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The common octopus is the most demanded cephalopod species for human consumption. Despite important advances realized recently, the main bottleneck for commercial production of the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, is the mass mortality of paralarvae in the first 15–20 days post-hatching (dph), with the main responsible factors still unknown. Thus, the identification of the limiting culture factors is, therefore, crucial for their aquaculture. This study investigates proteomic and transcriptomic responses of octopus paralarvae fed on an improved live preys-mixed diet (M) compared to an Artemia-based (A) reference diet. M diet resulted in the highest paralarvae specific growth rate obtained to date under culture conditions. This is supported by most of the proteins and genes over-expressed in the M group being linked to the cell cycle and replication, production of structural components, and development of the nervous system. Furthermore, the differential nutritional regulation of several genes and proteins seems to indicate that, instead of fatty acids, the preferred fuels for cephalopods would be proteins and carbohydrates. Also, M diet provides a better nutrient balance, which has allowed carrying out this comparative study in paralarvae under optimal conditions at a more advanced stage of growth (20 dph) than in previous studies. Moreover, the paralarvae culture extended up to 40 dph showed for the first time a proper pre-settlement behavior.

The common octopus is the most demanded cephalopod species for human consumption. Despite important advances realized recently, the main bottleneck for commercial production of the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, is the mass mortality of paralarvae in the first 15–20 days post-hatching (dph), with the main responsible factors still unknown. Thus, the identification of the limiting culture factors is, therefore, crucial for their aquaculture. This study investigates proteomic and transcriptomic responses of octopus paralarvae fed on an improved live preys-mixed diet (M) compared to an Artemia-based (A) reference diet. M diet resulted in the highest paralarvae specific growth rate obtained to date under culture conditions. This is supported by most of the proteins and genes over-expressed in the M group being linked to the cell cycle and replication, production of structural components, and development of the nervous system. Furthermore, the differential nutritional regulation of several genes and proteins seems to indicate that, instead of fatty acids, the preferred fuels for cephalopods would be proteins and carbohydrates. Also, M diet provides a better nutrient balance, which has allowed carrying out this comparative study in paralarvae under optimal conditions at a more advanced stage of growth (20 dph) than in previous studies. Moreover, the paralarvae culture extended up to 40 dph showed for the first time a proper pre-settlement behavior

The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is a species of great interest to the aquaculture industry. However, the high mortalities registered during different phases of the octopus lifecycle, particularly the paralarvae stage, present a challenge for commercial aquaculture. Improvement of diet formulation is seen as one way to reduce mortality and improve growth. Molecular growth-markers could help to improve rearing protocols and increase survival and growth performance; therefore, over a hundred orthologous genes related to protein balance and muscle growth in vertebrates were identified for the common octopus and their suitability as molecular markers for growth in octopus paralarvae explored. We successfully amplified 14 of those genes and studied their transcription in paralarvae either fed with artemia, artemia + zoea diets or submitted to a short fasting-refeeding procedure. Paralarvae fed with artemia + zoea had higher growth rates compared to those fed only with artemia, as well as a significant increase in octopus mtor (mtor-L) and hsp90 (hsp90-L) transcription, with both genes also up-regulated during refeeding. Our results suggest that at least mtor-L and hsp90-L are likely linked to somatic growth in octopus paralarvae. Conversely, ckip1-L, crk-L, src-L and srf-L had expression patterns that did not match to periods of growth as would be expected based on similar studies in vertebrates, indicating that further research is needed to understand their function during growth and in a muscle specific context

The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is a species of great interest to the aquaculture industry. However, the high mortalities registered during different phases of the octopus lifecycle, particularly the paralarvae stage, present a challenge for commercial aquaculture. Improvement of diet formulation is seen as one way to reduce mortality and improve growth. Molecular growth-markers could help to improve rearing protocols and increase survival and growth performance; therefore, over a hundred orthologous genes related to protein balance and muscle growth in vertebrates were identified for the common octopus and their suitability as molecular markers for growth in octopus paralarvae explored. We successfully amplified 14 of those genes and studied their transcription in paralarvae either fed with artemia, artemia + zoea diets or submitted to a short fasting-refeeding procedure. Paralarvae fed with artemia + zoea had higher growth rates compared to those fed only with artemia, as well as a significant increase in octopus mtor (mtor-L) and hsp90 (hsp90-L) transcription, with both genes also up-regulated during refeeding. Our results suggest that at least mtor-L and hsp90-L are likely linked to somatic growth in octopus paralarvae. Conversely, ckip1-L, crk-L, src-L and srf-L had expression patterns that did not match to periods of growth as would be expected based on similar studies in vertebrates, indicating that further research is needed to understand their function during growth and in a muscle specific context

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2019. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Springer for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in , Zakroff, C., Mooney, T.A. & Berumen, M.L. Dose-dependence and small-scale variability in responses to ocean acidification during squid, Doryteuthis pealeii, development. Marine Biology, (2019), 166: 62. doi:10.1007/s00227-019-3510-8., Coastal squids lay their eggs on the benthos, leaving them to develop in a dynamic system that is undergoing rapid acidification due to human influence. Prior studies have broadly investigated the impacts of ocean acidification on embryonic squid, but have not addressed the thresholds at which these responses occur or their potential variability. We raised squid, Doryteuthis pealeii (captured in Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts, USA: 41° 23.370N 70° 46.418´W), eggs in three trials across the breeding season (May - September, 2013) in a total of six chronic pCO2 exposures (400, 550, 850, 1300, 1900, and 2200 ppm). Hatchlings were counted and subsampled for mantle length, yolk volume, hatching time, hatching success, and statolith morphology. New methods for analysis of statolith shape, rugosity, and surface degradation were developed and are presented (with code). Responses to acidification (e.g., reduced mantle lengths, delayed hatching, and smaller, more degraded statoliths) were evident at ~ 1300 ppm CO2. However, patterns of physiological response and energy management, based on comparisons of yolk consumption and growth, varied among trials. Interactions between pCO2 and hatching day indicated a potential influence of exposure time on responses, while interactions with culture vessel highlighted the substantive natural variability within a clutch of eggs. While this study is consistent with, and expands upon, previous findings of sensitivity of the early life stages to acidification, it also highlights the plasticity and potential for resilience in this population of squid., This material was based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. 1122374 to CZ. This project was funded by National Science Foundation Grant No. 1220034 to TAM., 2020-04-19

