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Factors behind intraspecific variation in sensitivity to pathogens remain poorly understood. We investigated how geographical origin in two North European amphibians affects tolerance to infection by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a generalist pathogen which has caused amphibian population declines worldwide. We exposed newly metamorphosed individuals of moor frog Rana arvalis and common toad Bufo bufo from two latitudinal regions to two different BdGPL strains. We measured survival and growth as infections may cause sub-lethal effects in fitness components even in the absence of mortality. Infection loads were higher in B. bufo than in R. arvalis, and smaller individuals had generally higher infection loads. B. bufo had high mortality in response to Bd infection, whereas there was little mortality in R. arvalis. Bd-mediated mortality was size-dependent and high-latitude individuals were smaller leading to high mortality in the northern B. bufo. Bd exposure led to sub-lethal effects in terms of reduced growth suggesting that individuals surviving the infection may have reduced fitness mediated by smaller body size. In both host species, the Swedish Bd strain caused stronger sublethal effects than the British strain. We suggest that high-latitude populations can be more vulnerable to chytrids than those from lower latitudes and discuss the possible mechanisms how body size and host geographical origin contribute to the present results.

Background: Mortality following acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has decreased in western countries for decades; however, it remains unknown whether the decrease is distributed equally across the population independently of residential location. This study investigated whether the observed decreasing 28-day mortality following an incident AMI in Denmark from 1987 to 2016 varied geographically at municipality level after accounting for sociodemographic characteristics. Methods: A register-based cohort study design was used to investigate 28-day mortality among individuals with an incident AMI. Global spatial autocorrelation (within sub-periods) was analysed at municipality level using Moran's I. Analysis of spatio-temporal autocorrelation before and after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics was performed using logistic regression and conditional autoregressive models with inference in a Bayesian setting. Results: In total, 368,839 individuals with incident AMI were registered between 1987 and 2016 in Denmark; 128,957 incident AMIs were fatal. The 28-day mortality decreased over time at national level with an odds ratio of 0.788 (95% credible interval (0.784, 0.792)) per 5-year period after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics. The decrease in the 28-day mortality was geographically unequally distributed across the country and in a geographical region in northern Jutland, the 28-day mortality decreased significantly slower (4–12%) than at national level. Conclusions: During the period from 1987 to 2016, the 28-day mortality following an incident AMI decreased substantially in Denmark. However, in a local geographical region, the 28-day mortality decreased significantly slower than in the rest of the country both before and after adjusting for sociodemographic differences. Efforts should be made to keep geographical trend inequalities in the 28-day mortality to a minimum.

Species richness is a widely used proxy for patterns of biodiversity variation in metacommunities. However, deeper analyses require additional metrics, such as the occupancy-frequency distributions (SOFD) of different local communities. The SOFD patterns indicate the number of shared species between study sites; therefore, they can provide new insights into the current debate on how to create more biodiversity-friendly cities. Breeding birds were counted from 593 point-count stations located in five 500 m × 500 m squares in land-sharing (LSH; low-density built areas interspersed with green spaces) and five similar nearby squares in land-sparing (LSP; densely built-up with set-aside, large-sized, continuous green spaces) landscapes in nine cities across Europe. High beta-diversity (with over 42% of the 103 species detected being restricted to a single city and only 7% found in all studied cities) showed the uniqueness of cities at the continental scale. Urban bird metacommunities followed the unimodal-satellite SOFD pattern at the European continental scale but a bimodal symmetric or asymmetric distribution at the city-level scale, suggesting that many common species occur in cities on a smaller scale. The LSP urban areas followed a unimodal satellite SOFD pattern with numerous rare species. In contrast, the LSH areas fit several types of bimodal SOFD patterns equally well, where communities share several common species. The findings also highlight the need to use multi-scale approaches to analyze the effects of LSH-LSP urban designs on urban bird diversity.

Torpor is a controlled reduction of metabolism and body temperature, and its appropriate use allows small birds to adapt to and survive challenging conditions. However, despite its great energy conservation potential, torpor use by passerine birds is understudied although they are small and comprise over half of extant bird species. Here, we first determined whether a free-living, small ∼20 g Australian passerine, the eastern yellow robin (Eopsaltria australis), expresses torpor by measuring skin temperature (Ts) as a proxy for body temperature. Second, we tested if skin temperature fluctuated in relation to ambient temperature (Ta). We found that the Ts of eastern yellow robins fluctuated during winter by 9.1 ± 3.9°C on average (average minimum Ts 30.1 ± 2.3°C), providing the first evidence of torpor expression in this species. Daily minimum Ts decreased with Ta, reducing the estimated metabolic rate by as much as 32%. We hope that our results will encourage further studies to expand our knowledge on the use of torpor in wild passerines. The implications of such studies are important because species with highly flexible energy requirements may have an advantage over strict homeotherms during the current increasing frequency of extreme and unpredictable weather events, driven by changing climate.

Within Nearctic Cicindelidae, Cicindelini, Eunota togata (LaFerté-Sénectère, 1841) (Coleoptera: Cicindelidae) exists as several distinct phenotypes, some described as subspecies whose taxonomic status has been misinterpreted. Eunota togata togata applies to adults marked with broadly sinuate inner margins on shiny brown elytra common across northern coastal Gulf of Mexico. Eunota togata fascinans (Casey, 1914), new synonymy, incorrectly applied to populations in western Texas and New Mexico, United States, is considered a junior synonym of E. togata globicollis (Casey, 1913), the predominant subspecies with broadly sinuate inner margins on coppery elytra found from eastern New Mexico and western Texas into the South­ern Great Plains of North America. Eunota togata leucophasma, new subspecies, is comprised of adults with mostly white elytra that are isolated in Hudspeth County, Texas, and Doña Ana, Otero, and Torrance Coun­ties, New Mexico. Intergrades between E. togata globicollis and E. togata leucophasma, new subspecies, are found sporadically in eastern New Mexico and western Texas; however, suggested intergrades between E. togata globicollis and E. togata togata in western Texas are reinterpreted as more typical of intergrades farther north in New Mexico. Adults marked with acutely sinuate inner margins on darker elytra found only in northcentral Kansas to southeast Nebraska should be referred to as E. togata latilabris (Willis, 1967), new sta­tus. All subspecies are collectively known as the white-cloaked tiger beetle. Geological conditions influencing development of saline habitats and subsequent evolution of divergent white E. togata subspecies in Texas and New Mexico, and darker E. togata subspecies in Kansas and Nebraska, are discussed and compared to more uniformly marked E. togata subspecies found elsewhere in North America.

