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Debido a la problemática específicamente en Colombia, acerca de la cantidad de residuos agroindustriales que se producen a diario y los cuales, si no tienen una adecuada logística, afectan seriamente el ambiente, esto implica daños en los ecosistemas conllevando a la mala calidad de vida de quienes se encuentran alrededor. Se realizó un estudio que tiene como propósito identificar procesos relacionados con la economía circular para el aprovechamiento de los residuos agroindustriales especialmente en los cultivos de maíz en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Para el desarrollo de esta propuesta, se analizaron dos diferentes procesos, con el fin de poder determinar y proponer la alternativa más viable económicamente para la obtención de biofertilizantes, a partir de residuos generados en cultivos de maíz. Por lo anterior se identificaron factores, herramientas, métodos, etc., que ayudaron a determinar el proceso más favorable para el aprovechamiento de los residuos generados, a través de la obtención de biofertilizantes en los cultivos de maíz.

Debido a la problemática específicamente en Colombia, acerca de la cantidad de residuos agroindustriales que se producen a diario y los cuales, si no tienen una adecuada logística, afectan seriamente el ambiente, esto implica daños en los ecosistemas conllevando a la mala calidad de vida de quienes se encuentran alrededor. Se realizó un estudio que tiene como propósito identificar procesos relacionados con la economía circular para el aprovechamiento de los residuos agroindustriales especialmente en los cultivos de maíz en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Para el desarrollo de esta propuesta, se analizaron dos diferentes procesos, con el fin de poder determinar y proponer la alternativa más viable económicamente para la obtención de biofertilizantes, a partir de residuos generados en cultivos de maíz. Por lo anterior se identificaron factores, herramientas, métodos, etc., que ayudaron a determinar el proceso más favorable para el aprovechamiento de los residuos generados, a través de la obtención de biofertilizantes en los cultivos de maíz.

Debido a la problemática específicamente en Colombia, acerca de la cantidad de residuos agroindustriales que se producen a diario y los cuales, si no tienen una adecuada logística, afectan seriamente el ambiente, esto implica daños en los ecosistemas conllevando a la mala calidad de vida de quienes se encuentran alrededor. Se realizó un estudio que tiene como propósito identificar procesos relacionados con la economía circular para el aprovechamiento de los residuos agroindustriales especialmente en los cultivos de maíz en el departamento de Cundinamarca. Para el desarrollo de esta propuesta, se analizaron dos diferentes procesos, con el fin de poder determinar y proponer la alternativa más viable económicamente para la obtención de biofertilizantes, a partir de residuos generados en cultivos de maíz. Por lo anterior se identificaron factores, herramientas, métodos, etc., que ayudaron a determinar el proceso más favorable para el aprovechamiento de los residuos generados, a través de la obtención de biofertilizantes en los cultivos de maíz.

The increase in the world's population is a challenge for primary and secondary producers and major industrial companies to meet the demands of consumers for goods and services. However, this high demand goes hand in hand with an excessive consumption of resources, mainly non-renewable fossil resources not only in energy production processes, but also as raw materials in the manufacture of a wide variety of products. In this context, the search for biologically based resources, of a renewable nature and with lower associated environmental impacts, is a high potential strategy. Forest resources and non-usable flows from the agri-food sector have become key elements in the search for sustainability and circularity in the use of resources. For this reason, within the framework of this doctoral thesis, the development of biotechnological processes based on the use of non-usable resources derived from timber exploitation activities and the agri-food sector is proposed. Biotechnological production strategies for the valorization of resources in high added value products will be evaluated through circularity, sustainability and life cycle analysis methodologies to study their main advantages and impacts.

Il mio Progetto di dottorato si è incentrato sul potenziamento di strategie sintetiche in soluzione per la produzione di colloidi con applicazioni come materiali colloidali. Esso si è strutturato in due linee di ricerca all’apparenza differenti ma concettualmente interconnesse tra loro. In primo luogo, lo sviluppo di una procedura sintetica di nanocristalli colloidali CsPbBr3 che fosse intrinsecamente scalabile, versatile e affidabile ad ogni scala. L’aspetto fondamentale su cui verte è stata l’introduzione di un turbo-emulsore, il cui utilizzo non è mai stato riportato nel campo dei nanocristalli. Per prima cosa, abbiamo corroborato il suo contributo innovative rispetto all’agitazione magnetica generalmente utilizzata, dimostrando che per volumi superiori al litro, il suo utilizzo diventa indispensabile. Successivamente, abbiamo approfonditamente studiato l’impatto di differenti parametri sintetici sulle proprietà delle risultanti dispersioni colloidali, acquisendo un punto di vista completo e controllabile a nostro favore sul meccanismo con cui avviene il processo: incremento della viscosità del mezzo di reazione, effetto della temperature, sostituzione dei leganti acidi e amminici. Abbiamo inoltre ottimizzato un processo di recupero degli scarti di sintesi che permette di riutilizzarli quasi direttamente per riprodurre la sintesi, senza diminuire la qualità dei materiali ottenuti. Infine, abbiamo testato preliminarmente I materiali in celle solari, evidenziando una maggiore compatibilità con il campo dell’indoor, e abbiamo depositato una domanda di brevetto per scintillatori nanocompositi ultraveloci che preservano le loro proprietà sotto irradiazione da raggi gamma fino ad 1 MGy. La seconda linea di ricerca parallela consiste nello sviluppo di un approccio fotochimico per la trasformazione di micelle formate da surfattanti commerciali in oggetti nanometrici stabilizzati core-shell che possono essere applicati in rilascio controllato di farmaci, catalisi, My research was centred on the enhancement of synthetic strategies via wet methods intended for production of colloids having applications as functional materials. The overall project is composed by two distinct but conceptually connected research lines. Firstly, the development of unprecedentedly scalable, versatile and reliable synthetic strategy for high quality colloidal CsPbBr3 nanocrystals. The key advantage of the method is the original introduction of a high shear homogenizer. We firstly corroborated the improvement with respect to generally used magnetic stirring, showcasing its requirement when working with volumes that exceed 1 L. Successively, we deeply studied the impact of processing parameters on the properties of colloidal dispersions to gain a full insight and completely rule over the synthetic mechanism: increased medium viscosity, temperature, acid and amine ligands substitution during synthesis. We also optimized a waste recovery process that allows to almost directly reuse unreacted species remaining after the synthesis to perform the reaction again and without decreasing output nanocrystals properties. Finally we preliminary tested these materials in solar cells, deducing better compatibility with indoor target and patented a new type of nanocomposite scintillator able to preserve its properties to gamma irradiation doses up to 1 MGy. The second research line deals with the development of photochemical approaches for the transformation of micelles of commercially available surfactants into crosslinked core-shell amphiphilic nano-hosts, intended for applications in controlled release, catalysis and imaging. We exploited the formation of a semi-interpenetrated network between the branched, cheap, commercial tween 80 and the photopolymerized co-surfactant APE-4 (2-(tetrahydropyranyl)oxy tetraethylene glycol methacrylate) to freeze the specific association colloid formed. We firstly optimized efficiency of photopolymerization process under 365 nm i

The building industry generates millions of tons of construction and demolition waste annually (12 million tons/year are generated in Mexico, of which only 4% is reused or recycled). Concomitantly, the demand for goods and services by the building industry causes significant environmental impacts. On the other hand, plastic waste is also difficult to assimilate into the environment in the short term, and its recovery is of special interest. Therefore, this research focuses on the feasibility of the manufacture of Partition Blocks (essential building element) through the combination of construction and demolition waste (CDW), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic flakes, dust from tire shredding, and residue from the sugar industry (bagasse). The results of this study show that the Partition Blocks made with CDW and PET reach an average compressive strength of 115.003 kgf/cm2 (11.278 MPa) (suitable for structural use according to Mexican regulations); the use of lime enhances the consistency of the mixture of CDW and PET (increases its cohesion and homogeneity); and finally, these Partition Blocks have a cost comparable to the current conventional Partition Blocks made with virgin material, thus, conferring them validity as a feasible recycling option for these residues., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Vegetable supply in the world is more than double than vegetable intake, which supposes a significant waste of vegetables, in addition to the agricultural residues produced. As sensitive food products, the reasons for this waste vary from the use of only a part of the vegetable due to its different properties to the product appearance and market image. An alternative high-added-value application for these wastes rich in cellulose could be the reduction in size to produce lignocellulose microand nanofibrils (LCMNF). In this sense, a direct treatment of greengrocery waste (leek, lettuce, and artichoke) to produce LCMNFs without the extraction of cellulose has been studied, obtaining highly concentrated suspensions, without using chemicals. After drying the wastes, these suspensions were produced by milling and blending at high shear followed by several passes in the high-pressure homogenizer (up to six passes). The presence of more extractives and shorter fiber lengths allowed the obtention of 5–5.5% leek LCMNF suspensions and 3.5–4% lettuce LCMNF suspensions, whereas for artichoke, only suspensions of under 1% were obtained. The main novelty of the work was the obtention of a high concentration of micro- and nanofiber suspension from the total waste without any pretreatment. These high concentrations are not obtained from other raw materials (wood or annual plants) due to the clogging of the homogenizer, requiring the dilution of the sample up to 1% or the use of chemical pretreatments., Comunidad de Madrid, European Commission, Depto. de Ingeniería Química y de Materiales, Fac. de Ciencias Químicas, TRUE, pub

Water is at the core of sustainable development. Moreover, it is essential for social, economic, and environmental well-being. However, water resource availability has been significantly threatened in the 21st century. In general, freshwater supplies are being depleted by natural and anthropogenic activities, such as rapid population growth, industrialization, and intensive agriculture. In addition, one of the main causes of water resource shortages is water body contamination. Nitrate pollution is considered one of the most pressing global environmental problems, both in surface and groundwater. The literature reveals that numerous nitrogen removal processes have been developed and proposed. To overcome this problem, desalination is a robust and mature technique for obtaining fresh water from saltwater, and is considered an efficient and reliable process. However, there is growing concern about the adverse environmental impacts generated by brine where concentrated rejection by desalination results in high salinity together with chemical residues. To solve this problem, a zero liquid discharge (ZLD) strategy has been proposed in the specific literature. Furthermore, ZLD can be used to treat and recover valuable resources. This study analyzes and discusses the current status of brine treatment technologies targeting ZLD, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Technologies based on membranes and thermal energy were also analyzed, and their performance and operating costs were compared. Finally, the different denitrification processes are listed. This ZLD solution is currently considered an essential and compulsory treatment in reject brine to remove nitrate that, because of high concentrations in the environment, is one of the most widespread global contaminants.

Improving the efficiency of using energy and decreasing impacts on the environment will be an inevitable choice for future development. Based on this direction, three kinds of medium (modified anaerobic digestion wastewater, anaerobic digestion wastewater and a standard growth medium BG11) were used to culture microalgae towards achieving high-quality biodiesel products. The results showed that microalgae culturing with anaerobic digestate wastewater could increase lipid content (21.8%); however, the modified anaerobic digestion wastewater can boost the microalgal biomass production to 0.78 ± 0.01 g/L when compared with (0.35–0.54 g/L) the other two groups. Besides the first step lipid extraction, the elemental composition, thermogravimetric and pyrolysis products of the defatted microalgal residues were also analysed to delve into the utilisation potential of microalgae biomass. Defatted microalgae from modified wastewater by pyrolysis at 650 °C resulted in an increase in the total content of valuable products (39.47%) with no significant difference in the content of toxic compounds compared to other groups. Moreover, the results of the life cycle assessment showed that the environmental impact (388.9 mPET2000) was lower than that of raw wastewater (418.1 mPET2000) and standard medium (497.3 mPET2000)-cultivated groups. Consequently, the method of culturing microalgae in modified wastewater and pyrolyzing algal residues has a potential to increase renewable energy production and reduce environmental impact.