Author Posting. © The Author(s), 2019. This is the author's version of the work. It is posted here by permission of Springer for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in , Zakroff, C., Mooney, T.A. & Berumen, M.L. Dose-dependence and small-scale variability in responses to ocean acidification during squid, Doryteuthis pealeii, development. Marine Biology, (2019), 166: 62. doi:10.1007/s00227-019-3510-8., Coastal squids lay their eggs on the benthos, leaving them to develop in a dynamic system that is undergoing rapid acidification due to human influence. Prior studies have broadly investigated the impacts of ocean acidification on embryonic squid, but have not addressed the thresholds at which these responses occur or their potential variability. We raised squid, Doryteuthis pealeii (captured in Vineyard Sound, Massachusetts, USA: 41° 23.370N 70° 46.418´W), eggs in three trials across the breeding season (May - September, 2013) in a total of six chronic pCO2 exposures (400, 550, 850, 1300, 1900, and 2200 ppm). Hatchlings were counted and subsampled for mantle length, yolk volume, hatching time, hatching success, and statolith morphology. New methods for analysis of statolith shape, rugosity, and surface degradation were developed and are presented (with code). Responses to acidification (e.g., reduced mantle lengths, delayed hatching, and smaller, more degraded statoliths) were evident at ~ 1300 ppm CO2. However, patterns of physiological response and energy management, based on comparisons of yolk consumption and growth, varied among trials. Interactions between pCO2 and hatching day indicated a potential influence of exposure time on responses, while interactions with culture vessel highlighted the substantive natural variability within a clutch of eggs. While this study is consistent with, and expands upon, previous findings of sensitivity of the early life stages to acidification, it also highlights the plasticity and potential for resilience in this population of squid., This material was based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. 1122374 to CZ. This project was funded by National Science Foundation Grant No. 1220034 to TAM., 2020-04-19

Bacterial pathogens contribute to obtain an unsuccessful production of cephalopods. An updated overview of the knowledge of these pathogens must be a valuable tool to improve their aquarium maintenance and aquaculture. The present work provides a description of the main bacterial pathogens associated with larval stages of cultured Octopus vulgaris, and juvenile and adults of several cephalopods. Vibrio species, reported with ability to cause vibriosis in aquaculture, are the main bacteria associated with skin lesions in adults. Different species of Pseudomonas and Aeromonas, among others, have also been detected. Furthermore, gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus have been also described. Among them, V. alginolyticus, V. carchariae, V. parahaemolyticus, V. splendidus and V. lentus have also been isolated from sterile organs or fluids of animals and their potential as invaders proved. However, only V. alginolyticus or V. lentus has the ability to cause lesions, and, in addition, the last one is proved as the causative agent of death in octopuses. Other organs such as eyes of squids are also colonized by Vibrio species or Micrococcus sp., and recently Photobacterium swingsii and Lactococcus garvieae have been reported associated with a retrobulbar lesion in octopus. Rickettsial-like organisms (RLO) are also detected in the gills of the octopus, having a detrimental effect on the respiratory gaseous exchange of the animals. Cultures of octopus paralarvae show a genetically diverse community comparable to those reported previously from other marine hatcheries. Bacteria included in the Splendidus clade is the dominant group in all conditions, except in one of them, where V. alginolyticus, V. proteolyticus or Pseudomonas fluorescens are the main detected groups. Furthermore, Shewanella or Pseudoalteromonas undina have also been identified. All this shows that pathogenic bacteria are frequent microorganisms associated with aquarium maintenance and culture of cephalopods

The collection of papers included in this Research Topic represents the outcome of some of the activities of the COST Action FA1301, CephsInAction. It emerged from a series of presentations delivered during a workshop in Cascais (Portugal; November 24th, 2015), and from the research activities carried out during Short Term Scientific Missions supported through the COST Action FA1301. The overall aim is to fill some lacunae in knowledge of the digestive tract of cephalopod molluscs. In contrast to other areas of cephalopod biology such as the central nervous system and behavior (e.g., Marini et al., 2017; Nakajima et al.; O’Brien et al.; Shigeno et al.) and the visual system (see Hanke and Osorio), relatively little research has been done on this topic during the last 30 years. Cephalopods are active marine predators counting more than 800 species. Understanding the physiological adaptations of these fascinating and complex molluscs poses important challenges for several disciplines. Knowledge of the normal functioning (i.e., appetitive drive, signaling satiety, storage and coordinated oro-anal movement of ingested food and digesta, extra- and intra-cellular digestion, epithelial and intra-cellular transport, metabolism, and incorporation of nutrients in the tissues) of the digestive system has wide ranging implications for fisheries, aquaculture, and for the care and welfare of cephalopods in the laboratory and in public displays. Alterations in digestive tract functionality are also a sensitive indicator of gastrointestinal and systemic infections, disease, and external stressors in the broadest sense. Most of the available knowledge on the cephalopod “gut” and physiology of digestion is based on assumptions by analogy with the vertebrate digestive system.

The common octopus Octopus vulgaris is a highly valuable species worldwide, but to understand its population dynamics and requirements under culture conditions, it is crucial to improve our knowledge about its planktonic stages. Previous studies validating daily beak growth increments in these stages allowed age estimation and comparison of wild and cultured paralarvae. We aimed to improve age estimations in captivity, addressing the effect of temperature and diet, to obtain an accurate estimation of age in wild specimens collected from the coast to the open ocean off NW Spain and Morocco. We analysed the beak growth increments of reared paralarvae at 14 and 21°C with 2 different crustacean prey taxa (Artemia and spider crab Maja brachydactyla zoeae) over 30 d. Daily increment deposition at 21°C was confirmed, whereas <1 increment d−1 was recorded at 14°C. The width of the reading area grew accordingly with age; therefore, this beak region may be suitable for age estimation. A general linear model (GLM) analysis showed that temperature and the interaction of age × temperature significantly influenced increment deposition, whereas diet did not. The number of growth rings recorded in wild paralarvae beaks ranged from 0−8 on the coast, 7−11 on the continental shelf and 2−28 in the open ocean. Corrected age estimates of wild paralarvae were obtained with the GLM using the mean temperatures recorded in the wild, supporting the hypothesis that O. vulgaris leave the coastal area and develop in the open ocean transported by upwelling filaments.