Background: Autistic traits are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, and are known to vary geographically in prevalence. But to what extent does their aetiology also vary from place to place? Methods: We applied a novel spatial approach to data on autistic traits from two large twin studies, the Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS; N = 16,677, including 8307 twin pairs) and the Twins Early Development Study in the UK (TEDS; N = 11,594, including 5796 twin pairs), to explore how the influence of nature and nurture on autistic traits varies from place to place. Results: We present maps of gene- and environment- by geography interactions in Sweden and the United Kingdom (UK), showing geographical variation in both genetic and environmental influences across the two countries. In Sweden genetic influences appear higher in the far south and in a band running across the centre of the country. Environmental influences appear greatest in the south and north, with reduced environmental influence across the central band. In the UK genetic influences appear greater in the south, particularly in more central southern areas and the southeast, the Midlands and the north of England. Environmental influences appear greatest in the south and east of the UK, with less influence in the north and the west. Conclusions: We hope this systematic approach to identifying aetiological interactions will inspire research to examine a wider range of previously unknown environmental influences on the aetiology of autistic traits. By doing so, we will gain greater understanding of how these environments draw out or mask genetic predisposition and interact with other environmental influences in the development of autistic traits.

The distributions of highly mobile marine species such as cetaceans are increasingly modeled at basin scale by combining data from multiple regions. However, these basin‐wide models often overlook geographical variations in species habitat relationships between regions. We tested for geographical variations in habitat relationships for a suite of cetacean taxa between the two sides of the North Atlantic basin. Using cetacean visual survey data and remote sensing data from the western and eastern basin in summer, we related the probability of presence of twelve cetacean taxa from three guilds to seafloor depth, sea surface temperature and primary productivity. In a generalized additive model framework, we fitted 1) basin‐wide (BW) models, assuming a single global relationship, 2) region‐specific intercepts (RI) models, assuming relationships with the same shape in both regions, but allowing a region‐specific intercept and 3) region‐specific shape (RS) models, assuming relationships with different shapes between regions. RS models mostly yielded significantly better fits than BW models, indicating cetacean occurrences were better modeled with region‐specific than with global relationships. The better fits of RS models over RI models further provided statistical evidence for differences in the shapes of region‐specific relationships. Baleen whales showed striking differences in both the shapes of relationships and their mean presence probabilities between regions. Deep diving whales and delphinoids showed contrasting relationships between regions with few exceptions (e.g. non‐statistically different shapes of region‐specific relationships for harbor porpoise and beaked whales with depth). Our findings stress the need to account for geographical differences in habitat relationships between regions when modeling species distributions from combined data at the basin scale. Our proposed hypotheses offer a roadmap for understanding why habitat relationships may geographical

This thesis is based on questionnaire survey conducted with 223 respondents, whereof 120 are parents and 103 are children. The purpose of the study was to investigate these respondents’ point of view on inclusive education for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The first three research questions target the opinions of children with ADHD and their parents concerning inclusive education, and which aspects they consider the schools could develop in this area. The aim of the fourth and final research question was to investigate whether there are any differences regarding how the inclusive education is perceived depending on the geographic location of a school. The theory used in the study is Claes Nilholm’s four perspectives of inclusion, which are (1) placement, (2) inclusion of children in need of special support or functional disabilities, (3) inclusion of all children and (4) inclusion as feeling like you have a sense of belonging. The results show that only a few of the respondents perceive that the schools’ work reached the standards of the third and fourth perspectives on inclusive education. There were even some difficulties with identifying examples where the respondents perceived all the requirements for the second perspective to have been met. The experiences expressed by a small group of students did not even count as inclusion, in relation to the criteria of the first perspective. Most of the respondents were unhappy with the way inclusive education looked in their schools, especially in relation to the teachers’ competence regarding the diagnosis ADHD and how to work with children with this diagnosis. Also, the results show that there might be a slight correlation between the form of inclusive education and the geographic location of the school, in regards to benefits in form of economic resources being higher in the countryside, while other benefits in form of teacher competence being higher in schools in a larger city. The con

Background: The incidence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is high in the Nordic countries with geographic differences between as well as within countries. Objective: To describe the geographical distribution of the incidence of T1D among children in four Nordic countries, an area where the population is considered genetically similar. Methods: Data on children 0 to 14 years of age and diagnosed with T1D 2006 to 2011 was collected from four Nordic national pediatric quality diabetes registries. Data included year of diagnosis (2006-2011), sex, and age at diagnosis. Figures for number of children at risk during 2006 to 2011—as well as total population, proportion with foreign background and size of populated areas of geographic regions—were collected from official statistics. Results: The total incidence during the study period for all four countries was 35.7/100 000 person years but differed between the countries (range 18.2-44.1; P <.001). The incidence difference between the countries was most obvious in the highest age group, 10 to 14 years of age, whereas there was no difference in the youngest age group 0 to 5 years of age. Iceland had similar incidence in the entire country, whereas the other countries had areas with different incidence. Densely populated areas, such as major cities, had the lowest incidence. Conclusion: The incidence of T1D differed between the Nordic countries and also between the neighboring countries and generally decreased with population density. This indicates that environmental factors may contribute to the level of incidence of T1D.

