiger), syntagmatic (chair-sit), phonological (moon-poon), and other/no answer (foot-hello/bed- -). A semantic depth score (paradigmatic and syntagmatic associations) was calculated and analysed. The children with DLD showed significantly lower semantic depth scores than their TD peers, in line with previous research in English-speaking children. However, the vocabulary dimensions were uniformly affected for the DLD group, contradicting previous findings of semantic depth as a particular area of weakness in this group.

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen bei der Untersuchung vonWortschatztiefe im Kontext mehrsprachiger Primarschulen aufzuzeigen. Im theoretischen Teil wird einÜberblick über die Messung von Wortschatztiefe anhand von Wortdefinitionen und Assoziationsaufgabenin der internationalen und schwedischen Forschung gegeben. Der empirische Teil beschreibtDatenerhebungen mit einem neu entwickelten Definitionstest und dem Kent-Rosanoff-Assoziationstestmit 92 Zweit- bzw. Fünftklässlern an einer schwedischen Schule mit hohem Anteil an Zweitsprachlern.Thematisiert wird die Bewertung der Definitionen von Schülerinnen und Schülern sowie damitzusammenhängende Herausforderungen. Die Ergebnisse, die nach Alter, Aufenthaltsdauer inSchweden und Sprachhintergrund analysiert wurden, werden im Hinblick auf die bestehende Forschungund methodische Überlegungen diskutiert. Angesprochen werden der Mangel an Forschung undverfügbaren Testinstrumenten in Bezug auf Wortdefinitionen sowie an geeigneten Worthäufigkeitslisten,die auf mündlicher Sprache in einem Grundschulkontext basieren. Das in diesem Artikel beschriebeneVorgehen und die Herausforderungen sowie die Ergebnisse stellen einen Beitrag zu unserem Wissenüber die Wortschatztiefe bei mehrsprachigen Schülerinnen und Schülern dar und sind für Forscher undPädagogen gleichermassen von Interesse.

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen bei der Untersuchung vonWortschatztiefe im Kontext mehrsprachiger Primarschulen aufzuzeigen. Im theoretischen Teil wird einÜberblick über die Messung von Wortschatztiefe anhand von Wortdefinitionen und Assoziationsaufgabenin der internationalen und schwedischen Forschung gegeben. Der empirische Teil beschreibtDatenerhebungen mit einem neu entwickelten Definitionstest und dem Kent-Rosanoff-Assoziationstestmit 92 Zweit- bzw. Fünftklässlern an einer schwedischen Schule mit hohem Anteil an Zweitsprachlern.Thematisiert wird die Bewertung der Definitionen von Schülerinnen und Schülern sowie damitzusammenhängende Herausforderungen. Die Ergebnisse, die nach Alter, Aufenthaltsdauer inSchweden und Sprachhintergrund analysiert wurden, werden im Hinblick auf die bestehende Forschungund methodische Überlegungen diskutiert. Angesprochen werden der Mangel an Forschung undverfügbaren Testinstrumenten in Bezug auf Wortdefinitionen sowie an geeigneten Worthäufigkeitslisten,die auf mündlicher Sprache in einem Grundschulkontext basieren. Das in diesem Artikel beschriebeneVorgehen und die Herausforderungen sowie die Ergebnisse stellen einen Beitrag zu unserem Wissenüber die Wortschatztiefe bei mehrsprachigen Schülerinnen und Schülern dar und sind für Forscher undPädagogen gleichermassen von Interesse.