This article aims to review the global context, and especially the Colombian context, regarding the management of waste electrical and electronic appliances, their use, recovery and the main extraction methods for high added-value base and precious metals. A literature review was carried out to obtain the quantities of residues, their main components and the extraction methods for base and precious metals; for Colombia, a case study was carried out in which, through a hydrometallurgy process applied to cellular phones, the quantities of base and precious metals that can be obtained were calculated. Only 15.5 % of e-waste in the world is recycled, the main recyclable components are iron (Fe), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), gold (Au) and palladium (Pd), and that using e-waste as a source of metals could reduce energy consumption by 60-95 %. For the case study in Colombia, it was found that 3.8 t/year of Cu, 3.5 t/year of Fe, 56.5 kg/year of Ag, 6 kg/year of Pd and 10 kg/year of Au could be obtained. The conclusion is that recovering metals from electrical and electronic waste is feasible and that alternatives should be sought to take advantage of them due to their potential added value., El objetivo de este artículo es revisar el contexto mundial, y especialmente el colombiano, respecto al manejo de los residuos de equipos eléctricos y electrónicos, su aprovechamiento, recuperación y los principales métodos para la extracción de metales base y preciosos de alto valor agregado. Para ello, se realizó una revisión bibliográfica para obtener las cantidades de residuos, sus componentes principales y los métodos de extracción de metales base y preciosos; para Colombia, se realizó un estudio de caso, en el que, mediante un proceso de hidrometalurgia aplicado a teléfonos celulares, se calcularon las cantidades de metales base y preciosos que se pueden obtener. Se encontró que solo se aprovecha el 15,5 % de los residuos electrónicos en el mundo, que los principales componentes reciclables son el hierro (Fe), el cobre (Cu), el aluminio (Al), el plomo (Pb), el níquel (Ni), la plata (Ag), el oro (Au) y el paladio (Pd), y que el uso de los residuos electrónicos como fuente de metales podría reducir el consumo de energía entre 60 % y 95 %. Para el estudio de caso en Colombia, se encontró que se podrían obtener 3,8 t/año de Cu, 3,5 t/año de Fe, 56,5 kg/año de Ag, 6 kg/año de Pd y 10 kg/año de Au. Se concluye que es viable la recuperación de metales a partir de residuos eléctricos y electrónicos y que se deben buscar alternativas para aprovecharlos debido a su potencial valor agregado.

[ES] En este trabajo de fin de máster, se lleva a cabo la tasa de valorización de los envases y embalajes de madera en España en 2020. Consiste en realizar un muestreo con las empresas consultadas que trabajen con madera para saber cuanta es la cantidad aproximada que se reutiliza, se recupera y se valoriza la madera en España. En primer lugar, se definen los aspectos básicos del proyecto, se hace el estudio con las empresas por medio de encuestas, llamadas telefónicas y correos, se recopilan los datos que se obtienen de las empresas y se procede a calcular las respectivas tasas nombradas anteriormente. Finalmente, este proyecto se desarrolla en las oficinas de la Federación Española del Envase de Madera y sus Componentes en Valencia, España. El proyecto se corresponde con el departamento de medio ambiente., [EN] In this master's thesis, the valuation rate of wooden containers and packaging in Spain in 2020 is carried out. It consists of carrying out a sampling with the companies consulted that work with wood to find out how much is the approximate quantity that wood is reused, recovered and valued in Spain. First, the basic aspects of the project are defined, the study is carried out with the companies through surveys, telephone calls and emails, the data obtained from the companies is collected and the respective rates mentioned above are calculated. Finally, this project is developed in the offices of the Spanish Federation of Wood Packaging and its Components in Valencia, Spain. The project corresponds to the environment department

[ES] La pérdida y el desperdicio de alimentos en la industria alimentaria y hortofrutícola en particular, representan uno de los problemas de contaminación ambiental más comunes en el mundo. Los tallo el brócoli constituyen una gran variedad de compuestos bioactivos, siendo ricos en antioxidantes, vitaminas, fibra, carotenoides, compuestos fenólicos y glucosinolatos. Es por esto, que el presente trabajo estudió la fermentación como pretratamiento para la obtención de polvos de tallo de brócoli con propiedades funcionales utilizando tres cepas de bacterias del ácido láctico (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum y Lactobacillus reuteri) y dos tipos de intensidad de desetructurado: Triturado y Troceado. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que Lactobacillus reuteri experimentó el mayor incremento en la población microbiana tras 24 h. En cuanto a la intensidad de la desestructuración previa a la fermentación, ésta no pareció afectar de forma significativa al crecimiento de ninguna de las tres cepas ensayada. La fermentación produjo un aumento significativo en el contenido en fenoles totales, incluidos los del tipo flavonoides, pero menos acusado en la habilidad de las muestras para secuestrar los radicales DPPH y ABTS.Finalmente, se observó que el contenido en antioxidantes aumentó un 72% después del proceso de fermentación, liofilización y molienda, por lo tanto, puede concluirse que la fermentación con bacterias del ácido láctico (BAL) es un pretratamiento que mejora las propiedades del tallo de brócoli y el producto en polvo desarrollado en esta investigación contribuiría en reducir el desperdicio de los tallos de brócoli y podría ser empleado como potencial ingrediente en el desarrollo de nuevos alimentos funcionales, [EN] The loss and waste of food in the food and fruit and vegetable industry in particular, represents one of the most common environmental pollution problems in the world. The broccoli stems constitute a great variety of bioactive compounds, being rich in antioxidants, vitamins, fiber, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and glucosinolates. This is why the present work studied fermentation as a pretreatment to obtain broccoli stem powders with functional properties using three strains of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus reuteri) and two types of intensity of unstructured : Crushed and Chopped. The results showed that Lactobacillus reuteri experienced the greatest increase in the microbial population after 24 h. Regarding the intensity of the destructuring prior to fermentation, it did not seem to significantly affect the growth of any of the three strains tested. Fermentation produced a significant increase in the content of total phenols, including those of the flavonoid type, but less marked in the ability of the samples to sequester the radicals DPPH and ABTS. Finally, it is found that the antioxidant content increased by 72% after the fermentation, freeze-drying and milling process, therefore, it can be concluded that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a pretreatment that improves the properties of the stem of broccoli and the powdered product developed in this research would contribute to reducing the waste of broccoli stems and could be used as a potential ingredient in the development of new functional foods.

[ES] La industria de transformación de frutas y hortalizas genera una gran cantidad de residuos, que son habitualmente desechados o infrautilizados, y en definitiva considerados material de bajo valor. La valorización de los residuos de la industria agroalimentaria constituye un gran reto para todos los agentes involucrados, evidenciándose un interés creciente por el desarrollo de procesos y productos innovadores que contribuyan a este fin. Este trabajo se propone en el contexto de un proyecto de investigación en el que colaboran el IUIAD con la Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, cuyo objetivo es obtener ingredientes en polvo a partir del residuo de diversas hortalizas. El presente trabajo se centrará en el polvo obtenido a partir de destrío y residuo de zanahoria de la línea de IV gama. Debido a que se trata de un mercado de elevada exigencia, el porcentaje de destrío respecto a otras líneas es muy elevado. Los polvos de frutas y vegetales, o de los residuos generados en este caso, se han convertido en una nueva forma de consumir estos productos, habiendo suscitado un creciente interés. El presente trabajo fin de grado tiene como finalidad caracterizar fisicoquímicamente el polvo obtenido a partir de residuo de zanahoria, determinar sus propiedades antioxidantes y evaluar su respuesta a la digestión simulada in vitro. Para ello, se obtendrá polvo de residuo de zanahoria tras el triturado/troceado del residuo, posterior secado empleando diferentes técnicas y condiciones (secado por aire caliente, liofilización), y molienda. La caracterización consistirá en determinar propiedades fisicoquímicas básicas (xw, aw, xss), tamaño de partícula, propiedades antioxidantes (fenoles y flavonoides totales, actividad antirradical ABTS y DPPH, cuantificación de carotenoides por HPLC). Así mismo, los polvos obtenidos se someterán a un proceso de digestión in vitro (directamente, disueltos en agua y disueltos en una emulsión agua-aceite), con el fin de determinar la respuesta de los c, [EN] The agro-food industry generates a great amount of waste that is usually thrown away or underused. So, it is a great challenge for all the agents involved in this industry to reduce the volume of this waste and therefore its environmental impact. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the development of several processes and products which could contribute to the enhancement of this waste and the circular economy. This work is framed within a researching project in which the IIAD is working together with the Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, whose aim is to obtain powdered ingredients from different vegetables waste. The main purpose of this work consisted on getting powder from the waste generated by the IV range carrots from the cooperative, and its characterization as a functional ingredient, as well as its answer to the simulated in vitro digestion. For this, this waste was first tested to several grinding processes in different levels, such as crushing or chopping, drying processes using different techniques and conditions (hot air at 60 and 70 oC and freeze-drying), and ending with a milling stage. The powder characterization was based on the determination of basic physicochemical features (humidity, water activity and soluble solid content), particle size and antioxidant features, including total phenol and flavonoid content, DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity and carotenoid quantification by HPLC. Moreover, the resulting powder was subjected to an in vitro digestive process (directly, dissolved in water and dissolved in a water-in-oil emulsion) in order to determine the answer of the antioxidant and specific bioactive compounds (carotenoids). The result of this work shows that the treatment used on the carrot waste allowed us to obtain stable powder with meaningful antioxidant properties and carotenoid content. This fact makes it interesting as a useful ingredient in the formulation of functional food, specially the powder obtained by chopping, drie

[ES] En este trabajo de fin de máster, se lleva a cabo la tasa de valorización de los envases y embalajes de madera en España en 2020. Consiste en realizar un muestreo con las empresas consultadas que trabajen con madera para saber cuanta es la cantidad aproximada que se reutiliza, se recupera y se valoriza la madera en España. En primer lugar, se definen los aspectos básicos del proyecto, se hace el estudio con las empresas por medio de encuestas, llamadas telefónicas y correos, se recopilan los datos que se obtienen de las empresas y se procede a calcular las respectivas tasas nombradas anteriormente. Finalmente, este proyecto se desarrolla en las oficinas de la Federación Española del Envase de Madera y sus Componentes en Valencia, España. El proyecto se corresponde con el departamento de medio ambiente., [EN] In this master's thesis, the valuation rate of wooden containers and packaging in Spain in 2020 is carried out. It consists of carrying out a sampling with the companies consulted that work with wood to find out how much is the approximate quantity that wood is reused, recovered and valued in Spain. First, the basic aspects of the project are defined, the study is carried out with the companies through surveys, telephone calls and emails, the data obtained from the companies is collected and the respective rates mentioned above are calculated. Finally, this project is developed in the offices of the Spanish Federation of Wood Packaging and its Components in Valencia, Spain. The project corresponds to the environment department

[ES] La pérdida y el desperdicio de alimentos en la industria alimentaria y hortofrutícola en particular, representan uno de los problemas de contaminación ambiental más comunes en el mundo. Los tallo el brócoli constituyen una gran variedad de compuestos bioactivos, siendo ricos en antioxidantes, vitaminas, fibra, carotenoides, compuestos fenólicos y glucosinolatos. Es por esto, que el presente trabajo estudió la fermentación como pretratamiento para la obtención de polvos de tallo de brócoli con propiedades funcionales utilizando tres cepas de bacterias del ácido láctico (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum y Lactobacillus reuteri) y dos tipos de intensidad de desetructurado: Triturado y Troceado. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que Lactobacillus reuteri experimentó el mayor incremento en la población microbiana tras 24 h. En cuanto a la intensidad de la desestructuración previa a la fermentación, ésta no pareció afectar de forma significativa al crecimiento de ninguna de las tres cepas ensayada. La fermentación produjo un aumento significativo en el contenido en fenoles totales, incluidos los del tipo flavonoides, pero menos acusado en la habilidad de las muestras para secuestrar los radicales DPPH y ABTS.Finalmente, se observó que el contenido en antioxidantes aumentó un 72% después del proceso de fermentación, liofilización y molienda, por lo tanto, puede concluirse que la fermentación con bacterias del ácido láctico (BAL) es un pretratamiento que mejora las propiedades del tallo de brócoli y el producto en polvo desarrollado en esta investigación contribuiría en reducir el desperdicio de los tallos de brócoli y podría ser empleado como potencial ingrediente en el desarrollo de nuevos alimentos funcionales, [EN] The loss and waste of food in the food and fruit and vegetable industry in particular, represents one of the most common environmental pollution problems in the world. The broccoli stems constitute a great variety of bioactive compounds, being rich in antioxidants, vitamins, fiber, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and glucosinolates. This is why the present work studied fermentation as a pretreatment to obtain broccoli stem powders with functional properties using three strains of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus reuteri) and two types of intensity of unstructured : Crushed and Chopped. The results showed that Lactobacillus reuteri experienced the greatest increase in the microbial population after 24 h. Regarding the intensity of the destructuring prior to fermentation, it did not seem to significantly affect the growth of any of the three strains tested. Fermentation produced a significant increase in the content of total phenols, including those of the flavonoid type, but less marked in the ability of the samples to sequester the radicals DPPH and ABTS. Finally, it is found that the antioxidant content increased by 72% after the fermentation, freeze-drying and milling process, therefore, it can be concluded that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a pretreatment that improves the properties of the stem of broccoli and the powdered product developed in this research would contribute to reducing the waste of broccoli stems and could be used as a potential ingredient in the development of new functional foods.

