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Settlement locations in delta landscapes change through time because of cultural and natural dynamics. We assessed the impact of natural-landscape dynamics on settlement-location shifts for the Rhine-Meuse delta in the Netherlands during the Roman and early-medieval periods (12 BCE-450 CE and 450-1050 CE respectively). During this time interval major landscape and cultural changes occurred in this area, with river avulsions and changes in flooding frequency coinciding with changing settlement patterns. In the delta plain, the relatively high and dry alluvial ridges of abandoned or active rivers were most favourable for habitation. Settlement location and elevation patterns were reconstructed in these landscape units using a high-resolution elevation map of the alluvial ridges. By integrating high-resolution palaeo-environmental and archaeological datasets for this period, we were able to spatially analyse the trends and to assess the effect of environmental changes on habitation. Results show that settlements progressively shifted towards higher areas between 250 and 750 CE, on average by 20 cm over this period deltawide, which was coeval with an increased frequency of severe Rhine floods. The observed spatial differences demonstrate that this trend is most notable in the least-elevated segments of the study area. In areas where new large river branches developed, settlements show a strong shift towards higher-elevated parts of the landscape or even became completely abandoned. The river probably caused floods to be more frequent and more severe in these areas. Despite the clear link between changing settlement positions and floods during the studied time interval, floods do not seem to have caused long-term abandonment of major parts of the study area.

In this study we apply an evidence-based approach to model population-size fluctuations and their corresponding impact on land use during the Roman and early-medieval periods in the Rhine–Meuse delta in the present-day Netherlands. Past-population numbers are reconstructed based on Roman and early-medieval settlement patterns. Corresponding impacts of these demographic fluctuations on potential land use are calculated by integrating the newly developed demographic overviews with archaeological and geoscientific data using a new land-use model termed ‘Past Land-Use Scanner’ (PLUS). The primary aims are to reconstruct first-millennium palaeodemographics and to explore the potential of simulation modelling for testing the feasibility of archaeological hypotheses regarding past land use. Results show that in the study area the first millennium AD was characterised by two periods during which major population growth occurred: the middle-Roman period (AD 70–270) and early-medieval period C (AD 725–950). A major demographic decline of 78–85% occurred during the late-Roman period (AD 270–450), after which first-millennium population numbers never again reached middle-Roman period levels. The modelling outcomes demonstrate that the impact of population fluctuations (growth vs decline) on the limits of the natural landscape during the first millennium in general was low. During these thousand years, the natural landscape almost without exception (only scenario D deviates) provided sufficient options for arable farming, meadows and pastures and was not a limiting factor for population growth. These results underline the added value of simulation modelling for testing the feasibility of archaeological hypotheses and analysing human–landscape interactions in the past.

Holocene drift-sand activity in the northwest European sand belt is commonly directly linked to population pressure (agricultural activity) or to climate change (e.g. storminess). In the Pleistocene sand areas of the Netherlands, small-scale Holocene drift-sand activity began in the Mesolithic, whereas large-scale sand drifting started during the Middle Ages. This last phase not only coincides with the intensification of farming and demographic pressure but also is commonly associated with a colder climate and enhanced storminess. This raises the question to what extent drift-sand activity can be attributed to either human activities or natural forcing factors. In this study, we compare the spatial and temporal patterns of drift-sand occurrence for the four characteristic Pleistocene sand regions in the Netherlands for the period between 1000 BC and AD 1700. To this end, we compiled a new supra-regional overview of drift-sand activity based on age estimates (14C, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), archaeological and historical ages). The occurrence of sand drifting was then compared in time and space with historical-route networks, relative vegetation openness and climate. Results indicate a constant but low drift-sand activity between 1000 BC and AD 1000, interrupted by a remarkable decrease in activity around the BC/AD transition. It is evident that human pressure on the landscape was most influential on initiating sand drifting: this is supported by more frequent occurrences close to routes and the uninterrupted increase of drift-sand activity from AD 900 onwards, a period of high population density and large-scale deforestation. Once triggered by human activities, this drift-sand development was probably further intensified several centuries later during the cold and stormier ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA; AD 1570–1850).