Background: The incidence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is high in the Nordic countries with geographic differences between as well as within countries. Objective: To describe the geographical distribution of the incidence of T1D among children in four Nordic countries, an area where the population is considered genetically similar. Methods: Data on children 0 to 14 years of age and diagnosed with T1D 2006 to 2011 was collected from four Nordic national pediatric quality diabetes registries. Data included year of diagnosis (2006-2011), sex, and age at diagnosis. Figures for number of children at risk during 2006 to 2011—as well as total population, proportion with foreign background and size of populated areas of geographic regions—were collected from official statistics. Results: The total incidence during the study period for all four countries was 35.7/100 000 person years but differed between the countries (range 18.2-44.1; P <.001). The incidence difference between the countries was most obvious in the highest age group, 10 to 14 years of age, whereas there was no difference in the youngest age group 0 to 5 years of age. Iceland had similar incidence in the entire country, whereas the other countries had areas with different incidence. Densely populated areas, such as major cities, had the lowest incidence. Conclusion: The incidence of T1D differed between the Nordic countries and also between the neighboring countries and generally decreased with population density. This indicates that environmental factors may contribute to the level of incidence of T1D.

Understanding the mechanisms causing phenotypic differences between females and males has long fascinated evolutionary biologists. An extensive literature exists on animal sexual dimorphism but less information is known about sex differences in plants, particularly the extent of geographical variation in sexual dimorphism and its life‐cycle dynamics. Here, we investigated patterns of genetically based sexual dimorphism in vegetative and reproductive traits of a wind‐pollinated dioecious plant, Rumex hastatulus, across three life‐cycle stages using open‐pollinated families from 30 populations spanning the geographic range and chromosomal variation (XY and XY1Y2) of the species. The direction and degree of sexual dimorphism was highly variable among populations and life‐cycle stages. Sex‐specific differences in reproductive function explained a significant amount of temporal change in sexual dimorphism. For several traits, geographical variation in sexual dimorphism was associated with bioclimatic parameters, likely due to the differential responses of the sexes to climate. We found no systematic differences in sexual dimorphism between chromosome races. Sex‐specific trait differences in dioecious plants largely result from a balance between sexual and natural selection on resource allocation. Our results indicate that abiotic factors associated with geographical context also play a role in modifying sexual dimorphism during the plant life‐cycle.

Aims: This study described the interplay between geographical and social inequalities in survival after incident acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and examined whether geographical variation in survival exists when accounting for sociodemographic characteristics of the patients and their neighbourhood. Methods: Ringmap visualization and generalized linear models were performed to study post-AMI mortality. Three individual-level analyses were conducted: immediate case fatality, mortality between days 1 and 28 after admission and 365-day survival among patients who survived 28 days after admission. Results: In total, 99,013 incident AMI cases were registered between 2005 and 2014 in Denmark. Survival after AMI tended to correlate with sociodemographic indicators at the municipality level. In individual-level models, geographical inequality in immediate case fatality was observed with high mortality in northern parts of Jutland after accounting for sociodemographic characteristics. In contrast, no geographical variation in survival was observed among patients who survived 28 days. In all three analyses, odds and rates of mortality were higher among patients with low educational level (odds ratio (OR) (95% credible intervals) of 1.20 (1.12–1.29), OR of 1.12 (1.01–1.24) and mortality rate ratio of 1.45 (1.30–1.61)) and low income (OR of 1.24 (1.15–1.33), OR of 1.33 (1.20–1.48) and mortality rate ratio of 1.25 (1.13–1.38)). Conclusion: Marked geographical inequality was observed in immediate case fatality. However, no geographically unequal distribution of survival was found among patients who survived 28 days after AMI. Results additionally showed social inequality in survival following AMI.

Myrtle rust, also known as eucalyptus rust or guava rust, caused by the pathogenic fungus Austropuccinia psidii Beenken (formerly Puccinia psidii Winter), is a major threat to Australia's natural vegetation and to Eucalyptus dependent industries worldwide. However, the presence of specific resistance to this introduced pathogen in Australian myrtaceous species raises intriguing questions relating to the underlying mechanisms of resistance and the evolutionary trajectories resulting in the observed variations of susceptibility. This thesis aims to identify rust resistance mechanisms in two key Eucalyptus species i.e. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ssp. globulus and Eucalyptus obliqua L'Hér. that predate contemporary contact between the host and pathogen, using phenotypic and molecular analyses. Rust screening was carried out to examine the genetic variation of susceptibility to A. psidii in geographic races (and sub-races) of E. globulus ssp. globulus and regional populations of E. obliqua. Analysis revealed genetic variation between and within geographic populations of both species that will allow natural adaptation to the new disease threat, and divergence between the two species representative of the two most species-rich Eucalyptus subgenera i.e. Symphyomyrtus and Eucalyptus. Detailed observations of the rust infection process by scanning electron microscopy did not indicate any distinct differences in either ontogeny or morphology of A. psidii infection structures between different rust response phenotypes i.e. completely resistant, hypersensitive and highly susceptible in both Eucalyptus species. Further histological examination revealed direct (non-stomatal) penetration of germinating urediniospores through the leaf cuticle in susceptible phenotypes while the infection was stopped at the leaf surface, without host penetration, in completely resistant phenotypes. Non-host/non-pathogen interactions, i.e. the growth of variable length germ tubes in random directions

Vocal dialects are fundamental to our understanding of the transmission of social behaviours between individuals and populations, however few accounts trace this phenomenon among mammals over time. Northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) provide a rare opportunity to examine the trajectory of dialects in a long-lived mammalian species. Dialects were first documented in the temporal patterns of the stereotyped vocal displays produced by breeding males at four sites in the North Pacific in 1968 and 1969, as the population recovered from extreme exploitation. We evaluated the longevity of these geographical differences by comparing these early recordings to calls recently recorded at these same locations. While the presence of vocal dialects in the original recordings was re-confirmed, geographical differences in vocal behaviour were not found at these breeding rookeries nearly 50 years later. Moreover, the calls of contemporary males displayed more structural complexity after approximately four generations, with substantial between-individual variation and call features not present in the historical data. In the absence of measurable genetic variation in this species-owing to an extreme population bottleneck-a combination of migration patterns and cultural mutation are proposed as factors influencing the fall of dialects and the dramatic increase in call diversity.