[ES] La industria de transformación de frutas y hortalizas genera una gran cantidad de residuos, que son habitualmente desechados o infrautilizados, y en definitiva considerados material de bajo valor. La valorización de los residuos de la industria agroalimentaria constituye un gran reto para todos los agentes involucrados, evidenciándose un interés creciente por el desarrollo de procesos y productos innovadores que contribuyan a este fin. Este trabajo se propone en el contexto de un proyecto de investigación en el que colaboran el IUIAD con la Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, cuyo objetivo es obtener ingredientes en polvo a partir del residuo de diversas hortalizas. El presente trabajo se centrará en el polvo obtenido a partir de destrío y residuo de zanahoria de la línea de IV gama. Debido a que se trata de un mercado de elevada exigencia, el porcentaje de destrío respecto a otras líneas es muy elevado. Los polvos de frutas y vegetales, o de los residuos generados en este caso, se han convertido en una nueva forma de consumir estos productos, habiendo suscitado un creciente interés. El presente trabajo fin de grado tiene como finalidad caracterizar fisicoquímicamente el polvo obtenido a partir de residuo de zanahoria, determinar sus propiedades antioxidantes y evaluar su respuesta a la digestión simulada in vitro. Para ello, se obtendrá polvo de residuo de zanahoria tras el triturado/troceado del residuo, posterior secado empleando diferentes técnicas y condiciones (secado por aire caliente, liofilización), y molienda. La caracterización consistirá en determinar propiedades fisicoquímicas básicas (xw, aw, xss), tamaño de partícula, propiedades antioxidantes (fenoles y flavonoides totales, actividad antirradical ABTS y DPPH, cuantificación de carotenoides por HPLC). Así mismo, los polvos obtenidos se someterán a un proceso de digestión in vitro (directamente, disueltos en agua y disueltos en una emulsión agua-aceite), con el fin de determinar la respuesta de los c, [EN] The agro-food industry generates a great amount of waste that is usually thrown away or underused. So, it is a great challenge for all the agents involved in this industry to reduce the volume of this waste and therefore its environmental impact. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the development of several processes and products which could contribute to the enhancement of this waste and the circular economy. This work is framed within a researching project in which the IIAD is working together with the Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, whose aim is to obtain powdered ingredients from different vegetables waste. The main purpose of this work consisted on getting powder from the waste generated by the IV range carrots from the cooperative, and its characterization as a functional ingredient, as well as its answer to the simulated in vitro digestion. For this, this waste was first tested to several grinding processes in different levels, such as crushing or chopping, drying processes using different techniques and conditions (hot air at 60 and 70 oC and freeze-drying), and ending with a milling stage. The powder characterization was based on the determination of basic physicochemical features (humidity, water activity and soluble solid content), particle size and antioxidant features, including total phenol and flavonoid content, DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity and carotenoid quantification by HPLC. Moreover, the resulting powder was subjected to an in vitro digestive process (directly, dissolved in water and dissolved in a water-in-oil emulsion) in order to determine the answer of the antioxidant and specific bioactive compounds (carotenoids). The result of this work shows that the treatment used on the carrot waste allowed us to obtain stable powder with meaningful antioxidant properties and carotenoid content. This fact makes it interesting as a useful ingredient in the formulation of functional food, specially the powder obtained by chopping, drie

[ES] En este trabajo de fin de máster, se lleva a cabo la tasa de valorización de los envases y embalajes de madera en España en 2020. Consiste en realizar un muestreo con las empresas consultadas que trabajen con madera para saber cuanta es la cantidad aproximada que se reutiliza, se recupera y se valoriza la madera en España. En primer lugar, se definen los aspectos básicos del proyecto, se hace el estudio con las empresas por medio de encuestas, llamadas telefónicas y correos, se recopilan los datos que se obtienen de las empresas y se procede a calcular las respectivas tasas nombradas anteriormente. Finalmente, este proyecto se desarrolla en las oficinas de la Federación Española del Envase de Madera y sus Componentes en Valencia, España. El proyecto se corresponde con el departamento de medio ambiente., [EN] In this master's thesis, the valuation rate of wooden containers and packaging in Spain in 2020 is carried out. It consists of carrying out a sampling with the companies consulted that work with wood to find out how much is the approximate quantity that wood is reused, recovered and valued in Spain. First, the basic aspects of the project are defined, the study is carried out with the companies through surveys, telephone calls and emails, the data obtained from the companies is collected and the respective rates mentioned above are calculated. Finally, this project is developed in the offices of the Spanish Federation of Wood Packaging and its Components in Valencia, Spain. The project corresponds to the environment department

[ES] La industria de transformación de frutas y hortalizas genera una gran cantidad de residuos, que son habitualmente desechados o infrautilizados, y en definitiva considerados material de bajo valor. La valorización de los residuos de la industria agroalimentaria constituye un gran reto para todos los agentes involucrados, evidenciándose un interés creciente por el desarrollo de procesos y productos innovadores que contribuyan a este fin. Este trabajo se propone en el contexto de un proyecto de investigación en el que colaboran el IUIAD con la Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, cuyo objetivo es obtener ingredientes en polvo a partir del residuo de diversas hortalizas. El presente trabajo se centrará en el polvo obtenido a partir de destrío y residuo de zanahoria de la línea de IV gama. Debido a que se trata de un mercado de elevada exigencia, el porcentaje de destrío respecto a otras líneas es muy elevado. Los polvos de frutas y vegetales, o de los residuos generados en este caso, se han convertido en una nueva forma de consumir estos productos, habiendo suscitado un creciente interés. El presente trabajo fin de grado tiene como finalidad caracterizar fisicoquímicamente el polvo obtenido a partir de residuo de zanahoria, determinar sus propiedades antioxidantes y evaluar su respuesta a la digestión simulada in vitro. Para ello, se obtendrá polvo de residuo de zanahoria tras el triturado/troceado del residuo, posterior secado empleando diferentes técnicas y condiciones (secado por aire caliente, liofilización), y molienda. La caracterización consistirá en determinar propiedades fisicoquímicas básicas (xw, aw, xss), tamaño de partícula, propiedades antioxidantes (fenoles y flavonoides totales, actividad antirradical ABTS y DPPH, cuantificación de carotenoides por HPLC). Así mismo, los polvos obtenidos se someterán a un proceso de digestión in vitro (directamente, disueltos en agua y disueltos en una emulsión agua-aceite), con el fin de determinar la respuesta de los c, [EN] The agro-food industry generates a great amount of waste that is usually thrown away or underused. So, it is a great challenge for all the agents involved in this industry to reduce the volume of this waste and therefore its environmental impact. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the development of several processes and products which could contribute to the enhancement of this waste and the circular economy. This work is framed within a researching project in which the IIAD is working together with the Cooperativa Agrícola de Villena, whose aim is to obtain powdered ingredients from different vegetables waste. The main purpose of this work consisted on getting powder from the waste generated by the IV range carrots from the cooperative, and its characterization as a functional ingredient, as well as its answer to the simulated in vitro digestion. For this, this waste was first tested to several grinding processes in different levels, such as crushing or chopping, drying processes using different techniques and conditions (hot air at 60 and 70 oC and freeze-drying), and ending with a milling stage. The powder characterization was based on the determination of basic physicochemical features (humidity, water activity and soluble solid content), particle size and antioxidant features, including total phenol and flavonoid content, DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity and carotenoid quantification by HPLC. Moreover, the resulting powder was subjected to an in vitro digestive process (directly, dissolved in water and dissolved in a water-in-oil emulsion) in order to determine the answer of the antioxidant and specific bioactive compounds (carotenoids). The result of this work shows that the treatment used on the carrot waste allowed us to obtain stable powder with meaningful antioxidant properties and carotenoid content. This fact makes it interesting as a useful ingredient in the formulation of functional food, specially the powder obtained by chopping, drie

[ES] La pérdida y el desperdicio de alimentos en la industria alimentaria y hortofrutícola en particular, representan uno de los problemas de contaminación ambiental más comunes en el mundo. Los tallo el brócoli constituyen una gran variedad de compuestos bioactivos, siendo ricos en antioxidantes, vitaminas, fibra, carotenoides, compuestos fenólicos y glucosinolatos. Es por esto, que el presente trabajo estudió la fermentación como pretratamiento para la obtención de polvos de tallo de brócoli con propiedades funcionales utilizando tres cepas de bacterias del ácido láctico (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum y Lactobacillus reuteri) y dos tipos de intensidad de desetructurado: Triturado y Troceado. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que Lactobacillus reuteri experimentó el mayor incremento en la población microbiana tras 24 h. En cuanto a la intensidad de la desestructuración previa a la fermentación, ésta no pareció afectar de forma significativa al crecimiento de ninguna de las tres cepas ensayada. La fermentación produjo un aumento significativo en el contenido en fenoles totales, incluidos los del tipo flavonoides, pero menos acusado en la habilidad de las muestras para secuestrar los radicales DPPH y ABTS.Finalmente, se observó que el contenido en antioxidantes aumentó un 72% después del proceso de fermentación, liofilización y molienda, por lo tanto, puede concluirse que la fermentación con bacterias del ácido láctico (BAL) es un pretratamiento que mejora las propiedades del tallo de brócoli y el producto en polvo desarrollado en esta investigación contribuiría en reducir el desperdicio de los tallos de brócoli y podría ser empleado como potencial ingrediente en el desarrollo de nuevos alimentos funcionales, [EN] The loss and waste of food in the food and fruit and vegetable industry in particular, represents one of the most common environmental pollution problems in the world. The broccoli stems constitute a great variety of bioactive compounds, being rich in antioxidants, vitamins, fiber, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and glucosinolates. This is why the present work studied fermentation as a pretreatment to obtain broccoli stem powders with functional properties using three strains of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus reuteri) and two types of intensity of unstructured : Crushed and Chopped. The results showed that Lactobacillus reuteri experienced the greatest increase in the microbial population after 24 h. Regarding the intensity of the destructuring prior to fermentation, it did not seem to significantly affect the growth of any of the three strains tested. Fermentation produced a significant increase in the content of total phenols, including those of the flavonoid type, but less marked in the ability of the samples to sequester the radicals DPPH and ABTS. Finally, it is found that the antioxidant content increased by 72% after the fermentation, freeze-drying and milling process, therefore, it can be concluded that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a pretreatment that improves the properties of the stem of broccoli and the powdered product developed in this research would contribute to reducing the waste of broccoli stems and could be used as a potential ingredient in the development of new functional foods.