The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris, Cuvier 1797) is a promising species for aquaculture diversification, but the massive mortality during the first life stage is the main bottleneck for its commercial production. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of different live preys (Artemia and crustacean zoeae) and/or Artemia enrichment protocols in the paralarval growth by using a meta-analysis approach. A total of 26 independent assays were used, including data from the bibliography and from experiments carried out by our group. Three comparisons were established: (i) crustacean zoeae vs. Artemia, (ii) different crustacean zoeae species and (iii) Artemia enriched with marine lecithin (rich in polar lipids-PL and docosahexaenoic acid-DHA) vs. previously used Artemia enrichments. The meta-analysis approach allowed a quantitative review of independent studies with reliable conclusions, avoiding the subjectivity inherent to classical reviews. The outputs provided statistical confirmation of the better suitability of crustacean zoeae with respect to Artemia. However, not all crustacean species showed the same results, given that the high variability on Grapsus zoeae hampered finding significant differences with respect to the control treatment (Artemia). Nutrient composition and biometry of the different types of prey are discussed as possible causes of the differences arising from the meta-analysis. Finally, the present results suggest that marine lecithin has a beneficial effect on paralarval growth with respect to previously used enrichments, which could be related to the increase in DHA and PL in Artemia, given the essential role of these lipid components in octopus paralarval physiology.

Vertical distribution of the cephalopod paralarvae was investigated in relation to a system of two cyclonic and three anticyclonic eddies in the southern Gulf of California and a front in the adjacent Pacific Ocean. Results showed that the preferential habitat for the Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis – Dosidicus gigas “SD-complex” in both regions was the oxygenated surface mixed layer and the thermocline. The highest abundances occurred in of one of the anticyclonic eddies and a frontal zone, which are convergent structures. Enoploteuthid and Pyroteuthid paralarvae both displayed their highest abundances in the thermocline. Pyroteuthids dominated in the cyclonic eddy whereas Enoploteuthidae were less evident in the eddy system. Pyroteuthids were observed on the western (California Current) side of the frontal zone, and Enoploteuthids on its eastern (Gulf of California) side. The octopods and the complex of Ommastrephes-Eucleoteuthis-Hyaloteuthis paralarvae were present below the thermocline. Both groups had a scarce presence in the eddy system and high abundance near the frontal zone. The octopods abounded on the eastern side in association with the low dissolved oxygen concentrations (< 44 µmol kg−1) of Subtropical-Subsurface Water; the complex on the western front side was immersed in California Current Water. It may be concluded that the spawning and early stages of development of these cephalopod groups are associated with particular mesoscale structures of the water masses. For example, the “SD complex” inhabits the surface water masses, preferentially in convergence zones generated by mesoscale activity

The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, is a good candidate for aquaculture but a sustainable production is still unviable due to an almost total mortality during the paralarvae stage. DNA methylation regulates gene expression in the eukaryotic genome, and has been shown to exhibit plasticity throughout O. vulgaris life cycle, changing profiles from paralarvae to adult stages. This pattern of methylation could be sensitive to small alterations in nutritional and environmental conditions during the species early development, thus impacting on its health, growth and survival. In this sense, a full understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms operating during O. vulgaris development would contribute to optimizing the culture conditions for this species. Paralarvae of O. vulgaris were cultured over 28 days post-hatching (dph) using two different Artemia sp. based diets: control and a long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) enriched diet. The effect of the diets on the paralarvae DNA global methylation was analyzed by Methyl-Sensitive Amplification Polymorphism (MSAP) and global 5-methylcytosine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) approaches. The analysis of different methylation states over the time revealed a global demethylation phenomena occurring along O. vulgaris early development being directly driven by the age of the paralarvae. A gradual decline in methylated loci (hemimethylated, internal cytosine methylated, and hypermethylated) parallel to a progressive gain in non-methylated (NMT) loci toward the later sampling points was verified regardless of the diet provided and demonstrate a pre-established and well-defined demethylation program during its early development, involving a 20% of the MSAP loci. In addition, a differential behavior between diets was also observed at 20 dph, with a LC-PUFA supplementation effect over the methylation profiles. The present results show significant differences on the paralarvae methylation profiles during its develo

Nowadays, the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) culture is hampered by massive mortalities occurring during early life-cycle stages (paralarvae). Despite the causes of the high paralarvae mortality are not yet well-defined and understood, the nutritional stress caused by inadequate diets is pointed out as one of the main factors. In this study, the effects of diet on paralarvae is analyzed through a proteomic approach, to search for novel biomarkers of nutritional stress. A total of 43 proteins showing differential expression in the different conditions studied have been identified. The analysis highlights proteins related with the carbohydrate metabolism: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dedydrogenase (GAPDH), triosephosphate isomerase; other ways of energetic metabolism: NADP+-specific isocitrate dehydrogenase, arginine kinase; detoxification: glutathione-S-transferase (GST); stress: heat shock proteins (HSP70); structural constituent of eye lens: S-crystallin 3; and cytoskeleton: actin, actin-beta/gamma1, beta actin. These results allow defining characteristic proteomes of paralarvae depending on the diet; as well as the use of several of these proteins as novel biomarkers to evaluate their welfare linked to nutritional stress. Notably, the changes of proteins like S-crystallin 3, arginine kinase and NAD+ specific isocitrate dehydrogenase, may be related to fed vs. starving paralarvae, particularly in the first 4 days of development.