We document the distribution of the common toad Bufo bufo and the spined toad B. spinosus at their contact zone across France with data from a mitochondrial DNA RFLP assay, complementing similar work including nuclear markers in the northwest and southeast of France and in Italy. We also reconstruct geographical clines across the species’ contact zone in central France. Bufo bufo is found in the north-eastern half of France. Bufo spinosus is found in the south-western complement. The contact zone they form runs from the Atlantic coast near Caen, France, to the Mediterranean coast near Savona, Italy, and has a length of over 900 km. In central France B. bufo and B. spinosus engage in a hybrid zone with a unimodal genetic signature. Hybrid zone width is ca. 10 km at mitochondrial DNA and averages at 61 km for four nuclear loci. The hybrid zone is distinctly asymmetric with a signature of B. spinosus in B. bufo and not the other way round. We attribute this observation to B. bufo moving southwards at the expense of B. spinosus, with introgression in the direction of the advancing species. We noted substantial geographic variation in characters for species identification. Morphological species identification performs well in France, but breaks down in Italy. Mitochondrial DNA is inconclusive in south-eastern France and Italy. The nuclear genetic markers perform consistently well but have not yet been applied to the zone in full. Possible, but surely heterogeneous ecological correlates for the position of the hybrid zone are mountains and rivers.

Form–function relationships in plants underlie their ecosystem roles in supporting higher trophic levels through primary production, detrital pathways, and habitat provision. For widespread, phenotypically‐variable plants, productivity may differ not only across abiotic conditions, but also from distinct morphological or demographic traits. A single foundation species, eelgrass Zostera marina , typically dominates north temperate seagrass meadows, which we studied across 14 sites spanning 32–61°N latitude and two ocean basins. Body size varied by nearly two orders of magnitude through this range, and was largest at mid‐latitudes and in the Pacific Ocean. At the global scale, neither latitude, site‐level environmental conditions, nor body size helped predict productivity (relative growth rate 1–2% day‐1 at most sites), suggesting a remarkable capacity of Z. marina to achieve similar productivity in summer. Furthermore, among a suite of stressors applied within sites, only ambient leaf damage reduced productivity; grazer reduction and nutrient addition had no effect on eelgrass size or growth. Scale‐dependence was evident in different allometric relationships within and across sites for productivity and for modules (leaf count) relative to size. Zostera marina provides a range of ecosystem functions related to both body size (habitat provision, water flow) and growth rates (food, carbon dynamics). Our observed decoupling of body size and maximum production suggests that geographic variation in these ecosystem functions may be independent, with a future need to resolve how local adaptation or plasticity of body size might actually enable more consistent peak productivity across disparate environmental conditions.

In wheat, the vernalization requirement is mainly controlled by the VRN genes. Different species of hexaploid and tetraploid wheat are widely used as genetic source for new mutant variants and alleles for fundamental investigations and practical breeding programs. In this study, VRN-A1 and VRN-B1 were analysed for 178 accessions representing six tetraploid wheat species (Triticum dicoccoides, T. dicoccum, T. turgidum, T. polonicum, T. carthlicum, T. durum) and five hexaploid species (T. compactum, T. sphaerococcum, T. spelta, T. macha, T. vavilovii).

Aims The globalization of clinical trials has highlighted geographic variations in patient characteristics, event rates, and treatment effects. We investigated these further in PARADIGM-HF, the largest and most globally representative trial in heart failure (HF) to date. Methods and results We looked at five regions: North America (NA) 602 (8%), Western Europe (WE) 1680 (20%), Central/Eastern Europe/ Russia (CEER) 2762 (33%), Latin America (LA) 1433 (17%), and Asia-Pacific (AP) 1487 (18%). Notable differences included: WE patients (mean age 68 years) and NA (65 years) were older than AP (58 years) and LA (63 years) and had more coronary disease; NA and CEER patients had the worst signs, symptoms, and functional status. North American patients were the most likely to have a defibrillating-device (54 vs. 2% AP) and least likely prescribed a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (36 vs. 65% LA). Other evidence-based therapies were used most frequently in NA and WE. Rates of the primary composite outcome of cardiovascular (CV) death or HF hospitalization (per 100 patient-years) varied among regions: NA 13.6 (95% CI 11.7-15.7) WE 9.6 (8.6-10.6), CEER 12.3 (11.4-13.2), LA 11.2 (10.0-12.5), and AP 12.5 (11.3-13.8). After adjustment for prognostic variables, relative to NA, the risk of CV death was higher in LA and AP and the risk of HF hospitalization lower in WE. The benefit of sacubitril/valsartan was consistent across regions. Conclusion There were many regional differences in PARADIGM-HF, including in age, symptoms, comorbidity, background therapy, and event-rates, although these did not modify the benefit of sacubitril/valsartan. Clinical trial registration URL http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT01035255.

Racially patterned disadvantage in Southern states, especially during the formative years of primary school, may contribute to enduring disparities in adult cognitive outcomes. Drawing on a lifecourse perspective, we examine whether state of school attendance affects cognitive outcomes in older adults and partially contributes to persistent racial disparities. Using data from older African American and white participants in the national Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the New York based Washington Heights Inwood Cognitive Aging Project (WHICAP), we estimated age-and gender-adjusted multilevel models with random effects for states predicting years of education and cognitive outcomes (e.g., memory and vocabulary). We summarized the proportion of variation in outcomes attributable to state of school attendance and compared the magnitude of racial disparities across states. Among WHICAP African Americans, state of school attendance accounted for 9% of the variance in years of schooling, 6% of memory, and 12% of language. Among HRS African Americans, state of school attendance accounted for 13% of the variance in years of schooling and also contributed to variance in cognitive function (7%), memory (2%), and vocabulary (12%). Random slope models indicated state-level African American and white disparities in every Census region, with the largest racial differences in the South. State of school attendance may contribute to racial disparities in cognitive outcomes among older Americans. Despite tremendous within-state heterogeneity, state of school attendance also accounted for some variability in cognitive outcomes. Racial disparities in older Americans may reflect historical patterns of segregation and differential access to resources such as education.