[ES] En este trabajo de fin de máster, se lleva a cabo la tasa de valorización de los envases y embalajes de madera en España en 2020. Consiste en realizar un muestreo con las empresas consultadas que trabajen con madera para saber cuanta es la cantidad aproximada que se reutiliza, se recupera y se valoriza la madera en España. En primer lugar, se definen los aspectos básicos del proyecto, se hace el estudio con las empresas por medio de encuestas, llamadas telefónicas y correos, se recopilan los datos que se obtienen de las empresas y se procede a calcular las respectivas tasas nombradas anteriormente. Finalmente, este proyecto se desarrolla en las oficinas de la Federación Española del Envase de Madera y sus Componentes en Valencia, España. El proyecto se corresponde con el departamento de medio ambiente., [EN] In this master's thesis, the valuation rate of wooden containers and packaging in Spain in 2020 is carried out. It consists of carrying out a sampling with the companies consulted that work with wood to find out how much is the approximate quantity that wood is reused, recovered and valued in Spain. First, the basic aspects of the project are defined, the study is carried out with the companies through surveys, telephone calls and emails, the data obtained from the companies is collected and the respective rates mentioned above are calculated. Finally, this project is developed in the offices of the Spanish Federation of Wood Packaging and its Components in Valencia, Spain. The project corresponds to the environment department

[ES] La pérdida y el desperdicio de alimentos en la industria alimentaria y hortofrutícola en particular, representan uno de los problemas de contaminación ambiental más comunes en el mundo. Los tallo el brócoli constituyen una gran variedad de compuestos bioactivos, siendo ricos en antioxidantes, vitaminas, fibra, carotenoides, compuestos fenólicos y glucosinolatos. Es por esto, que el presente trabajo estudió la fermentación como pretratamiento para la obtención de polvos de tallo de brócoli con propiedades funcionales utilizando tres cepas de bacterias del ácido láctico (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum y Lactobacillus reuteri) y dos tipos de intensidad de desetructurado: Triturado y Troceado. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que Lactobacillus reuteri experimentó el mayor incremento en la población microbiana tras 24 h. En cuanto a la intensidad de la desestructuración previa a la fermentación, ésta no pareció afectar de forma significativa al crecimiento de ninguna de las tres cepas ensayada. La fermentación produjo un aumento significativo en el contenido en fenoles totales, incluidos los del tipo flavonoides, pero menos acusado en la habilidad de las muestras para secuestrar los radicales DPPH y ABTS.Finalmente, se observó que el contenido en antioxidantes aumentó un 72% después del proceso de fermentación, liofilización y molienda, por lo tanto, puede concluirse que la fermentación con bacterias del ácido láctico (BAL) es un pretratamiento que mejora las propiedades del tallo de brócoli y el producto en polvo desarrollado en esta investigación contribuiría en reducir el desperdicio de los tallos de brócoli y podría ser empleado como potencial ingrediente en el desarrollo de nuevos alimentos funcionales, [EN] The loss and waste of food in the food and fruit and vegetable industry in particular, represents one of the most common environmental pollution problems in the world. The broccoli stems constitute a great variety of bioactive compounds, being rich in antioxidants, vitamins, fiber, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and glucosinolates. This is why the present work studied fermentation as a pretreatment to obtain broccoli stem powders with functional properties using three strains of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus reuteri) and two types of intensity of unstructured : Crushed and Chopped. The results showed that Lactobacillus reuteri experienced the greatest increase in the microbial population after 24 h. Regarding the intensity of the destructuring prior to fermentation, it did not seem to significantly affect the growth of any of the three strains tested. Fermentation produced a significant increase in the content of total phenols, including those of the flavonoid type, but less marked in the ability of the samples to sequester the radicals DPPH and ABTS. Finally, it is found that the antioxidant content increased by 72% after the fermentation, freeze-drying and milling process, therefore, it can be concluded that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is a pretreatment that improves the properties of the stem of broccoli and the powdered product developed in this research would contribute to reducing the waste of broccoli stems and could be used as a potential ingredient in the development of new functional foods.

Chromite overburden (COB), considered as a waste material with 46% Fe and 0.8% Ni, is the only source of nickel in India. Iron and nickel from the overburden were recovered through reduction roasting, magnetic separation and smelting. In sintering, maximum Ni% was achieved at 1.0% S, 10% C inside and 10% C outside of the COB pellet. Ni was further enriched by smelting the magnetic fraction of sintered COB. XRD, SEM–EDS and chemical analysis of the feed material and products confirmed enriched Ni content in the ferronickel alloy. With optimised parameters such as time 12 min, basicity 1.2 and 10% reductant, the ferronickel alloy contains 8% Ni and 89% Fe with recovery of 87% Ni. It was possible to produce different grades of ferronickel, varying from 2% to 10% Ni. (Authors.), Chromite overburden (COB), considered as a waste material with 46% Fe and 0.8% Ni, is the only source of nickel in India. Iron and nickel from the overburden were recovered through reduction roasting, magnetic separation and smelting. In sintering, maximum Ni% was achieved at 1.0% S, 10% C inside and 10% C outside of the COB pellet. Ni was further enriched by smelting the magnetic fraction of sintered COB. XRD, SEM–EDS and chemical analysis of the feed material and products confirmed enriched Ni content in the ferronickel alloy. With optimised parameters such as time 12 min, basicity 1.2 and 10% reductant, the ferronickel alloy contains 8% Ni and 89% Fe with recovery of 87% Ni. It was possible to produce different grades of ferronickel, varying from 2% to 10% Ni. (Authors.)

As well as ten papers originally presented at the 4th Russia-UK raw materials dialogue held in September 2020, three of them co-authored by Chris Broadbent, tributes to him are included in the introduction, author dedications and three pages at the end of the volume. The topics of the first six papers relate to specific environmental issues: monitoring tailings stability from satellite data, minimising tailings legacy risk, utilising non-ferrous slags, contributing to sustainability through mining, rewilding open pits and considering mine water as a heat source. Other mining-related topics follow: surface mining of thin gold and silver veins with a high stripping ratio; design and construction of shafts and surface drifts; regulation changes for energy transition; and professional recognition in mineral reporting., As well as ten papers originally presented at the 4th Russia-UK raw materials dialogue held in September 2020, three of them co-authored by Chris Broadbent, tributes to him are included in the introduction, author dedications and three pages at the end of the volume. The topics of the first six papers relate to specific environmental issues: monitoring tailings stability from satellite data, minimising tailings legacy risk, utilising non-ferrous slags, contributing to sustainability through mining, rewilding open pits and considering mine water as a heat source. Other mining-related topics follow: surface mining of thin gold and silver veins with a high stripping ratio; design and construction of shafts and surface drifts; regulation changes for energy transition; and professional recognition in mineral reporting.

The ending of deep coal mining has left the UK with a legacy of more than 23 000 abandoned mines lying beneath a quarter of the country's homes, businesses and municipal buildings. It is essential that the recovery of water levels, following the cessation of pumping, should be managed in a controlled manner and the chemical composition monitored, but the water-filled voids can also be used repeatedly as a source of geothermal energy: the Coal Authority has calculated that constantly replenishing water within these mines could provide all the heating requirements for the buildings located on the coalfields and could also be used as a low-carbon, sustainable heat supply for horticulture, manufacturing and municipal purposes that under the right conditions could compete in price with public gas supply. A major thrust to utilise this geothermal heat potential by means of well established heat-pump technology is under way in a substantial number of projects being developed in the UK, for example at Seaham Garden VIllage in County Durham, where district heating pipes will be supplied at 18-20 degrees C via heat exchangers in conjunction with a drinking-water scheme, and to the east of Gateshead town centre, where boreholes will be drilled to c.150 m and 5.5 km of new pipes fed by a 6 MW heat pump., The ending of deep coal mining has left the UK with a legacy of more than 23 000 abandoned mines lying beneath a quarter of the country's homes, businesses and municipal buildings. It is essential that the recovery of water levels, following the cessation of pumping, should be managed in a controlled manner and the chemical composition monitored, but the water-filled voids can also be used repeatedly as a source of geothermal energy: the Coal Authority has calculated that constantly replenishing water within these mines could provide all the heating requirements for the buildings located on the coalfields and could also be used as a low-carbon, sustainable heat supply for horticulture, manufacturing and municipal purposes that under the right conditions could compete in price with public gas supply. A major thrust to utilise this geothermal heat potential by means of well established heat-pump technology is under way in a substantial number of projects being developed in the UK, for example at Seaham Garden VIllage in County Durham, where district heating pipes will be supplied at 18-20 degrees C via heat exchangers in conjunction with a drinking-water scheme, and to the east of Gateshead town centre, where boreholes will be drilled to c.150 m and 5.5 km of new pipes fed by a 6 MW heat pump.

Pyrometallurgical extraction of Cu, Ni and Pb produces iron-silicate slags that may provide valuable contained metals, usable energy and a residual material with geochemical and geotechnical properties that allow it to be repurposed. Each of the slags is considered in terms of global annual production, mass of slag produced per tonne of metal, and the valorisation and associated advantages and disadvantages of slag utilisation. Whereas the iron and steel industry has invested in slag process retreatments to capitalise on potential innovations in re-use and energy recovery, non-ferrous slags are more complex, mineralogically inconsistent and produced in smaller volumes. This makes them less desirable for use in bulk construction applications such as the cement industry. The preferred and more logical route is to use available technology to process the slag for the recovery of valuable metals and the removal, as far as possible, of leachable toxic heavy metals, the resulting slag offering more desirable properties than primary raw materials for abrasives or aggregates and with the additional possibility of recovering energy., Pyrometallurgical extraction of Cu, Ni and Pb produces iron-silicate slags that may provide valuable contained metals, usable energy and a residual material with geochemical and geotechnical properties that allow it to be repurposed. Each of the slags is considered in terms of global annual production, mass of slag produced per tonne of metal, and the valorisation and associated advantages and disadvantages of slag utilisation. Whereas the iron and steel industry has invested in slag process retreatments to capitalise on potential innovations in re-use and energy recovery, non-ferrous slags are more complex, mineralogically inconsistent and produced in smaller volumes. This makes them less desirable for use in bulk construction applications such as the cement industry. The preferred and more logical route is to use available technology to process the slag for the recovery of valuable metals and the removal, as far as possible, of leachable toxic heavy metals, the resulting slag offering more desirable properties than primary raw materials for abrasives or aggregates and with the additional possibility of recovering energy.

The millions of tons of current and legacy mineral processing tungsten tailings worldwide, that can potentially contaminate the environment and pose human health risks, could also become valuable resources if their geochemical composition were thoroughly characterised. An innovative method was developed to achieve the complete digestion of tungsten tailings by testing of three different digestion methods, hotplate digestion, bomb digestion and ColdBlock digestion, and comparison of the results; in addition, an alkali fusion for major element analysis was applied and tested. The results showed that alkali fusion is the best method for major element analysis, while bomb digestion is best for W and trace element analysis, although volatile chlorite loss was also observed. The hot plate digestion method was not recommended, owing to poor recovery of trace elements compared with the bomb digestion method. The quicker and safer ColdBlock digestion method, which uses short-wavelength infrared radiation to digest the sample and a condensation block to limit loss of volatiles, can be used for analysing Bi, Mo and several REEs, as indicated by their recovery being close to that from the bomb digestion method., The millions of tons of current and legacy mineral processing tungsten tailings worldwide, that can potentially contaminate the environment and pose human health risks, could also become valuable resources if their geochemical composition were thoroughly characterised. An innovative method was developed to achieve the complete digestion of tungsten tailings by testing of three different digestion methods, hotplate digestion, bomb digestion and ColdBlock digestion, and comparison of the results; in addition, an alkali fusion for major element analysis was applied and tested. The results showed that alkali fusion is the best method for major element analysis, while bomb digestion is best for W and trace element analysis, although volatile chlorite loss was also observed. The hot plate digestion method was not recommended, owing to poor recovery of trace elements compared with the bomb digestion method. The quicker and safer ColdBlock digestion method, which uses short-wavelength infrared radiation to digest the sample and a condensation block to limit loss of volatiles, can be used for analysing Bi, Mo and several REEs, as indicated by their recovery being close to that from the bomb digestion method.

