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QS-21 is a potent vaccine adjuvant and remains the only saponin-based adjuvant that has been clinically approved for use in humans1,2. However, owing to the complex structure of QS-21, its availability is limited. Today, the supply depends on laborious extraction from the Chilean soapbark tree or on low-yielding total chemical synthesis3,4. Here we demonstrate the complete biosynthesis of QS-21 and its precursors, as well as structural derivatives, in engineered yeast strains. The successful biosynthesis in yeast requires fine-tuning of the hosts native pathway fluxes, as well as the functional and balanced expression of 38 heterologous enzymes. The required biosynthetic pathway spans seven enzyme families-a terpene synthase, P450s, nucleotide sugar synthases, glycosyltransferases, a coenzyme A ligase, acyl transferases and polyketide synthases-from six organisms, and mimics in yeast the subcellular compartmentalization of plants from the endoplasmic reticulum membrane to the cytosol. Finally, by taking advantage of the promiscuity of certain pathway enzymes, we produced structural analogues of QS-21 using this biosynthetic platform. This microbial production scheme will allow for the future establishment of a structure-activity relationship, and will thus enable the rational design of potent vaccine adjuvants.

Saponins are plant secondary metabolites comprising glycosylated triterpenoids, steroids or steroidal alkaloids with a broad spectrum of toxicity to microbial pathogens and pest organisms that contribute to basal plant defense to biotic attack. Secretion of glycosyl hydrolases that enzymatically convert saponins into less toxic products was thus far the only mechanism reported to enable fungal pathogens to colonize their saponin-containing host plant(s). We studied the mechanisms that the fungus Botrytis cinerea utilizes to be tolerant to well-characterized, structurally related saponins from tomato and Digitalis purpurea. By gene expression studies, comparative genomics, enzyme assays and testing a large panel of fungal (knockout and complemented) mutants, we unraveled four distinct cellular mechanisms that participate in the mitigation of the toxic activity of these saponins and in virulence on saponin-producing host plants. The enzymatic deglycosylation that we identified is novel and unique to this fungus-saponin combination. The other three tolerance mechanisms operate in the fungal membrane and are mediated by protein families that are widely distributed in the fungal kingdom. We present a spatial and temporal model on how these mechanisms jointly confer tolerance to saponins and discuss the repercussions of these findings for other plant pathogenic fungi, as well as human pathogens.

QS-21 is a potent vaccine adjuvant currently sourced by extraction from the Chilean soapbark tree. It is a key component of human vaccines for shingles, malaria, coronavirus disease 2019 and others under development. The structure of QS-21 consists of a glycosylated triterpene scaffold coupled to a complex glycosylated 18-carbon acyl chain that is critical for immunostimulant activity. We previously identified the early pathway steps needed to make the triterpene glycoside scaffold; however, the biosynthetic route to the acyl chain, which is needed for stimulation of T cell proliferation, was unknown. Here, we report the biogenic origin of the acyl chain, characterize the series of enzymes required for its synthesis and addition and reconstitute the entire 20-step pathway in tobacco, thereby demonstrating the production of QS-21 in a heterologous expression system. This advance opens up unprecedented opportunities for bioengineering of vaccine adjuvants, investigating structure-activity relationships and understanding the mechanisms by which these compounds promote the human immune response.

When replanting an asparagus field, the roots of the previous crop are crushed and incorporated into the soil, creating problems of autotoxicity and fungal infections. Asparagus roots can be considered as a valuable byproduct, since they are very rich in saponins (3–6%), compounds currently considered as bio-emulsifiers. The objective is to evaluate the emulsifying and foaming capacity of a saponin extract from asparagus roots (ARS) and compare it with other commercial extracts. ARS was obtained using a process patented by our research group. The results have shown that ARS has activity similar to Quillaja extract. Its critical micellar concentration falls between that of Quillaja and Tribulus extracts (0.064, 0.043, and 0.094 g/100 mL, respectively). Both emulsifying and foaming activities are affected by pH, salt, and sucrose to a similar extent as the other extracts. Additionally, it has demonstrated an inhibitory effect on pancreatic lipase, which is even better than the other two studied extracts, as indicated by its IC50 value (0.7887, 1.6366, and 2.0107 mg/mL for asparagus, Quillaja, and Tribulus, respectively). These results suggest that ARS could serve as a natural emulsifying/foaming agent for healthier and safer food products and as a potential aid in treatments for obesity and hyperlipidemia.

In this study, Asparagus stipularis was characterized concerning its phytochemical composition, antioxidant potential, cytotoxicity, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activities. Twenty-seven compounds were identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-MS in the leaf, stem, pericarp, and rhizome of ethanolic extracts. Seven steroidal saponins were detected, and the highest content was quantified in rhizome and pericap. A. stipularis also contained significant amounts of flavonoids in the aerial part. Isorhamnetin tetra-glycoside, quercetin-3-glucosyl-rutinoside, and rutin were the main flavonoid derivatives in leaf, stem, and pericarp extracts, respectively. In addition, eleven phenolic acids were also detected; among them, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and ferulic acid were the predominant phenolics, with these having the highest amounts quantified in the rhizome extracts. All the tested extracts possessed antioxidant capacities, with pericarp and rhizome extracts exhibiting the highest activity in DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. The extracts from pericarp and rhizome were revealed to also be the strongest inhibitors of pancreatic lipase. The rhizome extracts exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against HCT-116 and HepG2 with IC50 values of 30 and 54 µg/mL after 48 h of treatment. The present study demonstrated that A. stipularis can be used as a new source of natural antioxidants and potential anticancer and antiobesity compounds.

Schistosomiasis is a vector-borne water-based disease caused by Schistosoma blood flukes. It mostly affects people in low-income regions, 90% of reported cases being in developing countries. Schistosoma has a complex lifecycle, alternately infecting mammalian hosts and snails. The snails hosting the parasite are the most viable targets. Selective preparations for reducing the parasite pool in snails and infected water are required as current molluscicides are also nontoxic to other organisms, including fish, and thus affect food supplies in infected areas. Plants (e.g. Annona crassiflora Mart., A. muricata L., and A. montana Macfad.) are attractive potential sources as alternative molluscicides and novel entity to treat the disease owned to their diverse biologically potent compounds including; saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannins. Additionally, they can be locally cultivated, providing income for farmers and reducing treatment costs. Here, we review plants, plant extracts and isolated compounds that have shown activities against the host snails or Schistosoma in various parts of its life cycle. Plants have a lot of potential and will continue to contribute feasible, effective medicines and/or pesticides; more research is warranted to fully explore their future applications.

Schistosomiasis is a vector-borne water-based disease caused by Schistosoma blood flukes. It mostly affects people in low-income regions, 90% of reported cases being in developing countries. Schistosoma has a complex lifecycle, alternately infecting mammalian hosts and snails. The snails hosting the parasite are the most viable targets. Selective preparations for reducing the parasite pool in snails and infected water are required as current molluscicides are also nontoxic to other organisms, including fish, and thus affect food supplies in infected areas. Plants (e.g. Annona crassiflora Mart., A. muricata L., and A. montana Macfad.) are attractive potential sources as alternative molluscicides and novel entity to treat the disease owned to their diverse biologically potent compounds including; saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannins. Additionally, they can be locally cultivated, providing income for farmers and reducing treatment costs. Here, we review plants, plant extracts and isolated compounds that have shown activities against the host snails or Schistosoma in various parts of its life cycle. Plants have a lot of potential and will continue to contribute feasible, effective medicines and/or pesticides; more research is warranted to fully explore their future applications.

Schistosomiasis is a vector-borne water-based disease caused by Schistosoma blood flukes. It mostly affects people in low-income regions, 90% of reported cases being in developing countries. Schistosoma has a complex lifecycle, alternately infecting mammalian hosts and snails. The snails hosting the parasite are the most viable targets. Selective preparations for reducing the parasite pool in snails and infected water are required as current molluscicides are also nontoxic to other organisms, including fish, and thus affect food supplies in infected areas. Plants (e.g. Annona crassiflora Mart., A. muricata L., and A. montana Macfad.) are attractive potential sources as alternative molluscicides and novel entity to treat the disease owned to their diverse biologically potent compounds including; saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannins. Additionally, they can be locally cultivated, providing income for farmers and reducing treatment costs. Here, we review plants, plant extracts and isolated compounds that have shown activities against the host snails or Schistosoma in various parts of its life cycle. Plants have a lot of potential and will continue to contribute feasible, effective medicines and/or pesticides; more research is warranted to fully explore their future applications.