The Réunion grey white-eye (Zosterops borbonicus), a small passerine endemic to the island of Réunion (Mascarene archipelago), constitutes an extraordinary case of phenotypic variation within a bird species, with conspicuous plumage colour differentiation at a microgeographical scale. To understand whether natural selection could explain such variability, we compared patterns of variation in morphological and plumage colour traits within and among populations. To quantify morphological variation, we used measurements obtained by Frank Gill in the 1960s from 239 individuals collected in 60 localities distributed over the entire island of Réunion. To quantify colour variation, we measured the reflectance spectra of plumage patches of 50 males from a subset of Gill's specimens belonging to the five recognized plumage colour variants and used a visual model to project these colours in an avian-appropriate, tetrachromatic, colour space. We found that variants occupy different regions of the avian colour space and that between-variant differences for most plumage patches could be discriminated by the birds. Differences in morphology were also detected, but these were, in general, smaller than colour differences. Overall, we found that variation in both plumage colour and morphology among variants is greater than would be expected if genetic drift alone was responsible for phenotypic divergence. As the plumage colour variants correspond to four geographical forms, our results suggest that phenotypic evolution in the Réunion grey white-eye is at least partly explained by divergent selection in different habitats or regions.

Background Geographical variation in the prevalence of sensitization to aeroallergens may reflect differences in exposure to risk factors such as having older siblings, being raised on a farm or other unidentified exposures. Objective We wanted to measure geographical variation in skin prick test positivity and assess whether it was explained by differences in family size and/or farm exposure. We also compared prevalence in younger and older subjects. Methods Within the Global Allergy and Asthma European Network (GA(2)LEN) survey, we measured the prevalence of skin prick positivity to a panel of allergens, and geometric mean serum total immunoglobulin E (IgE), in 3451 participants aged 18-75years in 13 areas of Europe. Estimated prevalence was standardized to account for study design. We compared prevalence estimates in younger and older subjects and further adjusted for age, gender, smoking history, farm exposure, number of older siblings and body mass index (BMI). Results Skin prick test positivity to any one of the measured allergens varied within Europe from 31.4% to 52.9%. Prevalence of sensitization to single allergens also varied. Variation in serum total IgE was less marked. Younger participants had higher skin prick sensitivity prevalence, but not total IgE, than older participants. Geographical variation remained even after adjustment for confounders. Conclusion Geographical variation in the prevalence of skin prick test positivity in Europe is unlikely to be explained by geographical variation in gender, age, smoking history, farm exposure, family size and BMI. Higher prevalence in younger, compared to older, adults may reflect cohort-associated increases in sensitization or the influence of ageing on immune or tissue responses.

The climate is often evoked to explain broad-scale clines of body size, yet its involvement in the processes that generate size inequality in the two sexes (sexual size dimorphism) remains elusive. Here, we analyse climatic clines of sexual size dimorphism along a wide elevation gradient (i) among grasshopper species in a phylogenetically controlled scenario and (ii) within species differing in distribution and cold tolerance, to highlight patterns generated at different time scales, mainly evolutionary (among species or higher taxa) and ontogenetic or microevolutionary (within species). At the interspecific level, grasshoppers were slightly smaller and less dimorphic at high elevations. These clines were associated with gradients of precipitation and sun exposure, which are likely indicators of other factors that directly exert selective pressures, such as resource availability and conditions for effective thermoregulation. Within species, we found a positive effect of temperature and a negative effect of elevation on body size, especially on condition-dependent measures of body size (total body length rather than hind femur length) and in species inhabiting the highest elevations. In spite of a certain degree of species-specific variation, females tended to adjust their body size more often than males, suggesting that body size in females can evolve faster among species and can be more plastic or dependent on nutritional conditions within species living in adverse climates. Natural selection on female body size may therefore prevail over sexual selection on male body size in alpine environments, and abiotic factors may trigger consistent phenotypic patterns across taxonomic scales.

The Capsicum genus is native to tropical America and consists of 27 species, five of which are used as fresh vegetables and spices: Capsicum annuum L., Capsicum chinense Jacq., Capsicum frutescens L., Capsicum baccatum L. and Capsicum pubescens R. et P. The study of the relationships among species of cultivate Capsicum species will be useful for breeding new cultivars or hybrids. This study is focused on the genetic diversity and relationships of these species that were collected in the Andean region. Ten microsatellites and four AFLP combinations were used to characterize 260 Capsicum accessions. The AFLP tree turned out to be informative regarding relationships among species. The data clearly showed the close relationships between C. chinense and C. frutescens. Moreover, C. cardenasii and C. eximium were indistinguishable as a single, morphologically variable species. Our data showed C. baccatum and C. praetermissum to be distinct species that form a compact group. In the present work, AFLP fingerprinting indicated that C. chacoense was placed in the C. baccatum complex and showed C. tovarii as a separate species. In addition, SSR data indicated that there is intraspecific differentiation in the species C. chinense, C. baccatum and C. pubescens, as the PCoA-based clustering showed a clear geographic division related to country. Even though Bolivia is considered to be the nuclear area for these species, we have found similar variability in Ecuador and Peru for several Capsicum species. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Variations in environmental parameters (e. g. temperature) that form part of global climate change have been associated with shifts in the timing of seasonal events for a broad range of organisms. Most studies evaluating such phenological shifts of individual taxa have focused on a limited number of locations, making it difficult to assess how such shifts vary regionally across a species range. Here, by using 1445 records of the date of first nesting for loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) at different breeding sites, on different continents and in different years across a broad latitudinal range (25-39 degrees ' N), we demonstrate that the gradient of the relationship between temperature and the date of first breeding is steeper at higher latitudes, i.e. the phenological responses to temperature appear strongest at the poleward range limit. These findings support the hypothesis that biological changes in response to climate change will be most acute at the poleward range limits and are in accordance with the predictions of MacArthur's hypothesis that poleward range limit for species range is environmentally limited. Our findings imply that the poleward populations of loggerheads are more sensitive to climate variations and thus they might display the impacts of climate change sooner and more prominently.