Tailings consist primarily of gangue rock, often crushed and ground, together with process water, process chemicals, untargeted mineral elements and unrecovered residues of the desired minerals. Current containment may be by subserial discharge from a pipeline to a single spigot, a ring main with multiple spigots to control the geometry and location of the supernatant pond, or cyclones to allow quicker evaporation; oxidation of sulphide tailings may be prevented by subaquoeous deposition. Potential frameworks are highlighted for minimising and reusing tailings by classifying, reprocessing and recycling, deriving benefit and value where appropriate from any contained desirable metals or industrial minerals and optimising the output of suitable construction material for dam sidewalls or mine backfill, in order to improve the economics of correct treatment and disposal of the residual waste by means such as thickening to paste, filtering by pressure or vacuum, and dry stacking., Tailings consist primarily of gangue rock, often crushed and ground, together with process water, process chemicals, untargeted mineral elements and unrecovered residues of the desired minerals. Current containment may be by subserial discharge from a pipeline to a single spigot, a ring main with multiple spigots to control the geometry and location of the supernatant pond, or cyclones to allow quicker evaporation; oxidation of sulphide tailings may be prevented by subaquoeous deposition. Potential frameworks are highlighted for minimising and reusing tailings by classifying, reprocessing and recycling, deriving benefit and value where appropriate from any contained desirable metals or industrial minerals and optimising the output of suitable construction material for dam sidewalls or mine backfill, in order to improve the economics of correct treatment and disposal of the residual waste by means such as thickening to paste, filtering by pressure or vacuum, and dry stacking.

Direct smelting of printed circuit boards (PCBs) could potentially be a viable method for recovering materials from electronic wastes, particularly in countries having no existing primary Cu smelter. A suitable slag system is required that could be an effective medium to dissolve refractory metals and oxides from complex PCBs into the molten stream while producing a metal alloy containing the more valuable components. The metal and slag streams could then be separated by their gravitational differences. Addition of a suitable flux could lower the liquidus temperature of the generated slag and bring operational flexibility as well as a reduction in energy consumption. Phase equilibria of CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-Na2O slags were studied by thermal equilibration and quenching. The primary phases of the quenched slags were identified, and their equilibrium compositions determined by electron probe microanalysis. Liquidus temperatures of the slags were bracketed within an uncertainty of ± 10–20 degrees C. Anorthite (CaO·Al2O3·2SiO2), gehlenite (2CaO·Al2O3·SiO2), pseudowollastonite (CaO·SiO2) and larnite (2CaO·SiO2) were observed as primary phases. Progressive doping by Na2O substantially changed the slag liquidus temperature, shifting the primary phase from anorthite to pseudowollastonite and larnite, and gehlenite to larnite. The liquidus temperature decreased significantly with increasing Na2O in slags with CaO/SiO2 (C/S) ratios of 0.3 and 0.6, while the liquidus temperature increased for slags with a C/S ratio of 1.0. The solid solubility of Na2O in the phases was quantified. Finally, the relevance of the phase equilibria study of the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-Na2O system was discussed with regard to the optimum design of smelting with a focus on value recovery from e-waste., Direct smelting of printed circuit boards (PCBs) could potentially be a viable method for recovering materials from electronic wastes, particularly in countries having no existing primary Cu smelter. A suitable slag system is required that could be an effective medium to dissolve refractory metals and oxides from complex PCBs into the molten stream while producing a metal alloy containing the more valuable components. The metal and slag streams could then be separated by their gravitational differences. Addition of a suitable flux could lower the liquidus temperature of the generated slag and bring operational flexibility as well as a reduction in energy consumption. Phase equilibria of CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-Na2O slags were studied by thermal equilibration and quenching. The primary phases of the quenched slags were identified, and their equilibrium compositions determined by electron probe microanalysis. Liquidus temperatures of the slags were bracketed within an uncertainty of ± 10–20 degrees C. Anorthite (CaO·Al2O3·2SiO2), gehlenite (2CaO·Al2O3·SiO2), pseudowollastonite (CaO·SiO2) and larnite (2CaO·SiO2) were observed as primary phases. Progressive doping by Na2O substantially changed the slag liquidus temperature, shifting the primary phase from anorthite to pseudowollastonite and larnite, and gehlenite to larnite. The liquidus temperature decreased significantly with increasing Na2O in slags with CaO/SiO2 (C/S) ratios of 0.3 and 0.6, while the liquidus temperature increased for slags with a C/S ratio of 1.0. The solid solubility of Na2O in the phases was quantified. Finally, the relevance of the phase equilibria study of the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-Na2O system was discussed with regard to the optimum design of smelting with a focus on value recovery from e-waste.

Gold ore at Santa Barbara is associated with arsenopyrite and pyrite, which are disseminated in metapelitic rocks and quartz-carbonate veins. Ore undergoes crushing, grinding, gravimetric separation, sulphide flotation, pressure oxidation in an autoclave, and leaching. Only 25% of the run-of-mine mass is used in gold recovery, resulting in different volumes and gold grades in the tailings. Water from the process is reused without treatment. Samples from the tailings dam were studied to identify their chemical, mineralogical, and metallurgical properties, and to perform an environmental evaluation of the water at the surface of the tailings facility. The potential recovery of elements such as Sb, As, and Au was also considered for potential tailings reuse. The water was alkaline, with maximum pH values of around 10, and contained potentially toxic elements, such as Sb (up to 0.500 mg/l), As (up to 0.080 mg/l), and Cu (up to 20 mg/l). Gold enrichment areas were found in the tailings dam, with concentrations up to 0.5 g/t. It is concluded that even though the recovery of Sb, As, and Au had low rates in preliminary metallurgical tests, there is the potential for reuse or recovery in the process., Gold ore at Santa Barbara is associated with arsenopyrite and pyrite, which are disseminated in metapelitic rocks and quartz-carbonate veins. Ore undergoes crushing, grinding, gravimetric separation, sulphide flotation, pressure oxidation in an autoclave, and leaching. Only 25% of the run-of-mine mass is used in gold recovery, resulting in different volumes and gold grades in the tailings. Water from the process is reused without treatment. Samples from the tailings dam were studied to identify their chemical, mineralogical, and metallurgical properties, and to perform an environmental evaluation of the water at the surface of the tailings facility. The potential recovery of elements such as Sb, As, and Au was also considered for potential tailings reuse. The water was alkaline, with maximum pH values of around 10, and contained potentially toxic elements, such as Sb (up to 0.500 mg/l), As (up to 0.080 mg/l), and Cu (up to 20 mg/l). Gold enrichment areas were found in the tailings dam, with concentrations up to 0.5 g/t. It is concluded that even though the recovery of Sb, As, and Au had low rates in preliminary metallurgical tests, there is the potential for reuse or recovery in the process.

The San Rafael underground high-grade Sn-Cu mine in southern Peru produces over 10% of the world’s tin. The mine is planning to reprocess some of its oldest tailings, due to their volume and high tin concentrations. The tailings were partially saturated and required dewatering to allow further processing. Hydrogeological characterisation of the tailings has been carried out and a block model developed to provide accurate geometry of the facility and contacts between tailings, geological formations, and the environment. The hydrodynamic performance of the tailings was defined and modelling carried out to simulate different dewatering scenarios. Results suggested the implementation of 25 pumping wells of differing diameters (up to 20 cm) and depths (30-60 m) to be in operation for 8 months in the central, most permeable, section and 18 months in the less permeable areas. The wells were developed in early 2018 and monitoring is being carried out to analyse the evolution of water levels and the drawdown by sectors. Pumping flow in each well is adjusted to maximise efficiency and prevent equipment failure. Accurate forecasting of desaturation of the tailings is being carried out with automated monitoring of the control network and updating the numerical models., The San Rafael underground high-grade Sn-Cu mine in southern Peru produces over 10% of the world’s tin. The mine is planning to reprocess some of its oldest tailings, due to their volume and high tin concentrations. The tailings were partially saturated and required dewatering to allow further processing. Hydrogeological characterisation of the tailings has been carried out and a block model developed to provide accurate geometry of the facility and contacts between tailings, geological formations, and the environment. The hydrodynamic performance of the tailings was defined and modelling carried out to simulate different dewatering scenarios. Results suggested the implementation of 25 pumping wells of differing diameters (up to 20 cm) and depths (30-60 m) to be in operation for 8 months in the central, most permeable, section and 18 months in the less permeable areas. The wells were developed in early 2018 and monitoring is being carried out to analyse the evolution of water levels and the drawdown by sectors. Pumping flow in each well is adjusted to maximise efficiency and prevent equipment failure. Accurate forecasting of desaturation of the tailings is being carried out with automated monitoring of the control network and updating the numerical models.

Power plants in Mongolia generate more than 800 000 t/a of CCBs which are mainly fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag. Nine different mixtures of CCBs from the Ger district have been studied to assess their suitability as binders and fillers in blocks for backfilling at abandoned mines. Tests included sieve analysis, moisture tests, XRF-chemical analysis, radiation measurement, elution tests, unconfined compression tests, FT-IR measurement, and SEM analysis. It was found that blocks modified with cement were appropriate for backfilling, whereas those modified with fly ash often disintegrated. The strength of blocks containing mixtures of fly ash and bottom ash was not good. Fly ash blocks modified with Portland cement had very good strength, however, and most satisfied strength requirements. The expectation that boiler slags would be a good binder was not confirmed. It is concluded that, in general, CCBs could be used as backfill material for abandoned small mining sites in the Nalaikh area., Power plants in Mongolia generate more than 800 000 t/a of CCBs which are mainly fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag. Nine different mixtures of CCBs from the Ger district have been studied to assess their suitability as binders and fillers in blocks for backfilling at abandoned mines. Tests included sieve analysis, moisture tests, XRF-chemical analysis, radiation measurement, elution tests, unconfined compression tests, FT-IR measurement, and SEM analysis. It was found that blocks modified with cement were appropriate for backfilling, whereas those modified with fly ash often disintegrated. The strength of blocks containing mixtures of fly ash and bottom ash was not good. Fly ash blocks modified with Portland cement had very good strength, however, and most satisfied strength requirements. The expectation that boiler slags would be a good binder was not confirmed. It is concluded that, in general, CCBs could be used as backfill material for abandoned small mining sites in the Nalaikh area.

Samples were taken from 11 artisanal gold mining sites in the area, all of which contained at least one processing plant (operating or abandoned) and several tailings repositories. Ore at all the sites was processed by crushing, and poured into rotary ball mills along with water, lime, and mercury for up to 4 hours. The resulting amalgam was separated from the rocky material and burned, with the remnants going to improvised tailings dumps. The results of fire assay tests showed a high gold content in most of the tailings, suggesting the inefficiency of the use of mercury. Tests were carried out on further gold recovery from the tailings using centrifugal and gravimetric concentration. A good relationship of mutual collaboration was established between all stakeholders, and miners and mine owners showed willingness to apply better technologies to eliminate the use of mercury., Samples were taken from 11 artisanal gold mining sites in the area, all of which contained at least one processing plant (operating or abandoned) and several tailings repositories. Ore at all the sites was processed by crushing, and poured into rotary ball mills along with water, lime, and mercury for up to 4 hours. The resulting amalgam was separated from the rocky material and burned, with the remnants going to improvised tailings dumps. The results of fire assay tests showed a high gold content in most of the tailings, suggesting the inefficiency of the use of mercury. Tests were carried out on further gold recovery from the tailings using centrifugal and gravimetric concentration. A good relationship of mutual collaboration was established between all stakeholders, and miners and mine owners showed willingness to apply better technologies to eliminate the use of mercury.