The culture of the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) is promising since the species has a relatively short lifecycle, rapid growth, and high food conversion ratios. However, recent attempts at successful paralarvae culture have failed due to slow growth and high mortality rates. Establishing an optimal nutritional regime for the paralarvae seems to be the impeding step in successful culture methods. Gaining a thorough knowledge of food regulation and assimilation is essential for paralarvae survival and longevity under culture conditions. The aim of this study, then, was to elucidate the characteristic metabolic organization of octopus paralarvae throughout an ontogenic period of 12 days post-hatching, as well as assess the effect of diet enrichment with live prey containing abundant marine phospholipids. Our results showed that throughout the ontogenic period studied, an increase in anaerobic metabolism took place largely due to an increased dependence of paralarvae on exogenous food. Our studies showed that this activity was supported by octopine dehydrogenase activity, with a less significant contribution of lactate dehydrogenase activity. Regarding aerobic metabolism, the use of amino acids was maintained for the duration of the experiment. Our studies also showed a significant increase in the rate of oxidation of fatty acids from 6 days after-hatching. A low, although sustained, capacity for de novo synthesis of glucose from amino acids and glycerol was also observed. Regardless of the composition of the food, glycerol kinase activity significantly increased a few days prior to a massive mortality event. This could be related to a metabolic imbalance in the redox state responsible for the high mortality. Thus, glycerol kinase might be used as an effective nutritional and welfare biomarker. The studies in this report also revealed the important finding that feeding larvae with phospholipid-enriched Artemia improved animal viability and welfare, significantly inc

This study describes the effect of seasonal average temperatures (14 and 18°C) in the Ría of Vigo, on the utilization of external yolk over the last five Naef stages of development (XV–XX) for Octopus vulgaris embryos. Also, the transference of the outer yolk to the inner yolk sac, and its use during embryonic development and early life by O. vulgaris paralarvae. Temperature had a marked effect on embryonic development, except during stages XV–XIX (until the second inversion) where development time was the same (14 days), regardless of temperature. There were no significant differences in outer yolk decrease between consecutive Naef stages at 14°C and 18°C. Contrary, significant differences at all Naef stages from XV to XIX (both, with or without outer yolk) were observed for inner yolk between temperatures. A higher accumulation of inner yolk in embryos at 14°C was observed, due to lower yolk consumption. Paralarvae incubated at both temperatures were maintained independently at starvation during 4 days. At 18°C, a reduced accumulation of inner yolk, especially during Naef stage XIX, was observed. In 24 h old paralarvae, there was already significant higher inner yolk content at 14°C than at 18°C. Unfed paralarvae at 18°C lost weight faster than those at 14°C, due to higher energetic requirements. Finally, from these results, we propose a paralarvae rearing protocol during the first days after hatching and during the last five Naef stage (XV–XX) at lower temperatures, since the energy requirements are lower during the initial maturation stage.

Under the influence of the Western Iberian upwelling system, the Iberian Atlantic coast holds important hatcheries and recruitment areas for Octopus vulgaris. Recently identified as an octopus hatchery, the Ría de Vigo harbors an important mesozooplankton community that supports O. vulgaris paralarvae during the first days of their planktonic stage. This study represents a preliminary approach to determine the nutritional link between wild O. vulgaris hatchlings, paralarvae and their zooplankton prey in the Ría de Vigo, by analyzing their lipid class content and fatty acid profiles. The results show that octopus hatchlings are richer in structural lipids as phospholipids and cholesterol, while the zooplankton is richer in reserve lipids like triacylglycerol and waxes. Zooplankton samples are also particularly rich in C18:1n9 and 22:6n3 (DHA), that seem to be successfully incorporated by O. vulgaris paralarvae thus resulting in a distinct fatty acid profile to that of the hatchlings. On the other hand, content in C20:4n6 (ARA) is maintained high through development, even though the zooplankton is apparently poorer in this essential fatty acid, confirming its importance for the development of O. vulgaris paralarvae. The content in monounsaturated fatty acids, particularly C18:1n7, and the DHA: EPA ratio are suggested as trophic markers of the diet of O. vulgaris paralarvae.

The common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, is a good candidate for aquaculture but a sustainable production is still unviable due to an almost total mortality during the paralarvae stage. DNA methylation regulates gene expression in the eukaryotic genome, and has been shown to exhibit plasticity throughout O. vulgaris life cycle, changing profiles from paralarvae to adult stages. This pattern of methylation could be sensitive to small alterations in nutritional and environmental conditions during the species early development, thus impacting on its health, growth and survival. In this sense, a full understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms operating during O. vulgaris development would contribute to optimizing the culture conditions for this species. Paralarvae of O. vulgaris were cultured over 28 days post-hatching (dph) using two different Artemia sp. based diets: control and a long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) enriched diet. The effect of the diets on the paralarvae DNA global methylation was analyzed by Methyl-Sensitive Amplification Polymorphism (MSAP) and global 5-methylcytosine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) approaches. The analysis of different methylation states over the time revealed a global demethylation phenomena occurring along O. vulgaris early development being directly driven by the age of the paralarvae. A gradual decline in methylated loci (hemimethylated, internal cytosine methylated, and hypermethylated) parallel to a progressive gain in non-methylated (NMT) loci toward the later sampling points was verified regardless of the diet provided and demonstrate a pre-established and well-defined demethylation program during its early development, involving a 20% of the MSAP loci. In addition, a differential behavior between diets was also observed at 20 dph, with a LC-PUFA supplementation effect over the methylation profiles. The present results show significant differences on the paralarvae methylation profiles during its develo

The common octopus (Octopus vulgaris, Cuvier 1797) is a promising species for aquaculture diversification, but the massive mortality during the first life stage is the main bottleneck for its commercial production. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of different live preys (Artemia and crustacean zoeae) and/or Artemia enrichment protocols in the paralarval growth by using a meta-analysis approach. A total of 26 independent assays were used, including data from the bibliography and from experiments carried out by our group. Three comparisons were established: (i) crustacean zoeae vs. Artemia, (ii) different crustacean zoeae species and (iii) Artemia enriched with marine lecithin (rich in polar lipids-PL and docosahexaenoic acid-DHA) vs. previously used Artemia enrichments. The meta-analysis approach allowed a quantitative review of independent studies with reliable conclusions, avoiding the subjectivity inherent to classical reviews. The outputs provided statistical confirmation of the better suitability of crustacean zoeae with respect to Artemia. However, not all crustacean species showed the same results, given that the high variability on Grapsus zoeae hampered finding significant differences with respect to the control treatment (Artemia). Nutrient composition and biometry of the different types of prey are discussed as possible causes of the differences arising from the meta-analysis. Finally, the present results suggest that marine lecithin has a beneficial effect on paralarval growth with respect to previously used enrichments, which could be related to the increase in DHA and PL in Artemia, given the essential role of these lipid components in octopus paralarval physiology.