Producción Científica, Despite the broad research available in the literature dealing with garlic health benefits, little information is found regarding the functional properties of garlic components. The aim of this study was to evaluate the emulsification properties of garlic water-soluble compounds (GWSC), encompassing proteins, saponins, and carbohydrates, after heat treatment (10 min at 95 °C) or pH adjustments (2.5, 3.5, and 7.8). After the various treatments, the extracts were used as such or filtrated (0.45 µm), and 10% soybean oil-in-water emulsions were prepared using low (0.48%) or high (6.55% wt/wt) extract concentrations. Results showed that whereas at low GWSC concentrations, both heating and acidifying resulted in the formation of bigger oil droplet sizes (i.e., from d32 = 0.36 µm using unmodified extract to d32 = 7–22 µm at pH 2.5 with or without extract filtration), the effects were opposite at the highest GWSC concentration. In the latter, heat treatment clearly reduced the droplet size as observed from the micrographs as well as the degree of creaming, though the occurrence of depletion and/or bridging flocculation was still strong. The acidification of the extract at this high GWSC concentration significantly reduced the droplet size, as observed from the micrographs; however, a strong flocculation was observed. Removal of protein aggregates, and possibly also saponin micelles, from the extract resulted in an obvious increase in emulsion droplet size. This research brings valuable insights on this study and utilisation of novel natural food emulsifiers from plant sources.

Schistosomiasis is a vector-borne water-based disease caused by Schistosoma blood flukes. It mostly affects people in low-income regions, 90% of reported cases being in developing countries. Schistosoma has a complex lifecycle, alternately infecting mammalian hosts and snails. The snails hosting the parasite are the most viable targets. Selective preparations for reducing the parasite pool in snails and infected water are required as current molluscicides are also nontoxic to other organisms, including fish, and thus affect food supplies in infected areas. Plants (e.g. Annona crassiflora Mart., A. muricata L., and A. montana Macfad.) are attractive potential sources as alternative molluscicides and novel entity to treat the disease owned to their diverse biologically potent compounds including; saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannins. Additionally, they can be locally cultivated, providing income for farmers and reducing treatment costs. Here, we review plants, plant extracts and isolated compounds that have shown activities against the host snails or Schistosoma in various parts of its life cycle. Plants have a lot of potential and will continue to contribute feasible, effective medicines and/or pesticides; more research is warranted to fully explore their future applications.

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a known elicitor of plant specialized metabolism, including triterpenoid saponins. Saponaria vaccaria is an annual herb used in traditional Chinese medicine, containing large quantities of oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins with anticancer properties and structural similarities to the vaccine adjuvant QS-21. Leveraging the MeJA-elicited saponin biosynthesis, we identify multiple enzymes catalyzing the oxidation and glycosylation of triterpenoids in S. vaccaria. This exploration is aided by Pacbio full-length transcriptome sequencing and gene expression analysis. A cellulose synthase-like enzyme can not only glucuronidate triterpenoid aglycones but also alter the product profile of a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase via preference for the aldehyde intermediate. Furthermore, the discovery of a UDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase and a UDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-glucose reductase reveals the biosynthetic pathway for the rare nucleotide sugar UDP-D-fucose, a likely sugar donor for fucosylation of plant natural products. Our work enables the production and optimization of high-value saponins in microorganisms and plants through synthetic biology approaches.

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a known elicitor of plant specialized metabolism, including triterpenoid saponins. Saponaria vaccaria is an annual herb used in traditional Chinese medicine, containing large quantities of oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins with anticancer properties and structural similarities to the vaccine adjuvant QS-21. Leveraging the MeJA-elicited saponin biosynthesis, we identify multiple enzymes catalyzing the oxidation and glycosylation of triterpenoids in S. vaccaria. This exploration is aided by Pacbio full-length transcriptome sequencing and gene expression analysis. A cellulose synthase-like enzyme can not only glucuronidate triterpenoid aglycones but also alter the product profile of a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase via preference for the aldehyde intermediate. Furthermore, the discovery of a UDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase and a UDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-glucose reductase reveals the biosynthetic pathway for the rare nucleotide sugar UDP-D-fucose, a likely sugar donor for fucosylation of plant natural products. Our work enables the production and optimization of high-value saponins in microorganisms and plants through synthetic biology approaches.

Introduction. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a strategic and important crop for food security and sovereignty. It is the only plant-based food that provides all essential amino acids. Its wide varietal diversity constitutes a valuable genetic resource, as it adapts to different agroecological conditions and is tolerant to frost, drought and salinity. Objective. To perform a morpho-agronomic characterization of native Chimborazo-type quinoa in Ecuador. Materials and Methods. The research was conducted in the province of Chimborazo, Colta canton, Sicalpa parish, Ocpote Tablarumi community in Ecuador between January and July 2021. Seeds from an Andean family that had selected and conserved them in all cultivation cycles for generations were used. The crop was established by continuous sowing at a rate of 12 kg/ha in a total plot area of 640 m2 (estimate to contain 10,240 plants). After the emergence, 100 randomly selected plants were marked and taken as basic units for the population characterization. Phenotypic descriptors established at international level were used, evaluating both qualitative (16) and quantitative (12) traits. Results. The results revealed phenotypic variability. Stem and streak color, panicle diameter, panicle length, and days to harvest were the characteristics that most contributed to the observed variability. Conclusions. The population of native Chimborazo-type quinoa evaluated through 100 individuals showed phenotypic variability in both quantitative and qualitative traits, with greater frequency observed in panicle diameter, panicle length, petiole length, plant height, leaf width, yield, and stem and streak color., Introducción. La quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) es un cultivo estratégico e importante en la seguridad y soberanía alimentaria. Es el único alimento vegetal que proporciona todos los aminoácidos esenciales. Su amplia diversidad varietal constituye un acervo genético valioso, se adapta a diferentes condiciones agroecológicas y es tolerante a heladas, sequías y salinidad. Objetivo. Realizar una caracterización morfoagronómica de la quinua nativa tipo Chimborazo en Ecuador. Materiales y métodos. La investigación se realizó en la provincia de Chimborazo, cantón Colta, parroquia Sicalpa, comunidad de Ocpote Tablarumi en Ecuador entre enero y julio de 2021. Se emplearon semillas pertenecientes a una familia andina que las ha seleccionado y conservado en todos los ciclos de cultivo durante generaciones. El cultivo se estableció con siembra a chorro continuo a razón de 12 kg/ha en un área total de la parcela de 640 m2 (estimado de 10 240 plantas). Después de la emergencia se seleccionaron al azar y se marcaron 100 plantas que se tomaron como unidades básicas para la caracterización de la población. Se utilizaron descriptores fenotípicos del cultivo establecidos a nivel internacional y se evaluaron caracteres cualitativos (16) y cuantitativos (12). Resultados. Los resultados evidenciaron variabilidad fenotípica. El color del tallo y de las estrías, el diámetro de la panoja, la longitud de la panoja y los días a la cosecha fueron las características que más contribuyeron a la variabilidad observada. Conclusiones. La población de plantas de quinua nativa tipo Chimborazo evaluada a través de 100 individuos, mostró variabilidad fenotípica tanto en características cuantitativas como cualitativas, con mayor frecuencia en el diámetro de la panoja, la longitud de la panoja, la longitud del peciolo, la altura de la planta, el ancho de la hoja, el rendimiento, el color del tallo y de las estrías.