Of the four sulphurica acid leaching methods studied - atmospheric, atmospheric with KMnO4, roasting-atmospheric and oxygen pressure - O2 pressure leaching proved most effective for In extraction, 94.1% of In being leached at an optimum 300 g/l H2SO4, 0.4 MPa O2, 10 ml/g liquid-solid ratio and 100 degrees C for 5 h. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy indicated that Zn, Fe and intermetallic CuZn compounds dissolved to leave PbSO4 and Pb as the major components of the leaching residue. Of the In in solution, 98.5% was selectively extracted with 30% bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate and 70% kerosene by 3-stage countercurrent extraction at an organic/aqueous phase ratio of 1/5, 99.5% of In in the organic phase then being stripped by 6 mol/l HCl through 4-stage countercurrent stripping at a 6/1 organic/aqueous phase ratio to give overall In recovery yield of c.92%. The process has the advantages of a short leaching time, high recovery rate and avoidance of harmful gas and solid discharges., Of the four sulphurica acid leaching methods studied - atmospheric, atmospheric with KMnO4, roasting-atmospheric and oxygen pressure - O2 pressure leaching proved most effective for In extraction, 94.1% of In being leached at an optimum 300 g/l H2SO4, 0.4 MPa O2, 10 ml/g liquid-solid ratio and 100 degrees C for 5 h. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy indicated that Zn, Fe and intermetallic CuZn compounds dissolved to leave PbSO4 and Pb as the major components of the leaching residue. Of the In in solution, 98.5% was selectively extracted with 30% bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate and 70% kerosene by 3-stage countercurrent extraction at an organic/aqueous phase ratio of 1/5, 99.5% of In in the organic phase then being stripped by 6 mol/l HCl through 4-stage countercurrent stripping at a 6/1 organic/aqueous phase ratio to give overall In recovery yield of c.92%. The process has the advantages of a short leaching time, high recovery rate and avoidance of harmful gas and solid discharges.

Bauxite at a mine in Pocos de Caldas, Brazil, is mined using the bench method, followed by grinding and chemical treatment using the Bayer process. Studies have been carried out of the financial and technical feasibilities of using a flip screen loader bucket to recover ore from the overburden at the mine. The flip screen was installed in the loader bucket to physically concentrate bauxite in the waste, increasing the content of the available alumina (AA), and reducing the reactive silica (RS) and organic carbon contents (OCC). Preliminary tests were successful in the oversize material (greater than 12.7 mm), giving an increase of 13% in AA and reductions of 22% in RS and 47% in OCC. The mass recovery averaged 48%. Some operational challenges regarding the flip screen need to be overcome, including adjusting the number of turns of the bucket and installing a brush kit to prevent screen clogging. Around 7 000 t of bauxite were produced in 4 months with an average product AA grade of 44% and 4.63% of RS. The produced mass was more than 75% of the value invested in the purchase and installation of the equipment., Bauxite at a mine in Pocos de Caldas, Brazil, is mined using the bench method, followed by grinding and chemical treatment using the Bayer process. Studies have been carried out of the financial and technical feasibilities of using a flip screen loader bucket to recover ore from the overburden at the mine. The flip screen was installed in the loader bucket to physically concentrate bauxite in the waste, increasing the content of the available alumina (AA), and reducing the reactive silica (RS) and organic carbon contents (OCC). Preliminary tests were successful in the oversize material (greater than 12.7 mm), giving an increase of 13% in AA and reductions of 22% in RS and 47% in OCC. The mass recovery averaged 48%. Some operational challenges regarding the flip screen need to be overcome, including adjusting the number of turns of the bucket and installing a brush kit to prevent screen clogging. Around 7 000 t of bauxite were produced in 4 months with an average product AA grade of 44% and 4.63% of RS. The produced mass was more than 75% of the value invested in the purchase and installation of the equipment.

STC's revolutionary and patented U4Lead technology for hydrometallurgical desulphurisation of secondary lead paste from batteries is already working in an industrial plant supplied by STC to the Nigerian company named Green Recycling Industries. It allows the implementation of the desulphurisation reaction starting from an amino compound, namely urea, a very cheap reagent and safe for handling/storing/moving. A comparison between this patented process and the traditional ones is illustrated in this article together with its advantages and benefits from an economical, operational and environmental viewpoint and, last but not least, its connection with another patented process by STC called LEAD for the lead oxide hydrometallurgical regeneration., STC's revolutionary and patented U4Lead technology for hydrometallurgical desulphurisation of secondary lead paste from batteries is already working in an industrial plant supplied by STC to the Nigerian company named Green Recycling Industries. It allows the implementation of the desulphurisation reaction starting from an amino compound, namely urea, a very cheap reagent and safe for handling/storing/moving. A comparison between this patented process and the traditional ones is illustrated in this article together with its advantages and benefits from an economical, operational and environmental viewpoint and, last but not least, its connection with another patented process by STC called LEAD for the lead oxide hydrometallurgical regeneration.

The forces driving mining investment are moving towards consumer-driven priorities as environmental concerns and resource conservation become more important. A method to extract useful metals from fly ash has been developed at Chalmers University of Technology in Finland and pilot tests carried out to recover zinc from ash from a waste-to-energy plant. Around 70% of the zinc present was recycled and the level of toxicity of the fly ash was significantly reduced. Airborne and ground surveys of closed mines in the eastern Adirondack Mountains of New York (USA) have suggested that rare earth elements could be recovered from mine wastes and mill tailings., The forces driving mining investment are moving towards consumer-driven priorities as environmental concerns and resource conservation become more important. A method to extract useful metals from fly ash has been developed at Chalmers University of Technology in Finland and pilot tests carried out to recover zinc from ash from a waste-to-energy plant. Around 70% of the zinc present was recycled and the level of toxicity of the fly ash was significantly reduced. Airborne and ground surveys of closed mines in the eastern Adirondack Mountains of New York (USA) have suggested that rare earth elements could be recovered from mine wastes and mill tailings.

For every ton of pyrometallurgical Cu 2-3 t of Cu slag are generated, amounting globally to 4 000 000-5 000 000 t/a containing 35-45% Fe and 25-35% SiO2. An isothermal study of the solid-state reduction kinetics of fayalite with and without the addition of 10 wt% metallic Fe found that the carbothermal reduction is controlled by phase boundary reaction and that adding Fe decreases the activation energy from 165.22 to 145.74 kJ/mol. The fayalite decomposes into metallic Fe and quartz solid solution, the latter being converted into cristobalite solid solution with increasing temperature. The addition of metallic Fe creates a nucleating effect that accelerates the decomposition., For every ton of pyrometallurgical Cu 2-3 t of Cu slag are generated, amounting globally to 4 000 000-5 000 000 t/a containing 35-45% Fe and 25-35% SiO2. An isothermal study of the solid-state reduction kinetics of fayalite with and without the addition of 10 wt% metallic Fe found that the carbothermal reduction is controlled by phase boundary reaction and that adding Fe decreases the activation energy from 165.22 to 145.74 kJ/mol. The fayalite decomposes into metallic Fe and quartz solid solution, the latter being converted into cristobalite solid solution with increasing temperature. The addition of metallic Fe creates a nucleating effect that accelerates the decomposition.

The lead recycling world is facing new challenges every year. Practically all lead is nowadays employed in the lead acid battery industry. Pyrometallurgical technologies are applied worldwide to recover this metal from its primary and secondary resources and these technologies are partly responsible for the environmental pollution still imputed to this metal. Regulations in all countries are thus getting more and more stringent and many companies are facing the possibility to stop the lead production for a percentage of the year. Hydrometallurgy is recognised from decades as a technology able to cut dramatically all primary and secondary pollution sources with lower CO2 emissions. The Engitec hydro process, named FAST, is capable of extracting lead from many primary and secondary sources, and producing metallic lead in a near-neutral near-room-temperature environment. Lead metal production from lead sulphate-bearing materials is discussed and the potential of this technology to be substituted for the pyrometallurgical and cost-intensive desulphurisation processes actually employed is also considered., The lead recycling world is facing new challenges every year. Practically all lead is nowadays employed in the lead acid battery industry. Pyrometallurgical technologies are applied worldwide to recover this metal from its primary and secondary resources and these technologies are partly responsible for the environmental pollution still imputed to this metal. Regulations in all countries are thus getting more and more stringent and many companies are facing the possibility to stop the lead production for a percentage of the year. Hydrometallurgy is recognised from decades as a technology able to cut dramatically all primary and secondary pollution sources with lower CO2 emissions. The Engitec hydro process, named FAST, is capable of extracting lead from many primary and secondary sources, and producing metallic lead in a near-neutral near-room-temperature environment. Lead metal production from lead sulphate-bearing materials is discussed and the potential of this technology to be substituted for the pyrometallurgical and cost-intensive desulphurisation processes actually employed is also considered.

Around 40% of a solar-grade Si ingot is wasted as harmful ultrafine Si powder during the multi-wire wafer slicing process; the waste from diamond-wire sawing contains mainly Si and SiO2 with small amounts of impurities such as Fe, Ca, Al and Na. An investigation into the removal of Fe by ultrasound-assisted acid leaching found that the optimum conditions of 80 kHz, 270 W and 12% H2SO4 concentration at 60 degrees C removed 95.24% of Fe after 50 min., compared with 80 min. for the same conditions without ultrasound. Most of the aggregates were broken into small particles by the ultrasound, increasing their reaction rate and resulting in higher values for the reaction rate constant., Around 40% of a solar-grade Si ingot is wasted as harmful ultrafine Si powder during the multi-wire wafer slicing process; the waste from diamond-wire sawing contains mainly Si and SiO2 with small amounts of impurities such as Fe, Ca, Al and Na. An investigation into the removal of Fe by ultrasound-assisted acid leaching found that the optimum conditions of 80 kHz, 270 W and 12% H2SO4 concentration at 60 degrees C removed 95.24% of Fe after 50 min., compared with 80 min. for the same conditions without ultrasound. Most of the aggregates were broken into small particles by the ultrasound, increasing their reaction rate and resulting in higher values for the reaction rate constant.

Optosort GmbH have developed a freefall solution for sorting mineral construction and other wastes. Material detection is carried out from two sides, with near-infrared and colour sensors used to detect and remove different materials and composites. This allows for the detection and separation of minerals such as gypsum in a composite building waste. The coupled RGB line cameras and hyperspectral NIR line cameras can be used to detect dry and wet mineral particles and reject detected impurities. The equipment is robust, low-wear, flexible, and low-maintenance. It is suitable for particles between 10 mm and 100 mm, has low energy consumption, and can be integrated in local networks. Tests show that while minerals in the construction materials can be identified based on their colour, because of colour overlaps it is not possible to differentiate between them. Fewer misdetections occur using NIR, but it isn't possible to identify glass and very absorbent materials. The goal is to increase detection rates for individual materials, especially with regard to spectral processing and validation., Optosort GmbH have developed a freefall solution for sorting mineral construction and other wastes. Material detection is carried out from two sides, with near-infrared and colour sensors used to detect and remove different materials and composites. This allows for the detection and separation of minerals such as gypsum in a composite building waste. The coupled RGB line cameras and hyperspectral NIR line cameras can be used to detect dry and wet mineral particles and reject detected impurities. The equipment is robust, low-wear, flexible, and low-maintenance. It is suitable for particles between 10 mm and 100 mm, has low energy consumption, and can be integrated in local networks. Tests show that while minerals in the construction materials can be identified based on their colour, because of colour overlaps it is not possible to differentiate between them. Fewer misdetections occur using NIR, but it isn't possible to identify glass and very absorbent materials. The goal is to increase detection rates for individual materials, especially with regard to spectral processing and validation.