This study describes the effect of seasonal average temperatures (14 and 18°C) in the Ría of Vigo, on the utilization of external yolk over the last five Naef stages of development (XV–XX) for Octopus vulgaris embryos. Also, the transference of the outer yolk to the inner yolk sac, and its use during embryonic development and early life by O. vulgaris paralarvae. Temperature had a marked effect on embryonic development, except during stages XV–XIX (until the second inversion) where development time was the same (14 days), regardless of temperature. There were no significant differences in outer yolk decrease between consecutive Naef stages at 14°C and 18°C. Contrary, significant differences at all Naef stages from XV to XIX (both, with or without outer yolk) were observed for inner yolk between temperatures. A higher accumulation of inner yolk in embryos at 14°C was observed, due to lower yolk consumption. Paralarvae incubated at both temperatures were maintained independently at starvation during 4 days. At 18°C, a reduced accumulation of inner yolk, especially during Naef stage XIX, was observed. In 24 h old paralarvae, there was already significant higher inner yolk content at 14°C than at 18°C. Unfed paralarvae at 18°C lost weight faster than those at 14°C, due to higher energetic requirements. Finally, from these results, we propose a paralarvae rearing protocol during the first days after hatching and during the last five Naef stage (XV–XX) at lower temperatures, since the energy requirements are lower during the initial maturation stage.

In order to understand the digestive physiology of Sepia pharaonis Ehrenberg 1831 (Sepiidae) paralarvae, and to formulate appropriate feeding strategies, the activity patterns of major digestive enzymes in relation to larval development were investigated. Trypsin, leucine aminopeptidase, alkaline phosphatase, alpha-amylase, and lipase were analyzed for 25 days from hatching. Results revealed that all digestive enzymes were present even prior to exogenous feeding, and each enzyme exhibited a distinct activity pattern. Leucine aminopeptidase, an enzyme involved in intracellular digestion, was found to be dominant and highly active at early developmental stages and declined with larval maturation. Lipase activity, involved in lipid metabolism, increased in the early stages of development but declined 10 days after hatching (DAH). Secreted enzymes (trypsin and amylase) and alkaline phosphatase (an indicator of larval gut maturity) exhibited low activity prior to 10 DAH and 13 DAH, respectively. However, these enzymes became highly active in the late developmental stages. These findings suggest the gradual gut maturation of S. pharaonis based on intracellular and secreted enzyme activities. The findings also indicate that paralarvae after hatching are well-equipped with digestive enzymes necessary to digest complex food items, and that the larval gut matures 13 to 20 DAH.

Cephalopods are sensitive to environmental conditions due to their fast growth rates and short life cycles, being thus considered good ecological indicators. Here, we analyzed western Mediterranean cephalopod paralarvae communities during two consecutive summers (2004 and 2005) characterized by contrasting oceanographic conditions. Our main aim was to determine to what extent such contrasting scenarios affected the spatial distribution of the cephalopod early life stages and decipher the main environmental factors affecting each particular taxon. The contrasting oceanographic conditions during 2004 and 2005 included differences in the shape and location of a regional frontal system, which brought about differences in the sea circulation and the temperature regime. Such contrasting scenarios were reflected in the spatial distribution and the frequencies of appearance of both the whole community and the individual taxa. There was not any major factor affecting most taxa equally, which points to differences in species sensitivity to external conditions. Moreover, our results evidenced that paralarvae populations were more influenced by regional sea salinity and temperature than by mesoscale hydrographic features. Our study reveals that moderate changes in sea temperature have a major effect on the presence of paralarvae populations, which has profound implications in the context of the current global warming.

DNA methylation is a common regulator of gene expression and development in mammalian and other vertebrate genomes. DNA methylation has been studied so far in a few bivalve mollusk species, finding a wide spectrum of levels. We focused our study in the common octopus, Octopus vulgaris, an important organism for neuroscience, physiology and ethology research as well as for human consumption. We aim to confirm the existence of DNA methylation in O. vulgaris and ultimately, if methylation plays a role in gene regulation during octopus development. We used a genome-wide approach, methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP), firstly in four different tissues from the same specimens from adult benthonic individuals to test whether gene expression is regulated by methylation. Secondly, we tested the hypothesis that methylation underlies development by assessing MSAP patters from paralarvae to adult developmental stages. Our data indicate that octopus genome is widely methylated since clear differences can be observed, and the methylation pattern changes with the development. The statistical analyses showed significant differences in methylation pattern between paralarvae, where higher internal cytosine methylation is observed, and the three other post-hatching stages. This suggests an important role of cytosine methylation during the first step of development, when major morphological changes take place. However, methylation seems to have little effect on gene expression during the benthonic phase, since no significant effect was revealed in the analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) performed. Our observations highlight the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in the first developmental steps of the common octopus and opens new perspectives to overcome high mortality rate during paralarvae growth. Thus, better understanding the molecular regulation patterns could lead to new approaches that increase the efficiency of husbandry of this emergent species for aquacultu

Cephalopod life cycles generally share a set of stages that take place in different habitats and are adapted to specific, though variable, environmental conditions. Throughout the lifespan, individuals undertake a series of brief transitions from one stage to the next. Four transitions were identified: fertilisation of eggs to their release from the female (1), from eggs to paralarvae (2), from paralarvae to subadults (3) and from subadults to adults (4). An analysis of each transition identified that the changes can be radical (i.e. involving a range of morphological, physiological and behavioural phenomena and shifts in habitats) and critical (i.e. depending on environmental conditions essential for cohort survival). This analysis underlines that transitions from eggs to paralarvae (2) and from paralarvae to subadults (3) present major risk of mortality, while changes in the other transitions can have evolutionary significance. This synthesis suggests that more accurate evaluation of the sensitivity of cephalopod populations to environmental variation could be achieved by taking into account the ontogeny of the organisms. The comparison of most described species advocates for studies linking development and ecology in this particular group