Asparagus cultivation generates every year a significant amount of by-products that consist of root and frond. Leaving these residues on the fields after harvesting negatively affects the following asparagus crops, since they release autotoxic (allelopathic) substances into the soil, whose accumulation causes that asparagus yields gradually decrease over the years, becoming an unprofitable crop in a period of about 10 to 15 years. This phenomenon is known as decay and forces the entire asparagus plantation to be lifted (abandoned). On the other hand, once a certain plantation has been lifted, it is not profitable to immediately re-plant new asparagus plants, since the yields that are achieved are never more than half of normal ones. It is necessary to wait an average of 4 or 5 years before replanting asparagus in these lands. This phenomenon is known as the replanting problem, and causes the need to continually search for new land for growing asparagus. Another added problem for farmers is that the elimination of those plant residues from asparagus cultivation entails significant economic costs. For all these reasons, it is essential to seek alternatives for the management of that waste that improve the sustainability of the crop within the scope of the circular economy. In this context, this work proposes the valorization of asparagus by-products by obtaining bioactive compounds. Main objectives of the present work include: i) phytochemical analyses of asparagus fronds and roots; ii) obtaining bioactive extracts, with distinct technological and nutritional functionalities, by using an environmentally sustainable extraction process, easy to implement in the practice of a food industry and with methods compatible with food use. Characterization of asparagus by-products shown that fronds had an average flavonoid content of 2.637 ± 0.014 g/Kg fresh weight, which is up to 5-6 times higher than that of the spears; and roots contained up to 10 times more saponins (2.25 g

Stramenopile algae have the potential to become the light-driven photosynthetic biofactories of the future, but the transformation technologies required to reach this goal remain sub-optimal. Nannochloropsis oceanica and Phaeodactylum tricornutum were used as experimental systems for electroporation-mediated transformation. Two transformation approaches were developed; 1) timed transformation of synchronized cells and 2) addition of saponins as transformation adjuvants. Transformation efficiency was increased ~8 times using synchronized N. oceanica cultures transformed in the G2/M phase, in comparison to state-of-the-art methods based on transformation of non-synchronized cells. For P. tricornutum the transformation was up to 5 times more efficient in non-synchronized conditions. N. oceanica and P. tricornutum responded differently upon exposure to different saponin plant extracts. Saponin treatments enhanced P. tricornutum and N. oceanica transformation efficiencies ~2 and ~2.5 times, respectively. Combining cell synchronization and saponin transformation adjuvant treatment, improves transformation efficiency in N. oceanica, results in a >10-fold improvement of the transformation efficiency for N. oceanica. In addition, a protocol for directed ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-mediated genome engineering of DNA constructs with short flanking arms (50 bp) in N. oceanica was established, enabling improved RNP targeted non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) gene editing. In conclusion, this study expands the toolbox for stramenopile genome engineering, promoting their use as model organisms and sustainable biofactories.

This study aimed to evaluate barbatimão bark extracts as a feed additive and substitute for lasalocid sodium (LAS) for feedlot lambs. Lambs were distributed into three treatments: LAS (0.018 g of lasalocid sodium), DBB (1.500 g of dried and milled barbatimão bark), and BHE (0.300 g of barbatimão hydroalcoholic extract). There was no effect (p = 0.32) of the inclusion of DBB and BHE extracts on the average daily gain. Inclusion of BHE in lamb diets reduced (p < 0.05) the fatness score compared to LAS, which was similar to DBB. The BHE decreased the yellowness intensity and hue angle (p < 0.05) of meat compared to the LAS. Animals that consumed DBB and BHE had a reduced (p = 0.04) total cholesterol level. Thus, the use of barbatimão bark extracts can replace lasalocid sodium in the diet of feedlot lambs, with no detrimental effects on performance or metabolic parameters.

Stramenopile algae have the potential to become the light-driven photosynthetic biofactories of the future, but the transformation technologies required to reach this goal remain sub-optimal. Nannochloropsis oceanica and Phaeodactylum tricornutum were used as experimental systems for electroporation-mediated transformation. Two transformation approaches were developed; 1) timed transformation of synchronized cells and 2) addition of saponins as transformation adjuvants. Transformation efficiency was increased ~8 times using synchronized N. oceanica cultures transformed in the G2/M phase, in comparison to state-of-the-art methods based on transformation of non-synchronized cells. For P. tricornutum the transformation was up to 5 times more efficient in non-synchronized conditions. N. oceanica and P. tricornutum responded differently upon exposure to different saponin plant extracts. Saponin treatments enhanced P. tricornutum and N. oceanica transformation efficiencies ~2 and ~2.5 times, respectively. Combining cell synchronization and saponin transformation adjuvant treatment, improves transformation efficiency in N. oceanica, results in a >10-fold improvement of the transformation efficiency for N. oceanica. In addition, a protocol for directed ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-mediated genome engineering of DNA constructs with short flanking arms (50 bp) in N. oceanica was established, enabling improved RNP targeted non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) gene editing. In conclusion, this study expands the toolbox for stramenopile genome engineering, promoting their use as model organisms and sustainable biofactories.

Schistosomiasis is a vector-borne water-based disease caused by Schistosoma blood flukes. It mostly affects people in low-income regions, 90% of reported cases being in developing countries. Schistosoma has a complex lifecycle, alternately infecting mammalian hosts and snails. The snails hosting the parasite are the most viable targets. Selective preparations for reducing the parasite pool in snails and infected water are required as current molluscicides are also nontoxic to other organisms, including fish, and thus affect food supplies in infected areas. Plants (e.g. Annona crassiflora Mart., A. muricata L., and A. montana Macfad.) are attractive potential sources as alternative molluscicides and novel entity to treat the disease owned to their diverse biologically potent compounds including; saponins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and tannins. Additionally, they can be locally cultivated, providing income for farmers and reducing treatment costs. Here, we review plants, plant extracts and isolated compounds that have shown activities against the host snails or Schistosoma in various parts of its life cycle. Plants have a lot of potential and will continue to contribute feasible, effective medicines and/or pesticides; more research is warranted to fully explore their future applications.

Plant saponins are attractive biosurfactants and have been used to enhance phytoremediation. There are only limited reports on saponins produced by bacteria. Here, we report structural and functional characterization of a novel saponin produced by Bacillus sp. IITD106. Biosurfactant production was determined by emulsion index, drop collapse, oil displacement and hemolytic assays. The biosurfactant was stable over a range of temperature (30 ˚C to 70 ˚C), salinity (0 to 150 g liter-1) and pH (4 to 10). The surface tension of the medium reduced from 58.89 mN/m to 27.29 mN/m using the isolated biosurfactant. Chromatographic analysis revealed the biosurfactant to be a glycolipid. LCMS, FT-IR and NMR analysis identified the biosurfactant to be a saponin containing two sugar groups and a 5 ringed triterpene sapogenin unit. Genome sequencing of the strain revealed the presence of genes responsible for biosynthesis of saponin. Statistical optimization of media resulted in 9.3-fold increase in biosurfactant production. Kinetics study of biosurfactant production performed in a stirred tank batch bioreactor resulted in 6.04 g liter-1 and 6.9 g liter-1 biomass and biosurfactant concentration, respectively. The biosurfactant was found to solubilise polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The potential of cell free biosurfactant containing broth to enhance oil recovery was tested in a sand pack column and recovery of 63% of residual oil was observed. To our knowledge this is the first report of saponin production by any of the strains of Bacillus.

Vaccine adjuvants are a diverse range of compounds that have the ability to improve vaccine potency through more efficient antigen presentation and delivery, stimulation of the innate immune system or prolonged effect on adaptive immunity. Through these mechanisms, adjuvants can enable better vaccine responses in specific population groups, such as babies and the elderly. Adjuvants can also permit using a lower antigen dose while retaining vaccine efficacy, thereby allowing increased vaccination coverage for global needs. Despite their diversity, adjuvants can be divided into several major groups according to their function and chemical composition. The most commonly used adjuvants are aluminum salts, which have been added to human vaccines for nearly a century. Other groups include saponin-based adjuvants, innate stimulators, such as Toll-like receptor agonists, oil and water emulsions, nanoparticles, and more complex adjuvant systems that contain more than one active component, the microbiome as an immunomodulator, and plant-derived substances known as adaptogens.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is (arguably) the most powerful tool available for determining the structure of organic compounds. Saponins are a diverse group of compounds commonly found in legumes, e.g. chick peas, soya beans, lentils, peanuts, lentils, Phaseolus beans and alfalfa sprouts; and in some plants commonly used as flavourings, herbs or spices, e.g. ginseng, fenugreek, sage, quillaja bark, thyme, sarsaparilla and nutmeg. Several biological effects have been ascribed to saponins. Extensive research reported that the membrane-permeabilising, immuno-stimulant, hypocholesterolaemic and anti- carcinogenic properties of saponins and they have also been found to significantly affect growth, feed intake and reproduction in animals. Extraction of saponin from plant calotropis gigeantea were done with the help of methanol as a extracting solvent and analyzed the saponin present in the extract with the help of NMR advance analytical techniques. In which the 13C and 1H analysis done in Cacl3 Solvent and successfully obtained the spectrum data for elucidatation the structure of plant saponin.