Laboratory studies have been carried out of the use of dolomite in the agglomeration of low grade manganese ores from Kazakhstan. This facilitates the formation of more refractory final slags for the production of ferro-silicomanganese. Results showed that agglomerate obtained with the addition of 10% dolomite is characterised by the presence of diopside, which confirms previously identified thermodynamic diagram analysis of the phase structure of the system. Industrial tests were carried out in the sinter plant of the Aksu Ferroalloy Plant using dolomite and quartzite as fluxing components and coke and coal as the reducing agent. It was found that the replacement of fine manganese ore with a fluxed agglomerate improved the electrical and technological modes of smelting, including the state of the furnace grate, uniform release of gases, smooth discharge of the charge, effective assimilation of coke carbon, and intensification of the reduction of Mn and Si from the slag. The phase composition of the slags was found to agree with that obtained in the theoretical studies., Laboratory studies have been carried out of the use of dolomite in the agglomeration of low grade manganese ores from Kazakhstan. This facilitates the formation of more refractory final slags for the production of ferro-silicomanganese. Results showed that agglomerate obtained with the addition of 10% dolomite is characterised by the presence of diopside, which confirms previously identified thermodynamic diagram analysis of the phase structure of the system. Industrial tests were carried out in the sinter plant of the Aksu Ferroalloy Plant using dolomite and quartzite as fluxing components and coke and coal as the reducing agent. It was found that the replacement of fine manganese ore with a fluxed agglomerate improved the electrical and technological modes of smelting, including the state of the furnace grate, uniform release of gases, smooth discharge of the charge, effective assimilation of coke carbon, and intensification of the reduction of Mn and Si from the slag. The phase composition of the slags was found to agree with that obtained in the theoretical studies.

Nickel slags from the Jinchuan company smelters in China have been used in studies of the direct reduction of iron oxide. The slag had a high Fe content and SiO2, MgO, Al2O3, and other oxides present in the form of glass-state silicate. The slags, along with calcium solvents, additives, and a reducing agent, were added to a reduction furnace and preheated, reduced, sintered, cooled, and quenched. After magnetic separation, the iron content was used as the raw material for blast furnaces or steel making. Thermodynamic studies were carried out along with synergistic experiments of the preparation of cementitious materials and the direct reduction of iron., Nickel slags from the Jinchuan company smelters in China have been used in studies of the direct reduction of iron oxide. The slag had a high Fe content and SiO2, MgO, Al2O3, and other oxides present in the form of glass-state silicate. The slags, along with calcium solvents, additives, and a reducing agent, were added to a reduction furnace and preheated, reduced, sintered, cooled, and quenched. After magnetic separation, the iron content was used as the raw material for blast furnaces or steel making. Thermodynamic studies were carried out along with synergistic experiments of the preparation of cementitious materials and the direct reduction of iron.

Substantial quantities solid waste from livestock are potential sources of nutrients for agroecological production on small-scale farms. The processes used to extract these wastes, however, must be capable of eliminating pathogenic microorganisms. We aimed to evaluate composting and vermicomposting processes by inoculating efficient microorganisms at the field scale. We used cattle and sheep manure with the inoculation of efficient microorganisms (EMs) at concentrations of 0, 2, and 4 mL L-1. In vermicomposting experiments, we added Lumbricus rubellus. After the maturation and stabilization phases of the compounds, concentrations of macronutrients, micronutrients, heavy metals, thermotolerant coliforms and Salmonella spp. were measured. We found that composting processes allowed high availability of macronutrients. Vermicomposting, associated with inoculation with 2 mL L-1 EMs, promoted the lowest concentration of thermotolerant coliforms, ensuring greater elimination of pathogens. The compost produced allowed the valuation of waste and use it as a quality organic fertilizer for agroecological production., Quantidades substanciais de resíduos sólidos provenientes da bovinocultura são fontes potenciais de nutrientes para a produção agroecológica em agricultura de pequena escala. Os processos de tratamento e disposição desses resíduos, entretanto, devem ser capazes de eliminar os microrganismos patogênicos. Nesse sentido, este trabalho objetivou avaliar os processos de compostagem e vermicompostagem por meio da inoculação de microrganismos eficientes (EMs) em escala de campo. A compostagem e a vermicompostagem foram realizadas com esterco bovino, caprino e serragem (2:1:1), com a inoculação de EMs nas concentrações de 0, 2 e 4 mL L-1. Em experimentos de vermicompostagem, Lumbricus rubellus foram inoculadas (100 g 250 dm-3 substrato). Após as fases de maturação e estabilização dos compostos, analisaram-se as concentrações de carbono orgânico, macronutrientes, micronutrientes, metais pesados, coliformes termotolerantes e Salmonella spp. Com os resultados obtidos, foi possível verificar que os experimentos de compostagem, independentemente da presença de EMs, apresentaram maior umidade e menor pH no composto final. Os macronutrientes como P, K, Ca e S foram observados em maior teor nos experimentos de compostagem associados a EM4, enquanto carbono orgânico e Mg foram maiores na vermicompostagem. O processo de vermicompostagem, ainda, permitiu remoção mais eficaz de patógenos como os coliformes termotolerantes, principalmente quando associado a EM2. Os compostos produzidos propiciaram a valorização dos resíduos com potencial uso para a produção agroecológica.

Substantial quantities solid waste from livestock are potential sources of nutrients for agroecological production on small-scale farms. The processes used to extract these wastes, however, must be capable of eliminating pathogenic microorganisms. We aimed to evaluate composting and vermicomposting processes by inoculating efficient microorganisms at the field scale. We used cattle and sheep manure with the inoculation of efficient microorganisms (EMs) at concentrations of 0, 2, and 4 mL L-1. In vermicomposting experiments, we added Lumbricus rubellus. After the maturation and stabilization phases of the compounds, concentrations of macronutrients, micronutrients, heavy metals, thermotolerant coliforms and Salmonella spp. were measured. We found that composting processes allowed high availability of macronutrients. Vermicomposting, associated with inoculation with 2 mL L-1 EMs, promoted the lowest concentration of thermotolerant coliforms, ensuring greater elimination of pathogens. The compost produced allowed the valuation of waste and use it as a quality organic fertilizer for agroecological production., Quantidades substanciais de resíduos sólidos provenientes da bovinocultura são fontes potenciais de nutrientes para a produção agroecológica em agricultura de pequena escala. Os processos de tratamento e disposição desses resíduos, entretanto, devem ser capazes de eliminar os microrganismos patogênicos. Nesse sentido, este trabalho objetivou avaliar os processos de compostagem e vermicompostagem por meio da inoculação de microrganismos eficientes (EMs) em escala de campo. A compostagem e a vermicompostagem foram realizadas com esterco bovino, caprino e serragem (2:1:1), com a inoculação de EMs nas concentrações de 0, 2 e 4 mL L-1. Em experimentos de vermicompostagem, Lumbricus rubellus foram inoculadas (100 g 250 dm-3 substrato). Após as fases de maturação e estabilização dos compostos, analisaram-se as concentrações de carbono orgânico, macronutrientes, micronutrientes, metais pesados, coliformes termotolerantes e Salmonella spp. Com os resultados obtidos, foi possível verificar que os experimentos de compostagem, independentemente da presença de EMs, apresentaram maior umidade e menor pH no composto final. Os macronutrientes como P, K, Ca e S foram observados em maior teor nos experimentos de compostagem associados a EM4, enquanto carbono orgânico e Mg foram maiores na vermicompostagem. O processo de vermicompostagem, ainda, permitiu remoção mais eficaz de patógenos como os coliformes termotolerantes, principalmente quando associado a EM2. Os compostos produzidos propiciaram a valorização dos resíduos com potencial uso para a produção agroecológica.

Excessive consumption and global energy demand have generated the need to incorporate plastic and agro-industrial waste into recovery processes, to obtain alternative energy products from thermochemical treatments such as rapid pyrolysis, in which solid, liquid, and gaseous products are generated. The development of methodologies for the recycling and/or recovery of waste generated from various industries, specifically polymer and agroindustrial, is of the utmost importance, given the chronic pollution and environmental impact on natural ecosystems, water bodies and fauna. The objective of this article is to analyze the environmental impacts of the high generation of plastic and agro-industrial waste, and to determine the relationship between the operating conditions and the performance and selectivity of the products generated with the physicochemical characteristics of catalysts used in rapid pyrolysis for the recovery of such waste. This was done through a review of the literature in recognized databases to obtain updated research articles with scientific validity. It was found that catalyzed pyrolysis presents an improvement with respect to the performance and distribution of the products according to the selected active phase in which the nature of the metals used leads to various chemical routes and, therefore, to hydrocarbon-rich products., Resumo O consumo desmedido e a procura energética a nível mundial criaram a necessidade de incorporar os resíduos plásticos e de origem agro-industrial em processos de valorização, para obter produtos energéticos alternativos a partir de tratamentos termoquímicos como a pirólise rápida, na qual são gerados produtos sólidos, líquidos e gasosos. Tendo em conta a poluição crônica e o impacto ambiental nos ecossistemas naturais, é da maior importância desenvolver metodologias que permitam a reciclagem e/ou a valorização dos resíduos produzidos em diversas indústrias, nomeadamente a polimérica e a agro-industrial, corpos hídricos e fauna. O objectivo deste artigo é analisar os impactos ambientais da alta geração de resíduos plásticos e agro-industriais, bem como determinar a relação entre as condições de operação e o rendimento e a seletividade dos produtos gerados com as características físico-químicas dos catalisadores utilizados na pirólise rápida para a valorização desses resíduos. Isto foi feito através de uma revisão da literatura em bases de dados reconhecidas para obter artigos de pesquisa atualizados e com validade científica. Verificou-se que a pirólise catalisada apresenta uma melhoria relativamente ao rendimento e distribuição dos produtos segundo a fase activa seleccionada, em que a natureza dos metais usados conduz a diversas rotas químicas e, por conseguinte, a produtos ricos em hidrocarbonetos., Resumen El consumo desmedido y la demanda energética a nivel mundial han generado la necesidad de incorporar los desechos plásticos y de origen agroindustrial a procesos de valorización, para obtener productos energéticos alternativos a partir de tratamientos termoquímicos como la pirólisis rápida, en la cual se generan productos sólidos, líquidos y gaseosos. Desarrollar metodologías que permitan realizar un reciclaje y/o aprovechamiento de residuos generados de diversas industrias, en específico, la polimérica y la agroindustrial, es de suma importancia, dada la contaminación crónica y el impacto ambiental en ecosistemas naturales, cuerpos hídricos y fauna. El objetivo de este artículo es analizar los impactos ambientales de la alta generación de residuos plásticos y agroindustriales, así como determinar la relación entre las condiciones de operación y el rendimiento y selectividad de los productos generados con las características fisicoquímicas de los catalizadores empleados en la pirólisis rápida en pro de la valorización de dichos residuos. Lo anterior se realizó mediante una revisión de la literatura en bases de datos reconocidas para obtener artículos de investigación actualizados y con validez científica. Se encontró que la pirólisis catalizada presenta una mejora respecto al rendimiento y distribución de los productos según la fase activa seleccionada en la que la naturaleza de los metales usados conduce a diversas rutas químicas y por ende, a productos ricos en hidrocarburos.