A recent revival in using cephalopods as experimental animals has rekindled interest in their biology and life cycles, information with direct applications also in the rapidly growing ornamental aquarium species trade and in commercial aquaculture production for human consumption. Cephalopods have high rates of growth and food conversion, which for aquaculture translates into short culture cycles, high ratios of production to biomass and high cost-effectiveness.However, at present, only small-scale culture is possible and only for a few species: the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, the loliginid squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana and the octopuses Octopus maya and O. vulgaris. These four species are the focus of this chapter, the aims of which are as follows: (1) to provide an overview of the culture requirements of cephalopods, (2) to highlight the physical and nutritional requirements at each phase of the life cycle regarded as essential for successful full-scale culture and (3) to identify current limitations and the topics on which further research is required.Knowledge of cephalopod culture methods is advanced, but commercialization is still constrained by the highly selective feeding habits of cephalopods and their requirement for large quantities of high-quality (preferably live) feed, particularly in the early stages of development. Future research should focus on problems related to the consistent production of viable numbers of juveniles, the resolution of which requires a better understanding of nutrition at all phases of the life cycle and better broodstock management, particularly regarding developments in genetic selection, control of reproduction and quality of eggs and offspring. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

El pulpo común es una especie de gran importancia comercial, considerada como una especie emergente en acuicultura. En este trabajo se analizó el nivel de expresión de los genes inmunes TLR, C1q, Galectina, PGRP, LITAF, SERPIN, PRDX y Caspasa 3 mediante PCR cuantitativa (q-PCR) en embriones y paralarvas de O. vulgaris de edades 0, 10, 20 y 34 días. Adicionalmente, se infectaron paralarvas de 22 días con bacterias patógenas vivas Vibrio lentus y V. splendidus a 1h, 4h y 24h. El estudio del desarrollo del sistema inmune de estas paralarvas ayudará a identificar factores claves para la supervivencia y cultivo del pulpo común. Durante el desarrollo ontogénico, los embriones mostraron el menor nivel de expresión de PGRP, Caspasa 3 y PRDX. Por el contrario, C1q, Galectina y LITAF se observaron visiblemente expresados. C1q, TLR y SERPIN fueron los genes que presentaron mayor nivel de expresión en Pa0D. A partir de Pa10D se observó un notable incremento en la expresión de C1q, Galectina, PGRP y LITAF. La expresión de Caspasa3 se incrementó gradualmente desde Em. V. lentus y V. splendidus inducen un notable incremento de la expresión de C1q y PRDX entre 1h y 4h post infección. Sin embargo, durante las primeras horas de infección se observó una disminución de la expresión de Galectina, TLR, PGRP y LITAF. Particularmente la infección por V. lentus produjo una disminución de la expresión de SERPIN. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que la capacidad del sistema inmune de reconocer patógenos y evitar infecciones es significativamente activo desde los estadíos de paralarvas recién eclosionadas. Sin embargo, se observó un aumento significativo de los genes seleccionados a partir de Pa10D., The common octopus is a species of high commercial interest and nowadays is considered as an emergent species in aquaculture. The mRNA expression level of immune-related genes (TLR, C1q, Galectin, PGRP, LITAF, SERPIN, PRDX and Caspase 3) was analyzed by Real time qPCR on embryos and paralarvae of O. vulgaris at age of 0, 10, 20 and 34 days. Additionally, paralarvae of 22 days were challenged with live Vibrio lentus and V. splendidus during a time course (1 h, 4 h and 24 h). This analysis will allow a better understanding of the developmental of immune system of these paralarvae, which will help to identify key factors for survival and culture of the common octopus. Regarding ontogeny, Em showed the lowest expression of PGRP, Caspase 3 and PRDX. In contrast, C1q, Galectin and LITAF were visibly expressed. C1q, TLR and SERPIN were highly expressed in Pa0D. A notably increase in the expression of C1q, Galectin, PGRP and LITAF began from Pa10D. Caspase 3 expression was gradually increased from Em. V. lentus and V. splendidus induced a notable expression of C1q and PRDX at 1 h and 4 h post infection (p. i.). Nevertheless, they markedly suppress the activation of Galectin, TLR, PGRP and LITAF during the first hours p.i.. Particularly, V. lentus suppressed the expression of SERPIN. The present results suggest that the ability of immune system to recognize pathogens and avoid infections is a priority in recently hatched paralarvae. However, a noticeable increase of gene expression was observed from Pa10D.

The study of the early life of ommastrephid squids is a difficult task. Main reasons are: 1) the scarcity of species-specific taxonomic characters necessary to identify wild rhynchoteuthion paralarvae and, 2) the difficulties to obtain egg masses under laboratory conditions. Aiming to determine factors influencing early development and to analyze the external morphology of the hatchlings, we used in vitro fertilization techniques to obtain embryos and hatchlings of the main ommastrephid species from the Mediterranean Sea: Illex coindetii, Todaropsis eblanae and Todarodes sagittatus. A close relationship was observed between the incubation temperature, egg size and duration of embryonic development. The general chromatophore pattern of the hatchlings was described, though some individual variation was noticed. The skin sculpture of the external mantle surface resulted to be a potential taxonomic character in fresh hatchling individuals. Binocular microscope observations showed a network of cells, mostly hexagonal in shape, in the skin of Todaropsis eblanae, absent in Illex coindetii. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed the presence of epidermal lines and hair cells over the mantle, head, arms and funnel, as well as dense cilia over the olfactory organ. Conspicuous buccal filaments were observed in the mouth area, maybe related to the first feeding mode of rhynchoteuthions. Observations of wild ommastrephid paralarvae collected from oceanographic cruises from NW Mediterranean Sea were also reported. In vitro fertilization techniques used in the laboratory proved to be a useful tool in the study of the early life of oceanic squids

In vitro fertilization of oceanic squid is a necessary step to develop their larval culture and creates new opportunities to study and understand cephalopod development, taxonomy and ecology. The techniques described here in the form of a laboratory guide represent an attempt to refine and standardize the general methodology by indicating suitable laboratory materials, sources and preservation of gametes, and methods for fertilization and egg incubation. Twelve oceanic squid species have been fertilized in vitro to date; we outline a generalized experimental protocol and suggest that the reader consider particular species-specific modifications. Inadequate egg chorion expansion and premature hatching are identified as major challenges for in vitro fertilization. Recommendations for future research include studies on optimal gamete concentration, gamete preservation and determination of the functions of female oviducal and nidamental glands. The greatest obstacles to improving fertilization success in squids are the lack of standard methodologies and the paucity of information on both endogenous and exogenous factors controlling the fertilization process. This review is a first step toward overcoming these challenges

Up today, rearing of common octopus, Octopus vulgaris paralarvae is severely limited by the lack of success during the paralarval stage, with generalised mortalities occurring before the settlement of the juveniles. Among others, a lack of balance in the lipid and fatty acid composition of the food can be at the basis of this problem. The use of on grown Artemia cultured with the microalga Isochrysis galbana and further enriched with Nannochloropsis sp. has proven a certain degree of success. The present work aims at studying the effects of this rearing protocol on the fatty acid composition of paralarvae, by comparison with a diet based on on-grown Artemia further enriched with a high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) oil emulsion. Although apparently no clear association between the fatty acid composition of the enriched preys and that of total lipids of paralarvae could be established, further fractionation and fatty acid analysis of the total lipids of the paralarvae into polar and neutral classes, followed by PCA, revealed that irrespective of the diet, both lipid fractions showed distinct fatty acid patterns. Besides, the fatty acid composition of the polar lipids was more conservative, whereas that of the neutral lipids was more influenced by diet and showed more variation among dietary treatments.