Plants face an enormous number of enemies and therefore have evolved stacks of defense mechanisms by which they are able to tackle various kinds of abiotic and biotic stress like fungi, bacteria, viruses, parasites, weeds, and insects. To overcome the biotic and abiotic stresses they have evolved multiple mechanisms of defense. These stresses result in abnormal physiology of the plant which impairs the plant’s normal growth, structure, and functions. For accommodating these changes in their fluctuating growth conditions and for better functional flexibility under the influence of various abiotic factors without impacting various physiological and biochemical processes plants have developed numerous mechanisms by producing a repertoire of metabolites in response to changing environment that plays a variety of roles (Yang et. al., 2018). Metabolites are the intermediates and end products of various metabolic processes. The plant produces a vast and diverse assortment of organic molecules, which are classified into two major groups: primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites are intermediate or end products of all living systems, essential for the growth and life of plants. Secondary metabolites are products that do not significantly participate in the direct growth and development of the plant. Their absence does not result in the death of the plants, unlike primary metabolites. These bioactive compounds are used in pharmaceuticals, flavorings, and agrochemical industries.

Background: Triterpenoid saponins are bioactive compounds synthesised by plants in defence against insects or fungi. With a demand for new, sustainable, plant protection products saponins are under consideration as green insecticides. This study tries to identify the acute toxic effects of 10 saponin structures towards different non-target organisms and relate the effects to their chemical structure. Results: a-Hederin showed effects towards all test organisms, such as the aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna, the annelid worm Enchytraeus crypticus, the green algae Raphidocelis subcapitata and the yeast Saccaromyces cerevisiae. Highest toxicity was observed for a-Hederin (EC50 8.6 mg L-1) and Hederacolchisid-A1 (EC50 2.03 mg L-1) towards the annelid worm E. crypticus. The aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna was sensitive to Hederacolchisid- A1, a-Hederin, Arjunetin and Quillaja-mix with EC50 values from 12.52 mg L-1 - 16.90 mg L-1. S. cerevisiae was tested against a-Hederin and Quillaja-extract only and was more susceptible to a-Hederin (EC50 6.77 mg L-1 and 243.20 mg L-1). R. subcapitata showed minor effects when exposed to a-Hederin (EC50 42.99 mg L-1) and Madecassosid (267.65 mg L-1). This indicates that the algae, are the least sensitive species when exposed to saponins. Conclusion: Saponin toxicity depends on the interactions with sterols embedded in cell membranes. Our results indicate that a glycosylation at their C3 position together with a free carboxylic acid group at the C28 position allow triterpenoid saponins to interact with cholesterol and ergosterol and to a weaker extent with the plant sterol stigmasterol. Arjunetin and Quillaja-extract might be capable of interfering with chitin.

Background: Triterpenoid saponins are bioactive compounds synthesised by plants in defence against insects or fungi. With a demand for new, sustainable, plant protection products saponins are under consideration as green insecticides. This study tries to identify the acute toxic effects of 10 saponin structures towards different non-target organisms and relate the effects to their chemical structure. Results: a-Hederin showed effects towards all test organisms, such as the aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna, the annelid worm Enchytraeus crypticus, the green algae Raphidocelis subcapitata and the yeast Saccaromyces cerevisiae. Highest toxicity was observed for a-Hederin (EC50 8.6 mg L-1) and Hederacolchisid-A1 (EC50 2.03 mg L-1) towards the annelid worm E. crypticus. The aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna was sensitive to Hederacolchisid- A1, a-Hederin, Arjunetin and Quillaja-mix with EC50 values from 12.52 mg L-1 - 16.90 mg L-1. S. cerevisiae was tested against a-Hederin and Quillaja-extract only and was more susceptible to a-Hederin (EC50 6.77 mg L-1 and 243.20 mg L-1). R. subcapitata showed minor effects when exposed to a-Hederin (EC50 42.99 mg L-1) and Madecassosid (267.65 mg L-1). This indicates that the algae, are the least sensitive species when exposed to saponins. Conclusion: Saponin toxicity depends on the interactions with sterols embedded in cell membranes. Our results indicate that a glycosylation at their C3 position together with a free carboxylic acid group at the C28 position allow triterpenoid saponins to interact with cholesterol and ergosterol and to a weaker extent with the plant sterol stigmasterol. Arjunetin and Quillaja-extract might be capable of interfering with chitin.

Auto-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (A-HTP) and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (SA-HTP) were applied to quinoa stalks in order to reduce their recalcitrance towards enzymatic saccharification. Prior to pretreatment, quinoa stalks were extracted with either water or a 50:50 (v/v) ethanol–water mixture for removing saponins. Extraction with water or aqueous ethanol, respectively, led to removal of 52 and 75% (w/w) of the saponins contained in the raw material. Preliminary extraction of quinoa stalks allowed for a lower overall severity during pretreatment, and it led to an increase of glucan recovery in the pretreated solids (above 90%) compared with that of non-extracted quinoa stalks (73–74%). Furthermore, preliminary extraction resulted in enhanced hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lower by-product formation during pretreatment. The enhancement of hemicelluloses hydrolysis by pre-extraction was more noticeable for SA-HTP than for A-HTP. As a result of the pretreatment, glucan susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkably improved, and the overall conversion values were higher for the pre-extracted materials (up to 83%) than for the non-extracted ones (64–69%). Higher overall conversion was achieved for the aqueous ethanol-extracted quinoa stalks (72–83%) than for the water-extracted material (65–74%).

Auto-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (A-HTP) and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (SA-HTP) were applied to quinoa stalks in order to reduce their recalcitrance towards enzymatic saccharification. Prior to pretreatment, quinoa stalks were extracted with either water or a 50:50 (v/v) ethanol–water mixture for removing saponins. Extraction with water or aqueous ethanol, respectively, led to removal of 52 and 75% (w/w) of the saponins contained in the raw material. Preliminary extraction of quinoa stalks allowed for a lower overall severity during pretreatment, and it led to an increase of glucan recovery in the pretreated solids (above 90%) compared with that of non-extracted quinoa stalks (73–74%). Furthermore, preliminary extraction resulted in enhanced hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lower by-product formation during pretreatment. The enhancement of hemicelluloses hydrolysis by pre-extraction was more noticeable for SA-HTP than for A-HTP. As a result of the pretreatment, glucan susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkably improved, and the overall conversion values were higher for the pre-extracted materials (up to 83%) than for the non-extracted ones (64–69%). Higher overall conversion was achieved for the aqueous ethanol-extracted quinoa stalks (72–83%) than for the water-extracted material (65–74%).

Auto-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (A-HTP) and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (SA-HTP) were applied to quinoa stalks in order to reduce their recalcitrance towards enzymatic saccharification. Prior to pretreatment, quinoa stalks were extracted with either water or a 50:50 (v/v) ethanol–water mixture for removing saponins. Extraction with water or aqueous ethanol, respectively, led to removal of 52 and 75% (w/w) of the saponins contained in the raw material. Preliminary extraction of quinoa stalks allowed for a lower overall severity during pretreatment, and it led to an increase of glucan recovery in the pretreated solids (above 90%) compared with that of non-extracted quinoa stalks (73–74%). Furthermore, preliminary extraction resulted in enhanced hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lower by-product formation during pretreatment. The enhancement of hemicelluloses hydrolysis by pre-extraction was more noticeable for SA-HTP than for A-HTP. As a result of the pretreatment, glucan susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkably improved, and the overall conversion values were higher for the pre-extracted materials (up to 83%) than for the non-extracted ones (64–69%). Higher overall conversion was achieved for the aqueous ethanol-extracted quinoa stalks (72–83%) than for the water-extracted material (65–74%).

Auto-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (A-HTP) and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (SA-HTP) were applied to quinoa stalks in order to reduce their recalcitrance towards enzymatic saccharification. Prior to pretreatment, quinoa stalks were extracted with either water or a 50:50 (v/v) ethanol–water mixture for removing saponins. Extraction with water or aqueous ethanol, respectively, led to removal of 52 and 75% (w/w) of the saponins contained in the raw material. Preliminary extraction of quinoa stalks allowed for a lower overall severity during pretreatment, and it led to an increase of glucan recovery in the pretreated solids (above 90%) compared with that of non-extracted quinoa stalks (73–74%). Furthermore, preliminary extraction resulted in enhanced hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lower by-product formation during pretreatment. The enhancement of hemicelluloses hydrolysis by pre-extraction was more noticeable for SA-HTP than for A-HTP. As a result of the pretreatment, glucan susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkably improved, and the overall conversion values were higher for the pre-extracted materials (up to 83%) than for the non-extracted ones (64–69%). Higher overall conversion was achieved for the aqueous ethanol-extracted quinoa stalks (72–83%) than for the water-extracted material (65–74%).