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen bei der Untersuchung vonWortschatztiefe im Kontext mehrsprachiger Primarschulen aufzuzeigen. Im theoretischen Teil wird einÜberblick über die Messung von Wortschatztiefe anhand von Wortdefinitionen und Assoziationsaufgabenin der internationalen und schwedischen Forschung gegeben. Der empirische Teil beschreibtDatenerhebungen mit einem neu entwickelten Definitionstest und dem Kent-Rosanoff-Assoziationstestmit 92 Zweit- bzw. Fünftklässlern an einer schwedischen Schule mit hohem Anteil an Zweitsprachlern.Thematisiert wird die Bewertung der Definitionen von Schülerinnen und Schülern sowie damitzusammenhängende Herausforderungen. Die Ergebnisse, die nach Alter, Aufenthaltsdauer inSchweden und Sprachhintergrund analysiert wurden, werden im Hinblick auf die bestehende Forschungund methodische Überlegungen diskutiert. Angesprochen werden der Mangel an Forschung undverfügbaren Testinstrumenten in Bezug auf Wortdefinitionen sowie an geeigneten Worthäufigkeitslisten,die auf mündlicher Sprache in einem Grundschulkontext basieren. Das in diesem Artikel beschriebeneVorgehen und die Herausforderungen sowie die Ergebnisse stellen einen Beitrag zu unserem Wissenüber die Wortschatztiefe bei mehrsprachigen Schülerinnen und Schülern dar und sind für Forscher undPädagogen gleichermassen von Interesse.

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen bei der Untersuchung vonWortschatztiefe im Kontext mehrsprachiger Primarschulen aufzuzeigen. Im theoretischen Teil wird einÜberblick über die Messung von Wortschatztiefe anhand von Wortdefinitionen und Assoziationsaufgabenin der internationalen und schwedischen Forschung gegeben. Der empirische Teil beschreibtDatenerhebungen mit einem neu entwickelten Definitionstest und dem Kent-Rosanoff-Assoziationstestmit 92 Zweit- bzw. Fünftklässlern an einer schwedischen Schule mit hohem Anteil an Zweitsprachlern.Thematisiert wird die Bewertung der Definitionen von Schülerinnen und Schülern sowie damitzusammenhängende Herausforderungen. Die Ergebnisse, die nach Alter, Aufenthaltsdauer inSchweden und Sprachhintergrund analysiert wurden, werden im Hinblick auf die bestehende Forschungund methodische Überlegungen diskutiert. Angesprochen werden der Mangel an Forschung undverfügbaren Testinstrumenten in Bezug auf Wortdefinitionen sowie an geeigneten Worthäufigkeitslisten,die auf mündlicher Sprache in einem Grundschulkontext basieren. Das in diesem Artikel beschriebeneVorgehen und die Herausforderungen sowie die Ergebnisse stellen einen Beitrag zu unserem Wissenüber die Wortschatztiefe bei mehrsprachigen Schülerinnen und Schülern dar und sind für Forscher undPädagogen gleichermassen von Interesse.

This study explores English for specific purposes learners’ understanding of technical words in a previously-developed technical word list in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). The principal aim was to estimate what kind of technical terms pose problems to TCM learners and might therefore merit special attention in instruction. Of particular interest was the question whether there is a divergence in the understanding of technical vocabulary in TCM between Chinese and Western background learners. To achieve these aims, a combination of word association tasks and retrospective interviews was implemented with 11 Chinese and 10 Western background TCM learners. The data showed that both Chinese and Western learners encountered certain difficulties in understanding technical vocabulary in their study. However, their sources of difficulty were different. Comparisons of typical word associations between Chinese and Western learners indicated that there was a degree of divergence in the way these two participant groups understood TCM terms.

Collocation analysis can be used to extract meaningful linguistic information from large-scale corpus data. This paper reviews the methodological issues one may encounter when performing collocation analysis for discourse studies on Chinese. We propose four crucial aspects to consider in such analyses: (i) the definition of collocates according to various parameters; (ii) the choice of analysis and association measures; (iii) the definition of the search span; and (iv) the selection of corpora for analysis. To illustrate how these aspects can be addressed when applying a Chinese collocation analysis, we conducted a case study of two Chinese causal connectives: yushi ‘that is why’ and yin’er ‘as a result’. The distinctive collocation analysis shows how these two connectives differ in volitionality, an important dimension of discourse relations. The study also demonstrates that collocation analysis, as an explorative approach based on large-scale data, can provide valuable converging evidence for corpus-based studies that have been conducted with laborious manual analysis on limited datasets.