In this article we study the impact of Romans on the land use in the Lower Rhine by exploring a spatial simulation modelling framework that integrates economic and demographic factors with physical-environmental factors to simulate past land use on a regional level.

In this article we study the impact of Romans on the land use in the Lower Rhine by exploring a spatial simulation modelling framework that integrates economic and demographic factors with physical-environmental factors to simulate past land use on a regional level.

Holocene drift-sand activity in the northwest European sand belt is commonly directly linked to population pressure (agricultural activity) or to climate change (e.g. storminess). In the Pleistocene sand areas of the Netherlands, small-scale Holocene drift-sand activity began in the Mesolithic, whereas large-scale sand drifting started during the Middle Ages. This last phase not only coincides with the intensification of farming and demographic pressure but also is commonly associated with a colder climate and enhanced storminess. This raises the question to what extent drift-sand activity can be attributed to either human activities or natural forcing factors. In this study, we compare the spatial and temporal patterns of drift-sand occurrence for the four characteristic Pleistocene sand regions in the Netherlands for the period between 1000 BC and AD 1700. To this end, we compiled a new supra-regional overview of drift-sand activity based on age estimates (14C, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), archaeological and historical ages). The occurrence of sand drifting was then compared in time and space with historical-route networks, relative vegetation openness and climate. Results indicate a constant but low drift-sand activity between 1000 BC and AD 1000, interrupted by a remarkable decrease in activity around the BC/AD transition. It is evident that human pressure on the landscape was most influential on initiating sand drifting: this is supported by more frequent occurrences close to routes and the uninterrupted increase of drift-sand activity from AD 900 onwards, a period of high population density and large-scale deforestation. Once triggered by human activities, this drift-sand development was probably further intensified several centuries later during the cold and stormier ‘Little Ice Age’ (LIA; AD 1570–1850).

This dataset contains a new national overview of the occurrence of drift sand activity in the Netherlands from ca. 5000 BC to AD 1700. The dataset has been compiled from overview studies, field studies and new data., Deze dataset bevat een nieuw landelijk overzicht van stuifzandvoorkomen en activiteit voor de periode ca. 5000 voor Chr tot ca. 1700 na Chr in Nederland. De dataset is gebaseerd op diverse overzichtsstudies, losse veldstudies en nieuwe gegevens. Omdat de mens een belangrijke rol speelde bij het ontstaan van stuifzanden in deze periode in Nederland, is dit nieuwe overzicht nuttig om het samenspel tussen mens en landschap in het verleden beter te begrijpen. De dataset bevat up-to-date informatie waaruit afgeleid kan worden wanneer en waar de mens het stuifzand zou hebben kunnen veroorzaakt en wanneer het stuifzand mogelijk een bedreiging vormde voor de landbouw of nederzettingen. Daarnaast kan deze dataset fungeren als historische context bij huidige stuifzanden die als waardevolle natuurgebieden worden beschouwd.