Egg masses of oceanic squid accidently collected in the wild have been observed only from a few spawning events in aquaria, and as a consequence, the study of their embryos and hatchlings is very limited. Here, we used in vitro fertilization techniques to understand the abiotic factors that influenced egg development and hatchling performance of the ommastrephid squid Illex coindetii from the Mediterranean Sea. Egg and hatchling sizes of these ommastrephids are close to the minimum for cephalopod species, and therefore, short embryonic developmental periods were expected under a Mediterranean temperature regime. Low incubation densities and the use of antibiotics in the incubation medium resulted in relatively high survival rates to hatchling. Hatching time was inversely proportional to incubation temperature and ranged from 5 to 11 days at 21 °C and 13 °C, respectively. The addition of oviducal jelly to the eggs immediately after fertilization, followed by another addition at the beginning of organogenesis, resulted in better chorionic expansion, with an increase in egg diameter, delayed hatching and higher hatchling weight, which suggests a better use of yolk reserves. Larger hatchlings in length and weight also tended to be produced at low temperature, probably also due to better yolk absorption. As this species spawns all year round, size differences between summer and winter hatchlingsmay be suspected. In vitro fertilization techniques used in the laboratory proved to be useful in shedding some light on the early life of this oceanic squid. Further research is needed to elaborate on tests to predict gamete quality and to develop methods to avoid premature hatching

Specific gravity is an important parameter in the dispersal of marine zooplankton, because the velocity of currents, and therefore the speed of transport, is usually greatest near the surface. For the South African chokka squid (Loligo reynaudii), recruitment is thought to be influenced by the successful transport of paralarvae from the spawning grounds to a food-rich feature known as the cold ridge some 100-200 km away. The role of paralarval specific gravity on such transport is investigated. Specific gravity ranged from 1.0373 to 1.0734 g cm(-3) during the yolk-utilization phase, implying that paralarvae are always negatively buoyant, regardless of yolk content. The data were incorporated into a coupled individual-based model (IBM)-Regional Ocean Modelling System model. The output showed that dispersal was dominantly westward towards the cold ridge. Also, modelled paralarval vertical distribution suggested that hydrodynamic turbulence was an important factor in dispersal. The negative buoyancy of early chokka squid paralarvae may reduce the risk of paralarvae being advected off the eastern Agulhas Bank and into the open ocean, where food is less abundant, so specific gravity may be important in enhancing the survival and recruitment of chokka squid.

Specific gravity is an important parameter in the dispersal of marine zooplankton, because the velocity of currents, and therefore the speed of transport, is usually greatest near the surface. For the South African chokka squid (Loligo reynaudii), recruitment is thought to be influenced by the successful transport of paralarvae from the spawning grounds to a food-rich feature known as the cold ridge some 100-200 km away. The role of paralarval specific gravity on such transport is investigated. Specific gravity ranged from 1.0373 to 1.0734 g cm(-3) during the yolk-utilization phase, implying that paralarvae are always negatively buoyant, regardless of yolk content. The data were incorporated into a coupled individual-based model (IBM)-Regional Ocean Modelling System model. The output showed that dispersal was dominantly westward towards the cold ridge. Also, modelled paralarval vertical distribution suggested that hydrodynamic turbulence was an important factor in dispersal. The negative buoyancy of early chokka squid paralarvae may reduce the risk of paralarvae being advected off the eastern Agulhas Bank and into the open ocean, where food is less abundant, so specific gravity may be important in enhancing the survival and recruitment of chokka squid.

Specific gravity is an important parameter in the dispersal of marine zooplankton, because the velocity of currents, and therefore the speed of transport, is usually greatest near the surface. For the South African chokka squid (Loligo reynaudii), recruitment is thought to be influenced by the successful transport of paralarvae from the spawning grounds to a food-rich feature known as the cold ridge some 100-200 km away. The role of paralarval specific gravity on such transport is investigated. Specific gravity ranged from 1.0373 to 1.0734 g cm(-3) during the yolk-utilization phase, implying that paralarvae are always negatively buoyant, regardless of yolk content. The data were incorporated into a coupled individual-based model (IBM)-Regional Ocean Modelling System model. The output showed that dispersal was dominantly westward towards the cold ridge. Also, modelled paralarval vertical distribution suggested that hydrodynamic turbulence was an important factor in dispersal. The negative buoyancy of early chokka squid paralarvae may reduce the risk of paralarvae being advected off the eastern Agulhas Bank and into the open ocean, where food is less abundant, so specific gravity may be important in enhancing the survival and recruitment of chokka squid.