Many theories of communication claim that perspective-taking is afundamental component of the successful design of utterances for aspecific audience. We investigated perspective-taking in aconstrained communication situation: Participants played a wordguessing game where each trial required them to communicate atarget word without context. In each game, pairs of participants tookturns giving and receiving clues to guess target words, bothreceiving feedback after each trial. In Experiment 1, none of themeasures of participants’ performance improved over rounds,suggesting either that participants were unable to improve theirperspective-taking or that the task was simply too demanding forother reasons. In Experiment 2, we tested whether this lack ofimprovement was due to overall difficulty rather than inability totake perspective. While the success rate in Experiment 2 didimprove over the course of the game, our analyses indicated that theimprovement was due to participants discovering a frequencyheuristic (using rarer clue words) rather than improved perspective-taking per se. The results of these two experiments show thatimproving perspective-taking adaptively is very difficult when thereis no context to ground either signal choice or interpretation.

To what extent can the similarity structure of categories beinferred based on paradigmatic vs syntagmatic information?We explore this question in two studies that aim to captureparadigmatic information directly: first by having participantsgenerate near-neighbors to exemplars from 15 basic categories,and second by having them partially rank the most similar ex-emplars. After constructing neighborhood graphs of the itemsin each category, we derived a local measure (based on di-rect neighbors) and a global measure (including indirect pathsas well) of paradigmatic information. Both measures predictindependently-obtained human pairwise similarities for eachcategory, but incorporating indirect information substantiallyimproves this prediction. In a third study, we contrast thesemeasures with syntagmatic information obtained from a vast se-mantic network derived from 3 million judgments. The paradig-matic graphs are better predictors of similarity despite onlyencoding a fraction of these data. Broad implications for wordlearning and meaning are discussed.

In two studies we compare a distributional semantic model derived from word co-occurrences and a word association based model in their ability to predict properties that affect lexical processing. We focus on age of acquisition, concreteness, and three affective variables, namely valence, arousal, and dominance, since all these variables have been shown to be fundamental in word meaning. In both studies we use a model based on data obtained in a continued free word association task to predict these variables. In Study 1 we directly compare this model to a word co-occurrence model based on syntactic dependency relations to see which model is better at predicting the variables under scrutiny in Dutch. In Study 2 we replicate our findings in English and compare our results to those reported in the literature. In both studies we find the word association-based model fit to predict diverse word properties. Especially in the case of predicting affective word properties, we show that the association model is superior to the distributional model.

Similarity, which plays a key role in fields like cognitive science, psycho- linguistics and natural language processing, is a broad and multifaceted concept. In this work we analyse how two approaches that belong to different perspectives, the corpus view and the psycholinguistic view, articulate similarity between verb senses in Spanish. Specifically, we compare the similarity between verb senses based on their argument structure, which is captured through semantic roles, with their similarity defined by word associations. We address the question of whether verb argument structure, which reflects the expression of the events, and word associations, which are related to the speakers’ organization of the mental lexicon, shape similarity between verbs in a congruent manner, a topic which has not been explored previously. While we find significant correlations between verb sense similarities obtained from these two approaches, our findings also highlight some discrepancies between them and the importance of the degree of abstraction of the corpus annotation and psycholinguistic representations., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

This thesis talks about the problem of acquiring Common Sense Associations. Shared facts we have about the world. For example, we know that “CAT is related to FUR” and “HOUSE is related to ROOM”. The thesis will introduce a prototype called MindMatch. This prototype is a simple multiplayer game that collects associations. Games like this often goes under the name of games with a purpose, games which are meant to be fun to play and have the side-effect of gathering valuable data. MindMatch was developed for two languages (Swedish and English) and was tested on almost 200 people. About 20,000 associations were collected and MindMatch demonstrates a cheap and effective way to collect associations., Validerat; 20130619 (global_studentproject_submitter)