To what extent long-distance transport in north-western Europe changed after the Roman period is generally unknown. Few historical sources are available and existing archaeological records are unclear and sometimes conflicting. Traditionally, research on the long-distance exchange of goods mostly has focussed on the spatial analyses of luxery goods such as jewellery, weapons and religious artefacts. Relatively little attention has been paid to the spatial modelling of common exchange networks and transport routes. In this study we used a dendroarchaeological approach to model long-distance transport of oak (a common good) to the Roman and early-medieval Netherlands. By combining established and newly-derived provenances of imported timbers with data on Roman and early-medieval route networks, we were able to reconstruct: (a) Roman and early-medieval exchange networks of imported timbers, (b) changing transport routes and (c) spatially shifting frequent-travel zones. The findings were compared with distribution patterns of other commodities for daily use: pottery and stone household goods. Results show that in the early and middle-Roman periods (12 BCE – CE 270) timbers were imported from the German Rhineland, the Ardennes and the Scheldt region. We have no evidence for wood import to the current Netherlands during the late-Roman period and first phase of the Early Middle Ages (CE 270–525). In the following centuries, between CE 525–900, oak again was brought to the current Netherlands, this time exclusively originating from the German Rhineland. This pattern significantly changed during the last phase of the Early Middle Ages (CE 900–1050) when timbers were derived from the Ardennes only. We used these patterns to calculate changes in long-distance transport routes and frequent-travel zones in the research area. Through our analyses existing data on Roman and early-medieval route networks could be expanded and improved. The calculated wood-transport patterns agre

Strontium isotope analysis has been successfully applied to archaeological questions of residential mobility and animal husbandry for over three decades. To obtain a full understanding of variations in archaeological samples, spatial variations in bioavailable strontium should be accurately mapped or inferred. This paper presents the first archaeological bioavailable strontium map of The Netherlands. The map is compiled solely from archaeological enamel samples of rodents and selected mammals as they are considered to provide the best proxy of bioavailable Sr. The diversity of the Dutch geological subsurface is directly reflected in the spatial distribution of 87Sr/86Sr ratios. Six isoscapes are defined: A) Lower terrace of the river Meuse (0.7074-0.7091, n = 2); B) Marine and river Rhine sediments (0.7088-0.7092; n = 85); C) Holland peat area, Kempen and northern sand areas (0.7091-0.7095, n = 14); D) Rur Graben (0.7095-0.7105, n = 11); E) Push moraines (0.7095-0.7110, n = 7) and F) Northern and southern loess areas (0.7104-0.7113, n = 15). Although individual isoscapes may show some overlap, the mean of each isoscape is statistically significant different, except for zones D and E. Five other geological environments yielded no archaeological data, mainly due to poor preservation in acidic soils. To fill this data gap, additional biosphere samples will be collected and analysed. This approach, however, will require validation of the extent to which specific floral are offset compared to the average archaeological bioavailable strontium. The base map presented here now allows such a detailed assessment of potential offsets in the 87Sr/86Sr recorded by different proxies at the regional scale.

The Early Middle Ages (ca. 300 - 1000 AD) was a period of severe pan-European economic and demographic change. During this period population declined and human influence on the landscape diminished throughout large parts of Europe (Cheyette 2008). Traditionally archaeologists and historians regard these Early-Medieval developments as the result of cultural processes. However, recent reconstructions show frequent climate fluctuations (Büntgen et al. 2011) and dramatic landscape changes in the Netherlands for this period (Vos & Van Heeringen 1997; Stouthamer et al. 2011). This suggests that economic and demographic changes might not be induced by cultural processes only, but also by climate and landscape dynamics (e.g. riverflooding, sea ingressions). To determine how and to what extent environmental changes contributed to the Early-Medieval economic and demographic changes, the ‘The Dark Ages in an interdisciplinary light’ project was initiated. As part of the project, this contribution shows the landscape dynamics of the Dutch coastal area during the Early Medieval period. In this geomorphological dynamic region, major sea ingressions occurred forming large tidal inlets. Occupation in this region mainly occurred in the supratidal environment, e.g. on dwelling mounds (Vos & Gerrets 2005) and was most likely influenced by these landscape dynamics. Development of the geomorphological elements of these tidal systems (channels, tidal flats and salt marshes) is extensively mapped in a GIS and coupled to a database storing information on age of the tidal system and its individual geomorphological elements. This generates a new integrated overview of the development of tidal systems for every possible time step. Palaeogeographical maps can be derived and the GIS provides the possibility to statistically analyse sea ingression dynamics in the Early Middle Ages and how this differs from other periods of sea level highstand (~last 3000 years). By comparing these maps w