Auto-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (A-HTP) and sulfuric-acid-catalyzed hydrothermal pretreatment (SA-HTP) were applied to quinoa stalks in order to reduce their recalcitrance towards enzymatic saccharification. Prior to pretreatment, quinoa stalks were extracted with either water or a 50:50 (v/v) ethanol–water mixture for removing saponins. Extraction with water or aqueous ethanol, respectively, led to removal of 52 and 75% (w/w) of the saponins contained in the raw material. Preliminary extraction of quinoa stalks allowed for a lower overall severity during pretreatment, and it led to an increase of glucan recovery in the pretreated solids (above 90%) compared with that of non-extracted quinoa stalks (73–74%). Furthermore, preliminary extraction resulted in enhanced hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lower by-product formation during pretreatment. The enhancement of hemicelluloses hydrolysis by pre-extraction was more noticeable for SA-HTP than for A-HTP. As a result of the pretreatment, glucan susceptibility towards enzymatic hydrolysis was remarkably improved, and the overall conversion values were higher for the pre-extracted materials (up to 83%) than for the non-extracted ones (64–69%). Higher overall conversion was achieved for the aqueous ethanol-extracted quinoa stalks (72–83%) than for the water-extracted material (65–74%).

Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) and Chikungunya Virus (CHIV) are neglected reemerging pathogens that cause comorbidities worldwide. Since no antiviral drug is prescribed for those infections, there is a demand on researching compounds that inhibit viral replication. Saponins are amphiphilic compounds that already demonstrated in vitro activity against enveloped virus. Therefore, two purified saponin fractions from Quillaja spp. were evaluated regarding their antiviral potential against YFV and CHIKV. The cell line used in this study was VERO (African green monkey kidney cells) since it is permissive to the replication of both viruses. The antiviral activity of both saponins fractions was screened using the plaque reduction assay protocol. Although saponins did not inhibited YFV replication, they strongly inhibited CHIKV. To confirm the absence of antiviral activity of Quillaja saponins against YFV, the cytopathic effect inhibition assay was performed also. Further studies are required to determine the antiviral mechanisms involved in the CHIKV inhibition.

Simple Summary The need to become more efficient in agriculture and the food industry exists parallel to the challenge of climate change. Meat and dairy production is the target of much scrutiny due to methane (CH4) emissions and global warming. On the other hand, it should be noted that two-thirds of the world's agricultural land consists of pastures and permanent grasslands and is used for livestock grazing. This land is predominantly unsuitable for arable purposes but facilitates the production of high-quality human-edible protein in the form of ruminant animal-derived meat and milk. This makes a significant contribution to feeding the world's population. There is a need to reduce CH4 emissions, however, and several approaches are being researched currently. Seaweeds are diverse plants containing bioactives that differ from their terrestrial counterparts and they are increasingly under investigation as a feed supplement for the mitigation of enteric CH4. Seaweeds are rich in bioactives including proteins, carbohydrates and to a lesser extent lipids, saponins, alkaloids and peptides. These bioactives could also play a role as feed ingredients to reduce enteric CH4. This review collates information on seaweeds and seaweed bioactives and their potential to impact on enteric CH4 emissions. Seaweeds contain a myriad of nutrients and bioactives including proteins, carbohydrates and to a lesser extent lipids as well as small molecules including peptides, saponins, alkaloids and pigments. The bioactive bromoform found in the red seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis has been identified as an agent that can reduce enteric CH4 production from livestock significantly. However, sustainable supply of this seaweed is a problem and there are some concerns over its sustainable production and potential negative environmental impacts on the ozone layer and the health impacts of bromoform. This review collates information on seaweeds and seaweed bioactives and the documented impact on CH, QC 20210122

A series of N-acyl glucosamine-bearingtriterpenoidsaponins has been synthesized with cytotoxic activities evaluated against HL-60, PC-3, HCT-116, and CT-26 tumor cells. Saponins incorporated anoleanolic acid (OA) triterpenoidal core exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity. To study the influence of the lengths of acyl-carbon chain onN-position of glucosamine, cells were treated with28-propargylamides and then reacted with an azido-fluorogenic probe under CuAACclickreactions to visualize the intact distributions of these compounds by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry; it was found that cytotoxic-active compounds (30–32) located in the cytosol and inactivecompounds bearing longer carbon chains (33–35) were impenetrable across cell membranes.Our study demonstrated the defined lipophilic acyl-carbon chain length can precisely regulate thecytotoxic activityof saponins, which is useful for the future development of cytotoxic agents.Furthermore, using quantitative proteomics and immunolabeling,the mechanism ofcytotoxicity induced by the synthetic saponin after membrane penetration could be a result of activation of death receptor pathway and inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway., QC 20200505

Generating durable humoral immunity through vaccination depends upon effective interactions of follicular helper T (Tfh) cells with germinal center (GC) B cells. Th1 polarization of Tfh cells is an important process shaping the success of Tfh-GC B cell interactions by influencing costimulatory and cytokine-dependent Tfh help to B cells. However, the question remains as to whether adjuvant-dependent modulation of Tfh cells enhances HIV-1 vaccine-induced antienvelope (anti-Env) antibody responses. We investigated whether an HIV-1 vaccine platform designed to increase the number of Th1-polarized Tfh cells enhances the magnitude and quality of anti-Env antibodies. Utilizing a novel interferon-induced protein 10 (IP-10)-adjuvanted HIV-1 DNA prime followed by a monophosphoryl lipid A and QS-21 (MPLA+QS-21)-adjuvanted Env protein boost (DIP-10 PALFQ) in macaques, we observed higher anti-Env serum IgG titers with greater cross-clade reactivity, specificity for V1V2, and effector functions than in macaques primed with DNA lacking IP-10 and boosted with MPLA-plus-alum-adjuvanted Env protein (DPALFA) The DIP-10 PALFQ vaccine regimen elicited higher anti-Env IgG1 and lower IgG4 antibody levels in serum, showing for the first time that adjuvants can dramatically impact the IgG subclass profile in macaques. The DIP-10 PALFQ regimen also increased vaginal and rectal IgA antibodies to a greater extent. Within lymph nodes, we observed augmented GC B cell responses and the promotion of Th1 gene expression profiles in GC Tfh cells. The frequency of GC Tfh cells correlated with both the magnitude and avidity of anti-Env serum IgG. Together, these data suggest that adjuvant-induced stimulation of Th1-Tfh cells is an effective strategy for enhancing the magnitude and quality of anti-Env antibody responses.IMPORTANCE The results of the RV144 trial demonstrated that vaccination could prevent HIV transmission in humans and that longevity of anti-Env antibodies may be key to this protection.

Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) and Chikungunya Virus (CHIV) are neglected reemerging pathogens that cause comorbidities worldwide. Since no antiviral drug is prescribed for those infections, there is a demand on researching compounds that inhibit viral replication. Saponins are amphiphilic compounds that already demonstrated in vitro activity against enveloped virus. Therefore, two purified saponin fractions from Quillaja spp. were evaluated regarding their antiviral potential against YFV and CHIKV. The cell line used in this study was VERO (African green monkey kidney cells) since it is permissive to the replication of both viruses. The antiviral activity of both saponins fractions was screened using the plaque reduction assay protocol. Although saponins did not inhibited YFV replication, they strongly inhibited CHIKV. To confirm the absence of antiviral activity of Quillaja saponins against YFV, the cytopathic effect inhibition assay was performed also. Further studies are required to determine the antiviral mechanisms involved in the CHIKV inhibition.

Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) and Chikungunya Virus (CHIV) are neglected reemerging pathogens that cause comorbidities worldwide. Since no antiviral drug is prescribed for those infections, there is a demand on researching compounds that inhibit viral replication. Saponins are amphiphilic compounds that already demonstrated in vitro activity against enveloped virus. Therefore, two purified saponin fractions from Quillaja spp. were evaluated regarding their antiviral potential against YFV and CHIKV. The cell line used in this study was VERO (African green monkey kidney cells) since it is permissive to the replication of both viruses. The antiviral activity of both saponins fractions was screened using the plaque reduction assay protocol. Although saponins did not inhibited YFV replication, they strongly inhibited CHIKV. To confirm the absence of antiviral activity of Quillaja saponins against YFV, the cytopathic effect inhibition assay was performed also. Further studies are required to determine the antiviral mechanisms involved in the CHIKV inhibition.