Food has become a prominent object of everyday moral discussions. This study examines how gender, political orientation, and country of origin are connected to moral foundation endorsement in food-related moral thinking. Respondents were university students (N = 371) from Finland, Denmark, and Italy who completed a word association task, in that given stimulus words were "ethical food" and "unethical food." Results showed a presence of five moral foundations in the data, and indicated high prevalence of the Purity/Sanctity foundation in food-related moral thinking. As expected, gender differences emerged in the endorsement of the Fairness/Reciprocity and the Purity/Sanctity foundations. Also, between-country differences emerged in four of the five moral foundations, indicating that even within Europe countries may differ from each other in their endorsement of foundations. The results also verified the previously found effect of political orientation in three of the five moral foundations, although the study used a completely new and different type of method compared with previous studies. The study concludes by proposing more cross-national comparative studies where the focus is on the specific objects of moral thinking

Many existing information retrieval models do not explicitly take into account information about word associations. Our approach makes use of first and second order relationships found in natural language, known as syntagmatic and paradigmatic associations, respectively. This is achieved by using a formal model of word meaning within the query expansion process. On ad hoc retrieval, our approach achieves statistically significant improvements in MAP (0.158) and P at 20 (0.396) over our baseline model. The ERR at 20 and nDCG at 20 of our system was 0.249 and 0.192 respectively. Our results and discussion suggest that information about both syntagamtic and paradigmatic associations can assist with improving retrieval effectiveness on ad hoc retrieval., Presented at the Twenty-First Text REtrieval Conference (TREC 2012) held in Gaithersburg, Maryland, November 6-9, 2012. The conference was co-sponsored by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the Advanced Research and Development Activity (ARDA). U.S. Government or Federal Rights License

word association test; word class; paradigmatic and syntagmatic responses

lexical knowledge, mental lexicon, network knowledge

lexical knowledge, mental lexicon, network knowledge

word association test; word class; paradigmatic and syntagmatic responses

word association test; word class; paradigmatic and syntagmatic responses

lexical knowledge, mental lexicon, network knowledge

Contemporary theories on frequency processing have been developed in different sub-disciplines of psychology and have shown remarkable discrepancies. Thus, in judgment and decision making, frequency estimates on serially encoded events are mostly traced back to the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). Evidence for the use of this heuristic comes from several popular demonstrations of biased frequency estimates. In the area of decision making, these demonstrations led to the conclusion that frequency judgments were generally error-prone. On the other hand, in memory literature detailed computational memory models are used to explain frequency estimates. Although these models to some degree differ evidently in their specific representational assumptions, they all arrive at the basic prediction that frequency estimates should usually be quite accurate but regressed. This prediction was confirmed in numerous studies. However, up to now there have been no systematic efforts in memory literature to identify factors that cause biases in frequency judgments and to explain the demonstrations of erroneous estimates in the area of decision making. The two studies presented in this thesis pursue the questions whether memory models are able to explain errors in frequency judgments and to generate new predictions about biasing factors. In the focus of the first series of experiments is the "famous-names effect": If participants are presented with a list of names of female and male persons, then the frequency of that sex is overestimated that was represented with more famous names on the list. As more famous names are additionally recalled better, this effect was usually explained with the availability heuristic. An alternative account was suggested within the framework of the associationist-model PASS (Sedlmeier, 1999) and the multiple-trace model MINERVA-DM (Dougherty et al., 1999). According to this, the effect is primarily caused by the different pre-experime, Aktuelle Theorien zur Häufigkeitsverarbeitung wurden in unterschiedlichen Teilgebieten der Psychologie entwickelt und weisen erstaunliche Diskrepanzen auf. So werden Häufigkeitsschätzungen über seriell enkodierte Ereignisse in der Urteils- und Entscheidungsforschung zumeist auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) zurückgeführt. Evidenz für die Verwendung dieser Heuristik stammt aus einigen populären Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Häufigkeitsschätzungen. Diese Demonstrationen führten in der Entscheidungsforschung zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Häufigkeitsurteile generell fehleranfällig seien. Demgegenüber wurden in der Gedächtnispsychologie detaillierte, computerimplementierte Gedächtnismodelle benutzt, um Häufigkeitsschätzungen zu erklären. Obwohl sich diese Modelle in ihren spezifischen Repräsentationsannahmen zum Teil deutlich unterscheiden, kommen sie alle zu der grundlegenden Vorhersage, dass Häufigkeitsschätzungen in der Regel recht genau, aber regrediert sein sollten. Diese Vorhersage wurde in zahlreichen Untersuchungen bestätigt. In der gedächtnispsychologischen Forschung hat es jedoch bisher kein systematisches Bemühen gegeben, Faktoren, die zu Verzerrungen in Häufigkeitsschätzungen führen, zu identifizieren und die Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Schätzungen aus der Entscheidungsforschung zu erklären. Die zwei in der vorliegenden Arbeit präsentierten Studien verfolgen die Fragestellung, inwieweit Gedächtnismodelle in der Lage sind, Fehler in Häufigkeitsurteilen zu erklären und neue Vorhersagen über verzerrende Faktoren zu generieren. Im Mittelpunkt der ersten Serie von Experimenten steht dabei der "Famous-Names Effekt": Nach der Präsentation einer Liste mit Namen weiblicher und männlicher Personen wird die Häufigkeit desjenigen Geschlechts überschätzt, das mit berühmteren Namen auf der Liste vertreten war. Da berühmtere Namen zudem besser erinnert werden, wurde dieser Effekt gewöhnlich auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik zurückgeführt. Eine Alt