Hammers, M. & H. Van Gossum, 2012. Helping and misleading signals in female body coloration in Ischnura elegans. Brachytron 15(1): 16-24. Various animal species show coexistence of differently colored and genetically inherited phenotypes. Sometimes these polymorphisms only occur in one sex, either only in males or only in females. When only occurring in females, this is considered to result from sexual conflict. Sexual conflict occurs when males and females differ in their optimal number of matings. In promiscuous species, male reproductive success typically increases with increasing numbers of matings, while for females just a few matings are optimal. Further matings are costly and reduce female reproductive success. In the damselfly Ischnura elegans, mature females occur as one of three differently coloured morphs. In addition, each of these morphs undergoes irreversible colour changes from immature to mature age. Intriguingly, one of the mature female morphs shows resemblance in phenotype to the conspecific male, specifically in body colouration (andromorph), The other two female morphs show different body colouration (gynomorphs). We explored three main questions concerning the occurrence and coexistence of these different female morphs in the damselfly I. elegans. Firstly, we asked whether variation in the relative frequencies of different female morphs occurs among populations and whether social or environmental factors can explain patterns in such variation. Among populations, large variation in female morph frequencies was observed, with andromorphs sometimes being the least, and sometimes being the most abundant female morph. Andromorph frequencies declined across populations with increasing ambient temperature. Secondly, we explored if males are aided by female body colouration to find and recognize suitable mating partners. Males appeared to avoid mating immature individuals, which may be explained by differences in colour characteristics between immature

Ecogeographical rules linking climate to morphology have gained renewed interest because of climate change. Yet few studies have evaluated to what extent geographical trends ascribed to these rules have a genetic, rather than environmentally determined, basis. This applies especially to Allen's rule, which states that the relative extremity length decreases with increasing latitude. We studied leg length in the common frog (Rana temporaria) along a 1500 km latitudinal gradient utilizing wild and common garden data. In the wild, the body size-corrected femur and tibia lengths did not conform to Allen's rule but peaked at mid-latitudes. However, the ratio of femur to tibia length increased in the north, and the common garden data revealed a genetic cline consistent with Allen's rule in some trait and treatment combinations. While selection may have shortened the leg length in the north, the genetic trend seems to be partially masked by environmental effects.

The aim was to analyse variation in incidence of sporadic Legionnaires' disease in a geographical information system in three time periods (1990-2005) by the application of a grid model and to assess the model's validity by analysing variation according to grid position. Coordinates of the addresses at time of disease of 606 confirmed cases with Legionnaires' disease were obtained. The incidence was calculated in cells of 10 x 10 km in 25 different grids superimposed on a map of Denmark. A 95% and 99% threshold was applied to identify cells with excess incidence representing potential clusters. Four cells had excess incidence in all three time periods. The analysis in 25 different grid positions indicated a low risk of overlooking cells with excess incidence in a random grid. The coefficient of variation ranged from 0.08 to 0.11 independent of the threshold. By application of a random grid model we demonstrated that it was possible to detect small areas with excess incidence that were not detected in the present surveillance system

El interés que el estudio del español como lengua extranjera ha adquirido en los últimos años ha suscitado una gran atención hacia los métodos de enseñanza, que insisten en la importancia de que el alumno tome conciencia lingüística respecto a los ejes diatópico, diastrático y diafásico. El caso de Canadá ofrece un enorme potencial de investigación, especialmente en lo que se refiere a las modalidades geográficas, ya que la diversidad del profesorado, fundamentalmente de origen hispanoamericano, unido al hecho de que la mayor parte de los manuales que se emplean se produzcan en EE.UU, favorece una enseñanza más basada en este modelo que en el peninsular, con la gran heterogeneidad que ello conlleva. Este estudio pretende analizar cómo recogen algunos de estos libros (empleados por estudiantes canadienses anglófonos de nivel intermedio alto que siguen el programa de español de la University of British Columbia en Vancouver) cuestiones relacionadas con las distintas variedades y qué niveles de la lengua se muestran más susceptibles en este sentido., The interest in studying Spanish as a foreign language has increased in the last years and, as a result, has stimulated a lot of attention with respect to learning methods, which insist on the importance of students’ awareness of language variations (geographical, social and communicative). The situation in Canada offers an enormous research potential, especially regarding geographic modalities. The diversity of the teaching staff, mainly Latin-Americans, together with the fact that most of the textbooks used in class are produced in the United States favor an education based more on this style of speaking rather than on the peninsular style, with the great heterogeneity that this entails. This study is intended to analyze how some of these books address the different linguistic modalities as well as the language levels that are more affected by these variations. The study is based on an analysis of a series of textbooks used by Englishspeaking students in Canada of a high-intermediate level that follow the Spanish program at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.

Bivalves are excellent candidates for geographically based studies of the morphological variation in individuals of different populations based on the analysis of their shape profiles. In this study, we quantified the overall shell shape differences in individuals of different populations of Ruditapes decussatus and Ruditapes philippinarum in relation to their geographical and genetic distances. A total of 395 and 124 individuals of R. decussatus (nine populations) and R. philippinarum (four populations), respectively, were sampled in different Mediterranean and Atlantic coastal locations. Pictures of the left valve were taken from all individuals. Their profiles were analysed using elliptic Fourier analysis. Mean outlines were computed. In order to classify different individuals for species, the coefficients of harmonic equations were analysed by partial least square discriminant analysis and soft independent modelling of class analogy. The results showed a high percentage of correct classification (99%) between the two species in the independent test. We found that the morphological distance between R. philippinarum and R. decussatus is higher than the morphological distance among populations of the same species. The absence of correspondence between the geographical location and the pattern of morphological and genetic variation indicates the occurrence of a reaction norm in the morphological adaptation of shell shapes to different local environmental conditions.