Context:Saponins belong to a group of molecules with industrial applications, particularly in the food industry as a foam stabilizer in soft drinks. During 2013 to 2017, its market increased about 50%, becoming an important economic sector that has promoted a strong interest in the optimization of different extraction processes from different natural sources.Method:A technological surveillancereport was made evaluating the applicability, extraction and economic aspects of saponins worldwide. The conceptual design of a pilot plant for the extraction of saponins from fique’s juice was carried out based on the results obtained from the analysis of a decision matrix.Results:A viable alternative for the extraction of saponins from fique’s juice is flocculation, which advantages lie on its technological simplicity, low energy consumption, direct applicability to the matrix of interest and use of solvents such as water and ethanol.Conclusions:Using Aluminum Polychloride (PAC) as a flocculant, due to its ability to remove organic matter and its selectivity, saponins are recovered in the clarification. The conceptual design presents a pilot plant with a capacity of 67,462 L/h and an efficiency of 87,45 %., Contexto: Las saponinas corresponden a un grupo de moléculas con aplicabilidad industrial, especialmente para el sector alimenticio como estabilizante de espuma en bebidas gaseosas. En el período comprendido entre el año 2013 y 2017 su mercado incrementó aproximadamente un 50%, convirtiéndose en un sector económico importante que ha promovido un marcado interés en la optimización de diversos procesos de extracción desde diferentes fuentes naturales.Método:Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica evaluando aplicabilidad, extracción y aspectos económicos de las saponinas a nivel mundial. Se realizó el diseño conceptual de una planta piloto para la extracción de saponinas de jugo de fique con base en los resultados obtenidos del análisis de una matriz de decisión.Resultados:Una alternativa viable para extraer saponinas de jugo de fique es la floculación, cuyas ventajas radican en su simplicidad tecnológica, bajo consumo energético, aplicabilidad directa a la matriz de interés y uso de solventes como agua y etanol. Conclusiones: Utilizando como floculante el Policloruro de Aluminio (PAC) debido a su capacidad de remover materia orgánica y a su selectividad sefavorece la recuperación de las saponinas en el clarificado. En el diseño conceptual se presenta una planta piloto con una capacidad de 67,462 L/h y una eficiencia de 87,45 %.

Steroidal and triterpenoid saponins are attractive for their wide-ranging pharmacological properties. The triterpenoid saponins Anemoclemoside A and B are root constituents of the Chinese folk medicinal plant Anemoclema glaucifolium (Ranunculaceae). Both compounds feature an unusual cyclic acetal linkage to the carbohydrate l-arabinose in its open chain form rather than the typical glycosidic bond present in normal saponins. The straightforward and scalable syntheses of both saponins starting from l-arabinose as well as l-lyxose and l-rhamnose are described., QC 20211206

Generating durable humoral immunity through vaccination depends upon effective interactions of follicular helper T (Tfh) cells with germinal center (GC) B cells. Th1 polarization of Tfh cells is an important process shaping the success of Tfh-GC B cell interactions by influencing costimulatory and cytokine-dependent Tfh help to B cells. However, the question remains as to whether adjuvant-dependent modulation of Tfh cells enhances HIV-1 vaccine-induced antienvelope (anti-Env) antibody responses. We investigated whether an HIV-1 vaccine platform designed to increase the number of Th1-polarized Tfh cells enhances the magnitude and quality of anti-Env antibodies. Utilizing a novel interferon-induced protein 10 (IP-10)-adjuvanted HIV-1 DNA prime followed by a monophosphoryl lipid A and QS-21 (MPLA+QS-21)-adjuvanted Env protein boost (DIP-10 PALFQ) in macaques, we observed higher anti-Env serum IgG titers with greater cross-clade reactivity, specificity for V1V2, and effector functions than in macaques primed with DNA lacking IP-10 and boosted with MPLA-plus-alum-adjuvanted Env protein (DPALFA) The DIP-10 PALFQ vaccine regimen elicited higher anti-Env IgG1 and lower IgG4 antibody levels in serum, showing for the first time that adjuvants can dramatically impact the IgG subclass profile in macaques. The DIP-10 PALFQ regimen also increased vaginal and rectal IgA antibodies to a greater extent. Within lymph nodes, we observed augmented GC B cell responses and the promotion of Th1 gene expression profiles in GC Tfh cells. The frequency of GC Tfh cells correlated with both the magnitude and avidity of anti-Env serum IgG. Together, these data suggest that adjuvant-induced stimulation of Th1-Tfh cells is an effective strategy for enhancing the magnitude and quality of anti-Env antibody responses.IMPORTANCE The results of the RV144 trial demonstrated that vaccination could prevent HIV transmission in humans and that longevity of anti-Env antibodies may be key to this protection.

Context:Saponins belong to a group of molecules with industrial applications, particularly in the food industry as a foam stabilizer in soft drinks. During 2013 to 2017, its market increased about 50%, becoming an important economic sector that has promoted a strong interest in the optimization of different extraction processes from different natural sources.Method:A technological surveillancereport was made evaluating the applicability, extraction and economic aspects of saponins worldwide. The conceptual design of a pilot plant for the extraction of saponins from fique’s juice was carried out based on the results obtained from the analysis of a decision matrix.Results:A viable alternative for the extraction of saponins from fique’s juice is flocculation, which advantages lie on its technological simplicity, low energy consumption, direct applicability to the matrix of interest and use of solvents such as water and ethanol.Conclusions:Using Aluminum Polychloride (PAC) as a flocculant, due to its ability to remove organic matter and its selectivity, saponins are recovered in the clarification. The conceptual design presents a pilot plant with a capacity of 67,462 L/h and an efficiency of 87,45 %., Contexto: Las saponinas corresponden a un grupo de moléculas con aplicabilidad industrial, especialmente para el sector alimenticio como estabilizante de espuma en bebidas gaseosas. En el período comprendido entre el año 2013 y 2017 su mercado incrementó aproximadamente un 50%, convirtiéndose en un sector económico importante que ha promovido un marcado interés en la optimización de diversos procesos de extracción desde diferentes fuentes naturales.Método:Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica evaluando aplicabilidad, extracción y aspectos económicos de las saponinas a nivel mundial. Se realizó el diseño conceptual de una planta piloto para la extracción de saponinas de jugo de fique con base en los resultados obtenidos del análisis de una matriz de decisión.Resultados:Una alternativa viable para extraer saponinas de jugo de fique es la floculación, cuyas ventajas radican en su simplicidad tecnológica, bajo consumo energético, aplicabilidad directa a la matriz de interés y uso de solventes como agua y etanol. Conclusiones: Utilizando como floculante el Policloruro de Aluminio (PAC) debido a su capacidad de remover materia orgánica y a su selectividad sefavorece la recuperación de las saponinas en el clarificado. En el diseño conceptual se presenta una planta piloto con una capacidad de 67,462 L/h y una eficiencia de 87,45 %.

Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) and Chikungunya Virus (CHIV) are neglected reemerging pathogens that cause comorbidities worldwide. Since no antiviral drug is prescribed for those infections, there is a demand on researching compounds that inhibit viral replication. Saponins are amphiphilic compounds that already demonstrated in vitro activity against enveloped virus. Therefore, two purified saponin fractions from Quillaja spp. were evaluated regarding their antiviral potential against YFV and CHIKV. The cell line used in this study was VERO (African green monkey kidney cells) since it is permissive to the replication of both viruses. The antiviral activity of both saponins fractions was screened using the plaque reduction assay protocol. Although saponins did not inhibited YFV replication, they strongly inhibited CHIKV. To confirm the absence of antiviral activity of Quillaja saponins against YFV, the cytopathic effect inhibition assay was performed also. Further studies are required to determine the antiviral mechanisms involved in the CHIKV inhibition.

Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) and Chikungunya Virus (CHIV) are neglected reemerging pathogens that cause comorbidities worldwide. Since no antiviral drug is prescribed for those infections, there is a demand on researching compounds that inhibit viral replication. Saponins are amphiphilic compounds that already demonstrated in vitro activity against enveloped virus. Therefore, two purified saponin fractions from Quillaja spp. were evaluated regarding their antiviral potential against YFV and CHIKV. The cell line used in this study was VERO (African green monkey kidney cells) since it is permissive to the replication of both viruses. The antiviral activity of both saponins fractions was screened using the plaque reduction assay protocol. Although saponins did not inhibited YFV replication, they strongly inhibited CHIKV. To confirm the absence of antiviral activity of Quillaja saponins against YFV, the cytopathic effect inhibition assay was performed also. Further studies are required to determine the antiviral mechanisms involved in the CHIKV inhibition.