Age, growth, and mortality were estimated for the first time in wild paralarvae of the common squid, Loligo vulgaris, by examining growth increments in the statoliths of 273 animals collected off the Ría de Vigo (NW Spain, NE Atlantic). Hatching was all year round for the period 2003–2005, with a peak during late spring and a secondary peak during early autumn. Paralarvae varied from 1260 to 7580 µm, and their abundance decreased abruptly as they grew. Statolith increments were clearly visible without grinding in almost all material, allowing reliable estimation of age. Paralarvae are planktonic for at least 3 months. Growth in dorsal mantle length (DML) during that period fitted an exponential equation. The instantaneous relative growth rates were 2.11, 2.15, and 1.82% DML d−1 for 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively, and there were no significant differences in size-at-age between the 3 years. Taking into account the growth rates estimated for the whole cycle of L. vulgaris, we suggest that the lifespan may previously have been underestimated by 3 months, because the proximity of the rings deposited during paralarval and early juvenile stages would prevent accuracy in enumerating the number of growth increments in later stages. The estimated instantaneous rate of total mortality during the first 90 d of a paralarva life was 9.6, 5.3, and 4.8% d−1 for 2003, 2004, and 2005, respectively. Eye diameter was a reliable and rapid way of estimating DML and age

The early development of the Patagonian squid, Loligo gahi D'Orbigny,1835, was studied in the field and in the laboratory. Egg strands, spawned off San Lorenzo Island, Peru, were collected, carried to the laboratory, and incubated in a closed sea water system. Egg capsules ranged from 88 to169 mm in length, and each capsule contained between 56 and 114 fertilized eggs. Individual eggs ranged from 1,7 to 2,1 mm in length, and the mantle length of hatchlings varied from 1,9 to 2,8 mm. Development took about 20 days at a mean temperature of 19 ºC. The pattern of embryonic development is similar to that previously observed in other species of Loligo. Following hatching, paralarvaes survived for 45 days with a diet of zooplankton (copepods, mysids and polychaete larvaes).

[ES] Catorce paralarvas de cefalópodos, pertenecientes a los géneros Octopus y Gonatus fueron recolectadas durante el crucero Cimar-Fiordo 4 en la primavera de 1998 y en el verano de 1999, realizado en el canal Moraleda, entre el golfo Corcovado (43o,5 S) y el estero Elefante (46o,5 S). A estas muestras se añadieron otras del anterior Cimar-Fiordo 3 (2ª etapa), realizado en el estrecho de Magallanes y en el canal Beagle, en septiembre de 1998. El grupo predominante fue Octopus sp., que apareció en todos los lances donde se encontraron cefalópodos. Los tamaños de las paralar vas oscilaron entre 2,1 y 8,3 mm de longitud dorsal del manto (LM) y sus abundancias, entre 4 y 164 individuos/1.000 m3. Sólo se encontró un ejemplar de Gonatus sp., en las estaciones más exteriores del crucero. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en la abundancia de paralarvas entre las cuencas norte y sur del canal Moraleda durante la primera etapa del crucero, pero sí se observó una ligera disminución de la abundancia de Octopus sp., en la cuenca sur, en verano., [EN] Fourteen cephalopod paralarvae, belonging to the genus Octopus and Gonatus, were found during the Cimar-Fiordo 4 expedition. Samples were collected during spring 1998 and summer 1999 in Moraleda Strait, between Corcovado Gulf (43o,5 S) and Elefante Estuar y (46o,5 S). Additional samples collected during Cimar-Fiordo 3 expedition, obtained in Magallanes Strait and Beagle Strait during September 1998, were examined. Octopus sp. paralarvae appeared in all samples. Paralarvae size varied between 2.1 and 8.3 mm dorsal mantle length (ML). Abundance varied between 4 and 164 individuals/1.000 m3. Only one specimen was found in an oceanic station. No significant differences were found between nor th and south Moraleda Strait areas respect to paralarvae abundance. However, a slight abundance decrease of Octopus sp. abundance was found in the southern area of Moraleda Strait in the summer.

This article reviews the results obtained over a four year period of research (1995-1999) at the Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Vigo, on the reproduction, rearing of paralarvae and ongrowing of octopus. Optimum conditions for transport, stabling, feeding and induction to spawning with temperatures of 13 to 20°C are analyzed, with salinity levels of 32 to 35%0. The biometric characteristics of the strings and eggs, fecundity, embryonic development, hatching and the rearing of 1.5 million of paralarvae are also noted, with a description of the form of feeding, growth and survival of the newly born paralarve, using different types of prey: reared zooplankton (Artemia salina), fish eggs, wild zooplankton (copepods, cirripedes, mysidaceans and euphausiaceans), and zoeae of commercial crustaceans (crab, swimming crab and prawn) obtained from ovated females. In terms of the results obtained, there is discussion of the best conditions required for ongrowing juveniles, regarding feed, daily ingestion, density of stabling and prior separation according to size and sex, attempting to optimize growth rates and feed conversion. Finally, some of the first experiences on ongrowing at industrial level in Galicia in floating cages are described.

PRIMERAS EXPERIENCIAS SOBRE EL CULTIVO INTEGRAL DEL PULPO (Octopus vulgaris Cuvier) EN EL INSTITUTO ESPAÑOL DE OCEANOGRAFÍA. Cuarenta y un pulpos capturados entre 1995 y 1996 en la costa gallega fueron mantenidos en cautividad con dos objetivos principales: el estudio de su tasa de crecimiento y la obtención de paralarvas para experimentos de cultivo. Para el estudio de crecimiento se hicieron tres grupos con pesos iniciales de: 1.34 ± 0.34 kg, 0.58 ± 0.21 kg y 0.33 ± 0.14 kg. El alimento utilizado consistió en crustáceos (80%), peces y moluscos congelados. La ración diaria varió entre el 3 y el l0% de la biomasa del tanque. Se establecieron las tasas de crecimiento diario, la mortalidad y las eficiencias de conversión para cada uno de los grupos estudiados. El período de puesta fue desde febrero hasta noviembre. El 100% de las hembras maduraron y realizaron la puesta en cautividad. Se llevaron a cabo diversos experimentos de cultivo de paralarvas, utilizando como alimento el braquiópodo Artemia salina y se obtuvo una supervivencia media del 10% al mes de vida., FIRST EXPERJMENTS ON OCTOPUS (Octopus vulgaris) REARING AT THE SPANISH INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY. Forty-one octopuses captured during 1995 and 1996 in the coastal area of Galicia (NW Spain) were maintained in captivity with two main objectives: the study of their growth rate and the obtention of paralarvae for culture experiments. They were divided into three groups with irútial mean weights of 1.34 ± 0.34 kg, 0.58 ± 0.21 kg and 0.33 ± 0.14 kg. The octopuses were fed with frozen crustaceans (80%), fish and mussels; the daily ration was between 3-10 % of the biomass. Daily growth rates, mortality and food conversion rates were established. Spawns were obtained from February to November. 100% of the females became mature and spawned. First attempt at rearing paralarvae were carried out using Artemia salina as prey item. In this way mean survival rate in one month old larvae was 10%.