Background: Many studies have reported the prevalence of sensitization using skin prick tests. However, comparisons between studies and between regions are difficult because the number and the type of allergens tested vary widely. Using the European Community Health Respiratory Survey I data, the geographical variation of sensitization to environmental allergen as measured by skin tests was established. Methods: Adults aged 20-44 years, living in 35 centres in 15 developed countries, underwent skin tests for allergy to nine common aeroallergens: Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, timothy grass, cat, Cladosporium herbarium, Alternaria alternately birch, Olea europea, common ragweed and Parietaria judaica. The age-sex standardized prevalence of sensitization was determined and centres with high (95% confidence interval above and excluding study median) and low prevalence (95% confidence interval below and excluding study median) of sensitization to each allergen and to any of the nine allergens were identified. Results: There was substantial geographical variation in the prevalence of sensitization to each of the nine allergens tested and in the prevalence of sensitization to any allergen (lowest 17.1%, median 36.8% and highest 54.8%). Sensitization to D. pteronyssinus, grass pollen and cat were usually the most prevalent (median between centre 21.7%, 16.9% and 8.8%, respectively). Timothy grass sensitization was higher than that for any other pollen species. Conclusions: As expected, geographical variations of sensitization to environmental allergen were observed across centres. These findings were compatible for those observed with serum-specific IgE. Skin tests can be used to assess the geographical distribution of allergens in a multicentric epidemiological survey.

In population viability analysis we are often faced with a lack of knowledge of survival rates in animal populations. In particular, survival of recruits is usually hard to assess. However, data on population structure might be considered as patterns that contain valuable information to estimate missing parameters indirectly. As an example for this pattern-oriented modelling and parameterization, pre-breeding survival rate of the endangered Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Picoides minor) was determined here using data on population structure (e.g. sex ratio) and reproductive success at the population level (e.g. nesting success). Therefore, an individual-based model was developed simulating the population dynamics for two different populations that had been empirically studied at Lake Möckeln, Sweden, and Taunus, Germany. For both populations, a small range for pre-breeding survival rates could be identified wherein all simulated patterns corresponded best to the empirical values. Pre-breeding survival rate was found to be higher in the German scenario than in the Swedish and geographical variation in life-history traits is discussed as a possible reason. It is concluded that the pattern-oriented approach is a valuable method for estimating missing demographic parameters, even when using weak patterns from empirical investigations. Furthermore, it was shown that the use of multiple patterns is necessary for this purpose.

Dietary carotenoids have been shown to confer immunological benefits to some species of animals in which males also use these pigments to attract mates. Thus, the potential exists for an allocation trade-off between the sexual and immunological functions of carotenoids. Food availability may also influence immune system function. The present study examined the effects of carotenoid and food availability on the resistance of male guppies (Poecilia reticulata Peters) from four wild populations to the parasite Gyrodactylus turnbulli Harris. Intermediate levels of carotenoid ingestion resulted in the lowest parasite loads, which suggests that carotenoids strengthen parasite resistance at low levels but either benefit parasites or suppress host immunity at high levels. Males raised on the high-food level initially had fewer parasites, suggesting heightened innate immunity relative to males raised on the low-food level. Over the course of the experiment, however, the high-food males supported higher parasite population growth rates than the low-food males. The results obtained emphasize the importance of evaluating the effects of diet on multiple aspects of immune system function, and caution against assuming that positive effects of carotenoids on immunity in one context will automatically translate to other contexts.

Waterfowl ingest lead shot because they confuse it with grit, but there has been limited study of differences among species and locations. The spatial and interspecific variation in the quantity and size composition of ingested grit and in the ingestion of lead shot by eight waterfowl species in the three main wintering areas in the western Mediterranean (Do˜nana, Ebro Delta and Camargue) was investigated. Variation in the mass of grit in the gizzard was related to bird species, whereas size composition of ingested grit was more closely related to locality and less to species. Birds with a large proportion of vegetation in their diets had more grit in the gizzard. Grit size composition was related to prevalence of lead shot ingestion. Thus, the quantity of grit in the gizzard is an attribute of species, and grit size composition (which largely determines the risk of ingestion of lead shot) is more affected by local conditions. This conclusion is supported by a meta-analysis of previous studies of the incidence of lead shot ingestion in 51 locations and 27 waterfowl species in North America and Europe. The prevalence of lead shot ingestion in a given waterbird species was highly variable between localities, and was not consistently different between dabbling, grazing and diving species.

Despite recent increased interest in the frequency and evolutionary consequences of generalization in plant–pollinator systems, little is known on whether plant generalization on pollinators actually is a species-level trait. This paper addresses the following questions for the insect-pollinated shrub Lavandula latifolia: (1) Are different populations of this pollinator-generalist plant similarly generalized? (2) Within a highly generalized population, are all plants similarly pollinator-generalists? Comparable values for richness in pollinator species were obtained from individual- or population-specific rarefaction curves as the projected number of distinct pollinator species implicated in 100 flower visits (SRAR100). Simple counts of pollinator species recorded per individual or population (SOBS) were weakly or nonsignificantly correlated with corresponding SRAR100 figures and closely correlated with flower visitation frequency. The pollination system of L. latifolia was highly generalized at the regional level, but populations differed greatly in pollinator species richness (SRAR100). Within the population intensively studied, individual plants had quite variable degrees of generalization, comparable in magnitude to variation among populations. It is concluded that generalization was not an invariant, species-level property in L. latifolia. Furthermore, pollinator diversity estimates based on SOBS data may be heavily contingent on aspects related to both research design (sampling effort) and biological phenomena (variation in pollinator abundance or visitation rates), which may either mask or distort underlying ecological patterns of interest.