Saponin-rich extracts from edible seeds have gained increasing interest and their hydrolysis to sapogenin-rich extracts may be an effective strategy to enhance their potential bioactivity. However, it remains necessary to study the resulting chemical modifications of the extracts after hydrolysis as well as their impact on the subsequent bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds. The chemical composition of non-hydrolyzed and hydrolyzed extracts from fenugreek (FE, HFE) and quinoa (QE, HQE), and the bioaccessibility of saponins, sapogenins and other bioactive compounds after an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion was assessed. In general, FE mainly contained saponins (31%), amino acids (6%) and glycerides (5.9%), followed by carbohydrates (3.4%), fatty acids (FFA) (2.3%), phytosterols (0.8%), tocols (0.1%) and phenolics (0.05%). HFE consisted of FFA (35%), sapogenins (8%) and partial glycerides (7%), and were richer in phytosterols (1.9%) and tocols (0.3%). QE mainly contained glycerides (33%), FFA (19%), carbohydrates (16%) and saponins (7.9%), and to a lesser extent alkylresorcinols (1.8%), phytosterols (1.5%), amino acids (1.1%), tocols (0.5%) and phenolics (0.5%). HQE mainly consisted of FFA (57%), partial glycerides (23%) and sapogenins (5.4%), were richer in phytosterols (2.4%), phenolics (1.2%) and tocols (0.7%) but poorer in alkylresorcinols (1%). After in vitro digestion, saponins from FE and QE were fully bioaccessible, sapogenins from HFE displayed a good bioaccessibility (76%) and the sapogenin from HQE was moderately bioaccesible (38%). Digestion of saponin and sapogenin standards suggested that other components of the extracts were enhancing the bioaccessibility. Other minor bioactive compounds (phytosterols, alkylresorcinols, tocols and some phenolics) also displayed optimal bioaccessibility values (70–100%).

The permeability of saponins and sapogenins from fenugreek and quinoa extracts, as well as dioscin and diosgenin, was evaluated by the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA). The effect of the digestion process on permeability was determined, with previous development of a gastrointestinal process coupled to PAMPA. Saponins from both seeds displayed a moderate-to-poor permeability (>1 × 10–6 cm/s), although the digestion enhanced their permeability values in the order of 10–5 cm/s (p < 0.001). Sapogenins exhibited a similar permeability to that of saponins, although the digestion enhanced the permeability of sapogenins from quinoa (1.14 ± 0.47 × 10–5 cm/s) but not from fenugreek (2.33 ± 0.99 × 10–6 cm/s). An overall positive impact of coexisting lipids on the permeability was evidenced. PAMPA is shown as a useful, rapid, and easy tool for assessing the permeability of bioactive compounds from complex matrices, with the previous gastrointestinal process being a relevant step.

Asparagus cultivation produces enormous amounts of biomass (leaves, stems, fruits, roots and rhizomes) that currently lacks of economic value at the time that implies an environmental challenge. From the bioeconomy point of view an added-value must be given to these co-products to shift their consideration from waste to chance. They are rich in phytochemicals, such as flavonoids, fructans and saponins, which can be easily extracted and purified by green and environmental friendly processes. Those bioactive extracts are of great interest for several industrial sectors. The exploitation of this biomass will represent an increase in the incomes of asparagus growers and life standard enhancement of rural areas.

Predmet proučavanja ove doktorske disertacije su sekundarni metaboliti halofita(biljaka koje naseljavaju staništa sa visokim sadržajem soli). U Srbiji se zaslanjenastaništa uglavnom javljaju na teritoriji Vojvodine. U ovom radu izolovani su i hemijskiokarakterisani flavonoidni glikozidi i saponini iz halofitnih vrsta roda Atriplex (A.littoralis, A. tatarica i A. prostrata) i određena je njihova različita biološka aktivnost.Pored biljaka iz roda Atriplex ispitivana je halofitna biljna vrsta Artemisia santonicum izkoje je izolovano etarsko ulje, određen hemijski sastav i ispitana biološka aktivnost.Halofitne biljne vrste se u tradicionalnoj medicini koriste u brojne svrhe kaoantiseptici, diuretici, antiparazitici, antipiretici, purgativi, laksativi, za lečenjedijabetesa, visokog krvnog pritiska, astme, gihta i reumatizma. Ekstrakti i jedinjenjaizolovana iz vrsta roda Atriplex pokazuju antioksidativnu, antimikrobnu, citotoksičnu,antiparazitsku, i insekticidnu aktivnost. Etarska ulja vrsta roda Artemisia su pokazalaantioksidativnu, antibakterijsku, antifungalnu, antiparazitsku, hepatoprotektivnu,neuroprotektivnu i antimalarijsku aktivnost.Vrste roda Atriplex su bogat izvor sekundarnih metabolita prvenstvenoflavonoida, saponina i alkaloida. U okviru ove disertacije izolovano je i okarakterisanoukupno 13 jedinjenja, od kojih je 7 novih prirodnih proizvoda (43-45, 51-54). Iz vrste A.littoralis izolovano je 6 jedinjenja, četiri flavonoidna glikozida (43-46) i dva fenolnajedinjenja (47, 48). Iz A. tatarica izolovano je 6 jedinjenja, tri flavonoidna glikozida(49-51) i tri triterpenska saponina oleanolnog tipa (52-54). Iz etarskog ulja Artemisiasantonicum izolovan je oksigenovani monoterpen (55)..., The subject of this doctoral dissertation are the secondary metabolites ofhalophytes (plants wild growing at saline habitats). In Serbia such habitats are mainlyfound in Vojvodina. Flavonoid glycosides and saponins from halophytic speciesAtriplex (A. littoralis, A. tatarica and A. prostrata) were isolated, chemicallycharacterized and their various biological activities were determined. In addition, ahalophyte species from the genus Artemisia (A. santonicum) was examined. Its essentialoil was isolated, the chemical composition determined and various biological activitiesof this were tested.Several halophytic plant species are used in many traditional formulations asantiseptics, diuretics, antiparasitics, antipyretics, purgatives, laxatives, for the treatmentof diabetes, high blood pressure, asthma, gout and rheumatism. Extracts and compoundsisolated from the genus Atriplex show antiparasitic, insecticidal, antimicrobial,cytotoxic and antioxidant activity. Essential oils of the genus Artemisia have shownantioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotectiveand antimalarial activity.Atriplex species are a rich source of secondary metabolites, primarily flavonoids,saponins and alkaloids. In this study, a total of 13 compounds were isolated andcharacterized by means of spectroscopic techniques (1D and 2D NMR, IR and MS).Among them seven (43-45, 51-54) were the new compounds. At the same time, in theextract of A. littoralis, six compounds, four flavonoid glycosides (43-46) and twophenolic compounds (47, 48) were identified. From A. tatarica six compounds, threeflavonoid glycosides (49-51) and three triterpene saponins of an oleanane type (52-54)were isolated. An oxygenated monoterpene (55) was isolated from Artemisiasantonicum essential oil...

[EN] The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of ultrasound on supercritical fluid extraction for the recovery of antioxidants and saponins from agave bagasse as a green extraction technique. When a mass load of 0.086 g/cm(3) was used, ultrasound effect was not observed, due to sample swelling and compaction within the cell. For 0.043 g/cm(3), the intensification effect of ultrasound was significant (p < 0.05) and its magnitude depended on the transducer geometry. For a multiplate transducer geometry, antioxidant capacity increased from 12.18 +/- 1.01 to 20.91 +/- 1.66 mu mol TE/g; and saponins from 19.05 +/- 1.67 to 61.59 +/- 1.99 mu g/g, when ultrasound was applied. Although the amount of bioactives extracted is low, the use of a multiplate transducer design was able to intensify the supercritical fluid extraction of phytochemicals from agave bagasse. Consequently, this type of transducer can become an alternative for the application of ultrasound on the supercritical fluid extraction of other suitable agro-industrial by-products