Contemporary theories on frequency processing have been developed in different sub-disciplines of psychology and have shown remarkable discrepancies. Thus, in judgment and decision making, frequency estimates on serially encoded events are mostly traced back to the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). Evidence for the use of this heuristic comes from several popular demonstrations of biased frequency estimates. In the area of decision making, these demonstrations led to the conclusion that frequency judgments were generally error-prone. On the other hand, in memory literature detailed computational memory models are used to explain frequency estimates. Although these models to some degree differ evidently in their specific representational assumptions, they all arrive at the basic prediction that frequency estimates should usually be quite accurate but regressed. This prediction was confirmed in numerous studies. However, up to now there have been no systematic efforts in memory literature to identify factors that cause biases in frequency judgments and to explain the demonstrations of erroneous estimates in the area of decision making. The two studies presented in this thesis pursue the questions whether memory models are able to explain errors in frequency judgments and to generate new predictions about biasing factors. In the focus of the first series of experiments is the "famous-names effect": If participants are presented with a list of names of female and male persons, then the frequency of that sex is overestimated that was represented with more famous names on the list. As more famous names are additionally recalled better, this effect was usually explained with the availability heuristic. An alternative account was suggested within the framework of the associationist-model PASS (Sedlmeier, 1999) and the multiple-trace model MINERVA-DM (Dougherty et al., 1999). According to this, the effect is primarily caused by the different pre-experime, Aktuelle Theorien zur Häufigkeitsverarbeitung wurden in unterschiedlichen Teilgebieten der Psychologie entwickelt und weisen erstaunliche Diskrepanzen auf. So werden Häufigkeitsschätzungen über seriell enkodierte Ereignisse in der Urteils- und Entscheidungsforschung zumeist auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) zurückgeführt. Evidenz für die Verwendung dieser Heuristik stammt aus einigen populären Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Häufigkeitsschätzungen. Diese Demonstrationen führten in der Entscheidungsforschung zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Häufigkeitsurteile generell fehleranfällig seien. Demgegenüber wurden in der Gedächtnispsychologie detaillierte, computerimplementierte Gedächtnismodelle benutzt, um Häufigkeitsschätzungen zu erklären. Obwohl sich diese Modelle in ihren spezifischen Repräsentationsannahmen zum Teil deutlich unterscheiden, kommen sie alle zu der grundlegenden Vorhersage, dass Häufigkeitsschätzungen in der Regel recht genau, aber regrediert sein sollten. Diese Vorhersage wurde in zahlreichen Untersuchungen bestätigt. In der gedächtnispsychologischen Forschung hat es jedoch bisher kein systematisches Bemühen gegeben, Faktoren, die zu Verzerrungen in Häufigkeitsschätzungen führen, zu identifizieren und die Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Schätzungen aus der Entscheidungsforschung zu erklären. Die zwei in der vorliegenden Arbeit präsentierten Studien verfolgen die Fragestellung, inwieweit Gedächtnismodelle in der Lage sind, Fehler in Häufigkeitsurteilen zu erklären und neue Vorhersagen über verzerrende Faktoren zu generieren. Im Mittelpunkt der ersten Serie von Experimenten steht dabei der "Famous-Names Effekt": Nach der Präsentation einer Liste mit Namen weiblicher und männlicher Personen wird die Häufigkeit desjenigen Geschlechts überschätzt, das mit berühmteren Namen auf der Liste vertreten war. Da berühmtere Namen zudem besser erinnert werden, wurde dieser Effekt gewöhnlich auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik zurückgeführt. Eine Alt