Quantidades substanciais de resíduos sólidos provenientes da bovinocultura são fontes potenciais de nutrientes para a produção agroecológica em agricultura de pequena escala. Os processos de tratamento e disposição desses resíduos, entretanto, devem ser capazes de eliminar os microrganismos patogênicos. Nesse sentido, este trabalho objetivou avaliar os processos de compostagem e vermicompostagem por meio da inoculação de microrganismos eficientes (EMs) em escala de campo. A compostagem e a vermicompostagem foram realizadas com esterco bovino, caprino e serragem (2:1:1), com a inoculação de EMs nas concentrações de 0, 2 e 4 mL L-1. Em experimentos de vermicompostagem, Lumbricus rubellusforam inoculadas (100 g 250 dm-3 substrato). Após as fases de maturação e estabilização dos compostos, analisaram-se as concentrações de carbono orgânico, macronutrientes, micronutrientes, metais pesados, coliformes termotolerantes e Salmonella spp. Com os resultados obtidos, foi possível verificar que os experimentos de compostagem, independentemente da presença de EMs, apresentaram maior umidade e menor pH no composto final. Os macronutrientes como P, K, Ca e S foram observados em maior teor nos experimentos de compostagem associados a EM4, enquanto carbono orgânico e Mg foram maiores na vermicompostagem. O processo de vermicompostagem, ainda, permitiu remoção mais eficaz de patógenos como os coliformes termotolerantes, principalmente quando associado a EM2. Os compostos produzidos propiciaram a valorização dos resíduos com potencial uso para a produção agroecológica., Substantial quantities of solid livestock waste are potential sources of nutrients for agroecological production on small-scale farms. However, processes used to manage and dispose of this type of waste must be able to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. This work aimed to evaluate composting and vermicomposting processes by inoculating efficient microorganisms (EMs) at the field level. Composting and vermicomposting were performed with a mixture of cattle and goat manure and sawdust (2:1:1), with the inoculation of EMs at concentrations of 0, 2, and 4 mL L-1. In vermicomposting experiments, Lumbricus rubellus (100 g 250 dm-3 substrate) were inoculated. After the maturation and stabilization phases of the compost, concentrations of organic carbon, macronutrients, micronutrients, heavy metals, thermotolerant coliforms, and Salmonella spp. were analyzed. The composting experiments, regardless of the presence of EMs, have been shown to have higher humidity. Also, the final compost had a lower pH value. Macronutrients, such as P, K, Ca, and S, were observed to a greater extent in the composting experiments associated with 4 mL of EMs (EM4); while organic carbon and Mg were higher in vermicomposting. The vermicomposting process also allowed for more effective elimination of pathogens, such as thermotolerant coliforms, especially when associated with 2 mL of EMs (EM2). The compost products produced allowed waste with potential agroecological use to be recognized as important.

Quantidades substanciais de resíduos sólidos provenientes da bovinocultura são fontes potenciais de nutrientes para a produção agroecológica em agricultura de pequena escala. Os processos de tratamento e disposição desses resíduos, entretanto, devem ser capazes de eliminar os microrganismos patogênicos. Nesse sentido, este trabalho objetivou avaliar os processos de compostagem e vermicompostagem por meio da inoculação de microrganismos eficientes (EMs) em escala de campo. A compostagem e a vermicompostagem foram realizadas com esterco bovino, caprino e serragem (2:1:1), com a inoculação de EMs nas concentrações de 0, 2 e 4 mL L-1. Em experimentos de vermicompostagem, Lumbricus rubellusforam inoculadas (100 g 250 dm-3 substrato). Após as fases de maturação e estabilização dos compostos, analisaram-se as concentrações de carbono orgânico, macronutrientes, micronutrientes, metais pesados, coliformes termotolerantes e Salmonella spp. Com os resultados obtidos, foi possível verificar que os experimentos de compostagem, independentemente da presença de EMs, apresentaram maior umidade e menor pH no composto final. Os macronutrientes como P, K, Ca e S foram observados em maior teor nos experimentos de compostagem associados a EM4, enquanto carbono orgânico e Mg foram maiores na vermicompostagem. O processo de vermicompostagem, ainda, permitiu remoção mais eficaz de patógenos como os coliformes termotolerantes, principalmente quando associado a EM2. Os compostos produzidos propiciaram a valorização dos resíduos com potencial uso para a produção agroecológica., Substantial quantities of solid livestock waste are potential sources of nutrients for agroecological production on small-scale farms. However, processes used to manage and dispose of this type of waste must be able to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. This work aimed to evaluate composting and vermicomposting processes by inoculating efficient microorganisms (EMs) at the field level. Composting and vermicomposting were performed with a mixture of cattle and goat manure and sawdust (2:1:1), with the inoculation of EMs at concentrations of 0, 2, and 4 mL L-1. In vermicomposting experiments, Lumbricus rubellus (100 g 250 dm-3 substrate) were inoculated. After the maturation and stabilization phases of the compost, concentrations of organic carbon, macronutrients, micronutrients, heavy metals, thermotolerant coliforms, and Salmonella spp. were analyzed. The composting experiments, regardless of the presence of EMs, have been shown to have higher humidity. Also, the final compost had a lower pH value. Macronutrients, such as P, K, Ca, and S, were observed to a greater extent in the composting experiments associated with 4 mL of EMs (EM4); while organic carbon and Mg were higher in vermicomposting. The vermicomposting process also allowed for more effective elimination of pathogens, such as thermotolerant coliforms, especially when associated with 2 mL of EMs (EM2). The compost products produced allowed waste with potential agroecological use to be recognized as important.

[Resumen:] La Comunidad de Madrid está llevando a cabo la restauración integral de una antigua gravera contaminada con residuos peligrosos, mayoritariamente sulfonatos de petróleo (alquitranes ácidos), procedentes del tratamiento de aceites industriales usados. Parte de dichos vertidos, realizados en las décadas de los años 1970 y 1980, se depositaron en una laguna originada por la explotación de áridos por debajo del nivel piezométrico del acuífero, conformando una balsa con 50000 m3 de residuos peligrosos. La diversa ubicación, naturaleza y estado de los residuos requiere diferentes soluciones para su extracción y tratamiento, por lo que el proyecto de restauración consta de varias fases. Los residuos depositados producen un efecto de confinamiento en el acuífero, dado que la cota del fondo de los residuos es inferior al nivel piezométrico. Con estos condicionantes es crítico establecer un procedimiento de protección de las aguas subterráneas a la hora de acometer la próxima fase, consistente en la extracción de los residuos situados por debajo del nivel piezométrico. En este artículo se describe el proceso que se ha llevado a cabo para seleccionar la mejor alternativa desde el punto de vista hidrogeológico, considerando todos los datos disponibles obtenidos en las fases previas del proyecto. Una vez planteadas y caracterizadas todas las alternativas posibles se ha seleccionado de forma argumentada y razonada como mejor alternativa la realización de una barrera impermeabilizante perimetral a la balsa y empotrada en una capa de arcillas de 2 m de espesor situada en el subsuelo de la balsa., [Abstract:] The Community of Madrid is carrying out the integral restoration of an old gravel pit contaminated with hazardous waste, mostly petroleum sulphonates (acid tars), from the treatment of used industrial oil. Part of these discharges, from the 1970s and 1980s, were deposited in a lagoon generated by the exploitation of aggregates below the piezometric level of the aquifer, forming a raft with 50,000 m3 of hazardous waste. The different locations, nature and conditions of the waste require different solutions for its extraction and treatment, so the restoration project consists of several phases. The deposited waste produces an effect of confinement in the aquifer, since the bottom level of the waste is lower than the piezometric level. With these conditions, it is critical to establish a procedure for the protection of the groundwater when executing the next phase, consisting of the extraction of waste located below the piezometric level. This article describes the process that has been carried out to select the best alternative from a hydrogeological point of view, considering all the available data obtained in the previous phases of the project. Once all the possible alternatives had been considered and characterized in a reasoned way, we chose the construction of a perimeter barrier around the raft embedded in a clay layer of 2 m thick located in the base of the raft as the best option.

[ES] El objeto del presente trabajo de fin de grado es el estudio de la “Recuperación de residuos y economía circular. Un estudio de casos”. Los principales objetivos son el análisis del sector de la recuperación de residuos y su relación con la economía circular. A lo largo del mismo se realizará un estudio en materia de cambio climático, sustancias contaminantes liberadas, y sobre la generación de los residuos. También se cuantificará el impacto económico y social relacionado con la gestión de los residuos. Por otra parte se repasará la legislación vigente a nivel europeo y nacional, el marco legislativo que rige las conductas de empresas y a título particular, así como cuáles son los presupuestos destinados a paliar el cambio climático. Se realizará un análisis sobre la generación de los residuos, mediante estadísticas proporcionadas por el INE, así como los diferentes tratamientos para la gestión y valorización de los residuos. Se estudiará la importancia de la economía circular a través del análisis de dos empresas de la Comunidad Valenciana pioneras en la valorización de los residuos “Ingelia” y “Greene Waste to Energy”, industrias capaces de transformar residuos orgánicos en bioproductos de alto valor añadido. Las conclusiones más relevantes obtenidas han sido: La necesidad de concienciación y sensibilización de la sociedad y las organizaciones en materia de valorización de los residuos. La evolución en cuanto a la recogida, gestión y tratamiento de los residuos que se ha producido en los últimos años, pero todavía escasa e insuficiente. El apoyo indispensable en materia de legislación y regulación por parte del gobierno e instituciones pertinentes, así como la necesidad de establecer un presupuesto capaz de amparar la consecución de los objetivos planteados., [EN] The object of this end-of-degree work is the study of "Waste recovery and circular economy. A case study". The main objectives are the analysis of the waste recovery sector and its relationship with the circular economy. During the course of this work, a study will be carried out on climate change, released pollutants and the generation of waste. The economic and social impact related to waste management will also be quantified. On the other hand, the current legislation at European and national level will be reviewed, as well as the legislative framework that governs the conduct of companies and in particular, and what are the budgets allocated to mitigate climate change. An analysis will be made of the generation of waste, through statistics provided by the INE, as well as the different treatments for the management and recovery of waste. It will study the importance of the circular economy through the analysis of two companies in the Valencian Community pioneers in the recovery of waste "Ingelia" and "Greene Waste to Energy", industries capable of transforming organic waste into high value-added bioproducts. The most relevant conclusions obtained have been: The need for awareness and sensitization of society and organizations in the field of waste recovery. The evolution in terms of collection, management and treatment of waste that has occurred in recent years, but still low and insufficient. The essential support in terms of legislation and regulation by the government and relevant institutions, as well as the need to establish a budget capable of covering the achievement of the objectives set.

The economic and environmental consequences of household food waste have become widely recognised in popular and policy spheres. This is particularly so in consumer societies. Because 40% of landfill, by weight, is made up of household food waste (Kane, 2020) there are also growing concerns about the environmental and economic costs to regional and urban municipalities. Such concerns are also combined with interest about how to better value food waste as a resource. As household food waste continues to increase, municipalities in many consumer societies have taken steps towards implementing food composting strategies as part of diversification strategies to divert waste from landfill. However, in New South Wales, the uptake of Municipal Food Waste Composting (MFWC) has been dispersed and uneven. It is within the context and aided by a conceptual framework of ‘momentum’ (Bulkeley et al 2020), that this thesis aims to understand why local governments develop MFWC, and how such projects gain momentum against incumbent regimes of disposal of household food waste to landfill. The approach taken employed two interconnected methodologies: an analysis of Federal and NSW State policies, and interviews with council and private sector employees who support a MFWC scheme in six councils across urban and regional NSW. The analysis revealed that the presence of council-based and nearby landfill, private sector collaboration and processing facilities, mixed-use and industrial land-zoning, community desires of environmental stewardship, council-community relationships, and housing form (e.g. MUDs or detached dwellings) together afford critical agencies in the generation of momentum. However, these agencies combine differently to create momentum and friction in different contexts. Critically, this research highlights the place-based nature of momentum pointing to the need for multiple approaches to MFWC. More broadly, this research highlights the potential and the limitatio