Predmet proučavanja ove doktorske disertacije su sekundarni metaboliti halofita (biljaka koje naseljavaju staništa sa visokim sadržajem soli). U Srbiji se zaslanjena staništa uglavnom javljaju na teritoriji Vojvodine. U ovom radu izolovani su i hemijski okarakterisani flavonoidni glikozidi i saponini iz halofitnih vrsta roda Atriplex (A. littoralis, A. tatarica i A. prostrata) i određena je njihova različita biološka aktivnost. Pored biljaka iz roda Atriplex ispitivana je halofitna biljna vrsta Artemisia santonicum iz koje je izolovano etarsko ulje, određen hemijski sastav i ispitana biološka aktivnost. Halofitne biljne vrste se u tradicionalnoj medicini koriste u brojne svrhe kao antiseptici, diuretici, antiparazitici, antipiretici, purgativi, laksativi, za lečenje dijabetesa, visokog krvnog pritiska, astme, gihta i reumatizma. Ekstrakti i jedinjenja izolovana iz vrsta roda Atriplex pokazuju antioksidativnu, antimikrobnu, citotoksičnu, antiparazitsku, i insekticidnu aktivnost. Etarska ulja vrsta roda Artemisia su pokazala antioksidativnu, antibakterijsku, antifungalnu, antiparazitsku, hepatoprotektivnu, neuroprotektivnu i antimalarijsku aktivnost. Vrste roda Atriplex su bogat izvor sekundarnih metabolita prvenstveno flavonoida, saponina i alkaloida. U okviru ove disertacije izolovano je i okarakterisano ukupno 13 jedinjenja, od kojih je 7 novih prirodnih proizvoda (43-45, 51-54). Iz vrste A. littoralis izolovano je 6 jedinjenja, četiri flavonoidna glikozida (43-46) i dva fenolna jedinjenja (47, 48). Iz A. tatarica izolovano je 6 jedinjenja, tri flavonoidna glikozida (49-51) i tri triterpenska saponina oleanolnog tipa (52-54). Iz etarskog ulja Artemisia santonicum izolovan je oksigenovani monoterpen (55)..., The subject of this doctoral dissertation are the secondary metabolites of halophytes (plants wild growing at saline habitats). In Serbia such habitats are mainly found in Vojvodina. Flavonoid glycosides and saponins from halophytic species Atriplex (A. littoralis, A. tatarica and A. prostrata) were isolated, chemically characterized and their various biological activities were determined. In addition, a halophyte species from the genus Artemisia (A. santonicum) was examined. Its essential oil was isolated, the chemical composition determined and various biological activities of this were tested. Several halophytic plant species are used in many traditional formulations as antiseptics, diuretics, antiparasitics, antipyretics, purgatives, laxatives, for the treatment of diabetes, high blood pressure, asthma, gout and rheumatism. Extracts and compounds isolated from the genus Atriplex show antiparasitic, insecticidal, antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activity. Essential oils of the genus Artemisia have shown antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective and antimalarial activity. Atriplex species are a rich source of secondary metabolites, primarily flavonoids, saponins and alkaloids. In this study, a total of 13 compounds were isolated and characterized by means of spectroscopic techniques (1D and 2D NMR, IR and MS). Among them seven (43-45, 51-54) were the new compounds. At the same time, in the extract of A. littoralis, six compounds, four flavonoid glycosides (43-46) and two phenolic compounds (47, 48) were identified. From A. tatarica six compounds, three flavonoid glycosides (49-51) and three triterpene saponins of an oleanane type (52-54) were isolated. An oxygenated monoterpene (55) was isolated from Artemisia santonicum essential oil...

The aim of the study is to assess the hypotensive properties of the hydro-ethanolic crude root extract (CRE), the n-butanol fraction (F BtOH) and nuatigenin-3- O-β-chacotriose, from Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam., in adrenal regeneration hypertension + deoxycorticosterone acetate (ARH + DOCA) rats, following a chronic administration. The roots of S. sisymbriifolium Lam. (Solanaceae) were extracted by reflux with ethanol–water 7:3 and the active extract was fractionated by bioassay-guided liquid-liquid separation. Nuatigenin-3- O-β-chacotriose (B 3-1) was identified as the main hypotensive compound from the crude drug by spectroscopic methods. Immature Wistar rats of both sexes were submitted to both surgery and deoxycorticosterone acetate treatment to obtain adrenal regeneration hypertensive rats (ARH + DOCA). Different groups of experimentally induced hypertensive rats were randomly allotted and received during 16 weeks a daily oral administration of 1% saline solution (0.1 mL/100 g body weigh), 100.0 mg/kg of CRE, 10.0, 30.0 and 50.0 mg/kg of F BtOH, and 1.0 mg/kg of B 3-1, respectively. In addition, two groups of ARH + DOCA rats were randomly assigned to receive either B 3-1 (1.0 mg/kg/day) or 1% of saline solution (0.1 mL/100 g body weight/day) for 7 weeks and then a cross over procedure was performed in order to complete the 16th-week treatment. After 16 weeks of oral administration of crude root extract (CRE), butanolic fraction (F BtOH) and nuatigenin-3- O-β-chacotriose (B 3-1) a significant reduction of blood pressure value was induced in hypertensive animals (ARH + DOCA) in comparison to the control group receiving 1% saline solution, at the end of experiment. Administration of B 3-1 (1.0 mg/kg/day p.o.) to ARH + DOCA rats provoked a significant reduction of blood pressure, observed gradually from 5th week ( p < 0.05) to the end of the 16th week period of treatment ( p < 0.01). Moreover, in a cross over design it was observed that the reduction of blood press

The aim of the study is to assess the hypotensive properties of the hydro-ethanolic crude root extract (CRE), the n-butanol fraction (FBtOH) and nuatigenin-3-O-β-chacotriose, from Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam., in adrenal regeneration hypertension + deoxycorticosterone acetate (ARH + DOCA) rats, following a chronic administration. The roots of S. sisymbriifolium Lam. (Solanaceae) were extracted by reflux with ethanol–water 7:3 and the active extract was fractionated by bioassay-guided liquid-liquid separation. Nuatigenin-3-O-β-chacotriose (B3-1) was identified as the main hypotensive compound from the crude drug by spectroscopic methods. Immature Wistar rats of both sexes were submitted to both surgery and deoxycorticosterone acetate treatment to obtain adrenal regeneration hypertensive rats (ARH + DOCA). Different groups of experimentally induced hypertensive rats were randomly allotted and received during 16 weeks a daily oral administration of 1% saline solution (0.1 mL/100 g body weigh), 100.0 mg/kg of CRE, 10.0, 30.0 and 50.0 mg/kg of FBtOH, and 1.0 mg/kg of B3-1, respectively. In addition, two groups of ARH + DOCA rats were randomly assigned to receive either B3-1 (1.0 mg/kg/day) or 1% of saline solution (0.1 mL/100 g body weight/day) for 7 weeks and then a cross over procedure was performed in order to complete the 16th-week treatment. After 16 weeks of oral administration of crude root extract (CRE), butanolic fraction (FBtOH) and nuatigenin-3-O-β-chacotriose (B3-1) a significant reduction of blood pressure value was induced in hypertensive animals (ARH + DOCA) in comparison to the control group receiving 1% saline solution, at the end of experiment. Administration of B3-1 (1.0 mg/kg/day p.o.) to ARH + DOCA rats provoked a significant reduction of blood pressure, observed gradually from 5th week (p < 0.05) to the end of the 16th week period of treatment (p < 0.01). Moreover, in a cross over design it was observed that the reduction of blood pressure to normot

Saikosaponins (SSs) are a class of naturally occurring oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins found in Radix bupleuri that has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. As the main active principals of Radix bupleuri, SSs have been shown to suppress mouse motor activity, impair learning and memory, and decrease hippocampal neurogenesis. In the present study, we investigated the effect of five SSs (SSa, SSb1, SSb2, SSc, and SSd) on neuronal viability and the underlying mechanisms in cultured murine neocortical neurons. We demonstrate that SSa, SSb1 and SSd produce concentration-dependent apoptotic neuronal death and induce robust increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) at low micromolar concentrations with a rank order of SSd > SSa > SSb1, whereas SSb2 and SSc have no detectable effect on both neuronal survival and [Ca2+]i. Mechanistically, SSd-induced elevation in [Ca2+]i is the primary result of enhanced extracellular Ca2+ influx, which likely triggers Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release through ryanodine receptor activation, but not SERCA inhibition. SSd-induced Ca2+ entry occurs through a non-selective mechanism since blockers of major neuronal Ca2+ entry pathways, including L-type Ca2+ channel, NMDA receptor, AMPA receptor, Na+-Ca2+ exchanger, and TRPV1, all failed to attenuate the Ca2+ response to SSd. Further studies demonstrate that SSd increases calcein efflux and induces an inward current in neocortical neurons. Together, these data demonstrate that SSd elevates [Ca2+]i due to its ability to increase membrane permeability, likely by forming pores in the surface of membrane, which leads to massive Ca2+ influx and apoptotic neuronal death in neocortical neurons.