Contemporary theories on frequency processing have been developed in different sub-disciplines of psychology and have shown remarkable discrepancies. Thus, in judgment and decision making, frequency estimates on serially encoded events are mostly traced back to the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). Evidence for the use of this heuristic comes from several popular demonstrations of biased frequency estimates. In the area of decision making, these demonstrations led to the conclusion that frequency judgments were generally error-prone. On the other hand, in memory literature detailed computational memory models are used to explain frequency estimates. Although these models to some degree differ evidently in their specific representational assumptions, they all arrive at the basic prediction that frequency estimates should usually be quite accurate but regressed. This prediction was confirmed in numerous studies. However, up to now there have been no systematic efforts in memory literature to identify factors that cause biases in frequency judgments and to explain the demonstrations of erroneous estimates in the area of decision making. The two studies presented in this thesis pursue the questions whether memory models are able to explain errors in frequency judgments and to generate new predictions about biasing factors. In the focus of the first series of experiments is the "famous-names effect": If participants are presented with a list of names of female and male persons, then the frequency of that sex is overestimated that was represented with more famous names on the list. As more famous names are additionally recalled better, this effect was usually explained with the availability heuristic. An alternative account was suggested within the framework of the associationist-model PASS (Sedlmeier, 1999) and the multiple-trace model MINERVA-DM (Dougherty et al., 1999). According to this, the effect is primarily caused by the different pre-experime, Aktuelle Theorien zur Häufigkeitsverarbeitung wurden in unterschiedlichen Teilgebieten der Psychologie entwickelt und weisen erstaunliche Diskrepanzen auf. So werden Häufigkeitsschätzungen über seriell enkodierte Ereignisse in der Urteils- und Entscheidungsforschung zumeist auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) zurückgeführt. Evidenz für die Verwendung dieser Heuristik stammt aus einigen populären Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Häufigkeitsschätzungen. Diese Demonstrationen führten in der Entscheidungsforschung zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Häufigkeitsurteile generell fehleranfällig seien. Demgegenüber wurden in der Gedächtnispsychologie detaillierte, computerimplementierte Gedächtnismodelle benutzt, um Häufigkeitsschätzungen zu erklären. Obwohl sich diese Modelle in ihren spezifischen Repräsentationsannahmen zum Teil deutlich unterscheiden, kommen sie alle zu der grundlegenden Vorhersage, dass Häufigkeitsschätzungen in der Regel recht genau, aber regrediert sein sollten. Diese Vorhersage wurde in zahlreichen Untersuchungen bestätigt. In der gedächtnispsychologischen Forschung hat es jedoch bisher kein systematisches Bemühen gegeben, Faktoren, die zu Verzerrungen in Häufigkeitsschätzungen führen, zu identifizieren und die Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Schätzungen aus der Entscheidungsforschung zu erklären. Die zwei in der vorliegenden Arbeit präsentierten Studien verfolgen die Fragestellung, inwieweit Gedächtnismodelle in der Lage sind, Fehler in Häufigkeitsurteilen zu erklären und neue Vorhersagen über verzerrende Faktoren zu generieren. Im Mittelpunkt der ersten Serie von Experimenten steht dabei der "Famous-Names Effekt": Nach der Präsentation einer Liste mit Namen weiblicher und männlicher Personen wird die Häufigkeit desjenigen Geschlechts überschätzt, das mit berühmteren Namen auf der Liste vertreten war. Da berühmtere Namen zudem besser erinnert werden, wurde dieser Effekt gewöhnlich auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik zurückgeführt. Eine Alt

Contemporary theories on frequency processing have been developed in different sub-disciplines of psychology and have shown remarkable discrepancies. Thus, in judgment and decision making, frequency estimates on serially encoded events are mostly traced back to the availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). Evidence for the use of this heuristic comes from several popular demonstrations of biased frequency estimates. In the area of decision making, these demonstrations led to the conclusion that frequency judgments were generally error-prone. On the other hand, in memory literature detailed computational memory models are used to explain frequency estimates. Although these models to some degree differ evidently in their specific representational assumptions, they all arrive at the basic prediction that frequency estimates should usually be quite accurate but regressed. This prediction was confirmed in numerous studies. However, up to now there have been no systematic efforts in memory literature to identify factors that cause biases in frequency judgments and to explain the demonstrations of erroneous estimates in the area of decision making. The two studies presented in this thesis pursue the questions whether memory models are able to explain errors in frequency judgments and to generate new predictions about biasing factors. In the focus of the first series of experiments is the "famous-names effect": If participants are presented with a list of names of female and male persons, then the frequency of that sex is overestimated that was represented with more famous names on the list. As more famous names are additionally recalled better, this effect was usually explained with the availability heuristic. An alternative account was suggested within the framework of the associationist-model PASS (Sedlmeier, 1999) and the multiple-trace model MINERVA-DM (Dougherty et al., 1999). According to this, the effect is primarily caused by the different pre-experime, Aktuelle Theorien zur Häufigkeitsverarbeitung wurden in unterschiedlichen Teilgebieten der Psychologie entwickelt und weisen erstaunliche Diskrepanzen auf. So werden Häufigkeitsschätzungen über seriell enkodierte Ereignisse in der Urteils- und Entscheidungsforschung zumeist auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) zurückgeführt. Evidenz für die Verwendung dieser Heuristik stammt aus einigen populären Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Häufigkeitsschätzungen. Diese Demonstrationen führten in der Entscheidungsforschung zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Häufigkeitsurteile generell fehleranfällig seien. Demgegenüber wurden in der Gedächtnispsychologie detaillierte, computerimplementierte Gedächtnismodelle benutzt, um Häufigkeitsschätzungen zu erklären. Obwohl sich diese Modelle in ihren spezifischen Repräsentationsannahmen zum Teil deutlich unterscheiden, kommen sie alle zu der grundlegenden Vorhersage, dass Häufigkeitsschätzungen in der Regel recht genau, aber regrediert sein sollten. Diese Vorhersage wurde in zahlreichen Untersuchungen bestätigt. In der gedächtnispsychologischen Forschung hat es jedoch bisher kein systematisches Bemühen gegeben, Faktoren, die zu Verzerrungen in Häufigkeitsschätzungen führen, zu identifizieren und die Demonstrationen fehlerhafter Schätzungen aus der Entscheidungsforschung zu erklären. Die zwei in der vorliegenden Arbeit präsentierten Studien verfolgen die Fragestellung, inwieweit Gedächtnismodelle in der Lage sind, Fehler in Häufigkeitsurteilen zu erklären und neue Vorhersagen über verzerrende Faktoren zu generieren. Im Mittelpunkt der ersten Serie von Experimenten steht dabei der "Famous-Names Effekt": Nach der Präsentation einer Liste mit Namen weiblicher und männlicher Personen wird die Häufigkeit desjenigen Geschlechts überschätzt, das mit berühmteren Namen auf der Liste vertreten war. Da berühmtere Namen zudem besser erinnert werden, wurde dieser Effekt gewöhnlich auf die Verfügbarkeitsheuristik zurückgeführt. Eine Alt

The paper comprises basic findings and conclusions reached by studying frequency glossaries, development of speech and language behavior in education, teaching of foreign languages, culture of speech communication. Basic theoretical and empirical investigations of language in education using interdisciplinary approach are provided. Investigations founded on (a) establishing age-based abilities for mastering language components and its structures, and (b) effects of exercises conducted for developing language abilities in students, depending on their age are surveyed. The investigations are to point to the development of child speech in general to establishing speech norms as well as to deviations in oral and written expression. Pedagogic and psychological value of the findings obtained is in developing learning strategies and cognitive styles, level of concepts acquired, developing of student creative thinking. The overall development of speech and language in students is considered within communication processes and their socialization., Rad sadrži osnovne nalaze i zaključke proučavanja sledećih tema frekvencijski rečnici, razvitak dečjeg govornog i jezičkog ponašanja u obrazovanju, nastava stranih jezika, kultura govorne komunikacije. Prikazana su fundamentalna teorijska i empirijska istraživanja jezika u obrazovanju sa interdisciplinarnim pristupom. Dat je pregled istraživanja zasnovanih na (a) utvrđivanju uzrasnih mogućnosti za savlađivanje jezičke građe i njene strukture i (b) efekata urađenih vežbi za razvoj jezičkih sposobnosti učenika zavisno od uzrasta. Značaj ovih istraživanja je ukazivanje na razvitak dečjeg govora uopšte, utvrđivanju govornih normi, kao i na devijacije u usmenom i pismenom izražavanju. Pedagoška i psihološka vrednost dobijenih nalaza je u razvijanju strategija učenja i kognitivnih stilova stepena usvojenosti pojmova, razvoja kreativnog mišljenja učenika. Čitav ovaj razvoj jezika i govora učenika razmatra se u procesima komunikacije i njihove socijalizacije.

Information storage in semantic memory was investigated by looking at automatic priming effects for new associations in two experiments. In the study phase word pairs were presented in a paired-associate learning task. Lexical decision and perceptual identification were used to

In 6 experiments the authors investigated priming for perceptually related word pairs (i.e., words that refer to objects with the same shape such as pizza-coin), trying to replicate earlier findings by R. Schreuder et al (see record 1985-06198-001) while avoiding some of the methodological problems that were present in that study. University students participated in the experiments. Under standard conditions no perceptual priming was obtained. However, in all experiments priming for associated pairs was found. Only after activation tasks that focused on perceptual features was priming for perceptually related word pairs found in pronunciation. Perceptual priming was also obtained in lexical decision after activation tasks, but only when strong associates were not presented in the experiment. The results show that priming for perceptually related word pairs is not a general finding.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.

Táto práca sa zaoberá využitím slovne asociatívnej hry Krycie mená pri výučbe anglického jazyka. Za účelom dosiahnutia cieľa bol predovšetkým riešený problém opisu sémantickej spojitosti medzi dvojicou slov. Zvolený problém som vyriešil využitím nástroja Sketch Engine a špecializovaných slovníkov anglického jazyka. V tejto práci som vytvoril systém, ktorý zobrazí užívateľovi spojitosť nápovedy a cieleného slova na konci každej hry. Výsledky tejto práce umožňujú vzdelávanie formou hry pre všetky skupiny študentov anglického jazyka., This thesis explores the use of the word associative game Codenames in language learning, especially learning English as the second language. In order to achieve the goal, it addresses the problem of explaining semantic relations among words. The explanations take advantage of word sketches, provided by the Sketch Engine tool, and of word descriptions available in specialized English dictionaries. The implemented extension of the previously created engine for playing Codenames enables explaining the automatically suggested relations among the hint words and intended words in each game, motivating users for further exploration of the studied language.