Aim To analyse the geographical patterns in the composition and diversity of otter’s (Lutra lutra L.) diet and their relationship with climatic characteristics. Location European freshwater habitats under Mediterranean and temperate climatic regimes. Methods Thirty-seven otter diet studies were reviewed, twenty-one from temperate and sixteen from Mediterranean areas. All studies were based on spraint analysis and their results expressed as relative frequency of occurrence of seven main prey categories. Principal Component Analysis was performed to extract the main gradients of diet composition. Pearson’s correlation and t-tests were used to assess the relationship between diet characteristics (composition, diversity and taxonomic richness) and geo- graphical and climatic variables. Results A clear latitudinal gradient in diet composition was observed. Otter diet was more diverse and featured more prey classes in southern localities, while the species was more piscivorous towards the north, where it predated upon a higher number of fish families. This pattern was similar when temperate and Mediterranean localities of Europe were compared. Mediterranean otters behaved as more generalist predators than temperate ones, relying less on fish, and more on aquatic invertebrates and reptiles. Main conclusions Geographical differences in otter feeding ecology in Europe seem to be related with the two contrasted climatic conditions affecting prey populations. The otter can act as a highly specialized piscivorous predator in temperate freshwater eco- systems, which do not suffer a dry season and have a comparatively stable water regime compared to Mediterranean ones. However, the unpredictable prey availability in Mediterranean areas, affected by strong spatial and temporal water shortages, favours a diversification of the otter’s diet.

1. Maculinea alcon uses three different species of Myrmica host ants along a north-south gradient in Europe. Based on this geographical variation in host ant use, Elmes et al. (1994) suggested that M. alcon might consist of three or more cryptic species or host races, each using a single and different host-ant species.2. Population-specific differences in allozyme genotypes of M. alcon in Denmark (Gadeberg Boomsma, 1997) have suggested that genetically differentiated forms may occur in a gradient across Denmark, possibly in relation to the use of different host ants.3. It was found that two host-ant species are indeed used as hosts in Denmark, but not in a clear-cut north-south gradient. Furthermore, specificity was not complete for many M. alcon populations. Of five populations investigated in detail, one used primarily M. rubra as a host, another exclusively used M. ruginodis, while the other three populations used both ant species. No population in Denmark used M. scabrinodis as a host, although this species was present in the habitat and is known to be a host in central and southern Europe.4. In terms of number of parasites per nest and number of nests parasitised, M. rubra seems to be a more suitable host in populations where two host species are used simultaneously. Host-ant species has an influence on caterpillar size but this varies geographically. Analyses of pupae did not, however, show size differences between M. alcon raised in M. rubra and M. ruginodis nests.5. The geographical mosaic of host specificity and demography of M. alcon in Denmark probably reflects the co-evolution of M. alcon with two alternative host species. This system therefore provides an interesting opportunity for studying details of the evolution of parasite specificity and the dynamics of host-race formation.

1 We explored geographical variation in the interaction between the elaiosome-bearing seeds of Helleborus foetidus and ant dispersers. We looked for correlation across nine Iberian localities, between diaspore traits and structural and functional characteristics of ant communities. 2 Mean diaspore traits did not show a distance-dependent pattern. Seed size-related traits (length, width, diaspore mass and seed mass) varied mostly among localities and ant reward-related traits (elaiosome mass and elaiosome to seed mass ratio) mainly within plants. 3 Ant communities showed distance-dependent patterns in composition and abund- ance. Almost all ant species responded positively to diaspore offerings and preferred seeds with elaiosomes. The extent of the preference differed among species and was affected by ant size. Ant size was however, similar in almost all localities and the quality of the disperser guild, estimated as the ant response to seed offerings, did not vary. 4 We found a large-scale lack of adjustment: seed traits could not be predicted from ant community composition or geographical distance. Nor could structural and functional ant community parameters explain variation in seed traits. 5 Comparison of ant sizes, position on a Principal Components Analysis of seed traits, and indirect estimates of dispersal success, suggests that there is a mosaic of well- matched and mismatched situations which probably obscures the overall relationships among seed traits and ant assemblages. This is consistent with the role proposed for the geographical structure of interactions in recent coevolutionary theories.

Little is known about patterns and correlates of variation in microgametophyte populations for naturally pollinated plants, yet this information is critical for evaluating the prevalence and potential evolutionary significance of gametophyte competition in the wild. This paper analyzes spatial and temporal variation in microgametophyte populations (= number of pollen tubes per style) for the winter-flowering, perennial herb Helleborus foetidus (Ranunculaceae), based on data from 29 populations in three regions of the Iberian Peninsula collected over two consecutive years. Mean size of microgametophyte populations varied significantly at a wide range of spatial scales, including among regions, among populations within regions, among individual plants within populations, among flowers of the same plant, and among pistils of the same flower (H. foetidus flowers are apocarpous). Differences between regions were quantitatively negligible. Differences between populations in the same region were moderate to low, and their sign and magnitude were inconsistent between years. Roughly half of total variance in microgametophyte numbers was accounted for by variation within individual plants, and the largest part of this component was due to differences between the pistils of the same flower. These results reveal extreme spatial fine-graininess and marked stochasticity in the spatial variation of H. foetidus microgametophyte populations and suggest that opportunities for consistent selection on male gametophyte competitive ability are probably negligible in this species

By analysing patterns of phenotypic integration and multivariate covariance structure of five metric floral traits in nine Iberian populations of bumblebee- pollinated Helleborus foetidus (Ranunculaceae), this paper attempts to test the general hypothesis that pollinators enhance floral integration and selectively modify phenotypic correlations between functionally linked floral traits. The five floral traits examined exhibited significant phenotypic integration at all populations, and both the magnitude and the pattern of integration differed widely among populations. Variation in extent and pattern of integration was neither distance-dependent nor significantly related to between-population variation in taxonomical composition and morphological diversity of the pollinator assemblage. Patterns of floral integration were closer to expectations derived from consideration of developmental affinities between floral whorls than to expectations based on a pollinator-mediated adaptive hypothesis. Taken together, results of this study suggest that between-population differences in magnitude and pattern of floral integration in H. foetidus are probably best explained as a consequence of random genetic sampling in the characteristically small and ephemeral populations of this species, rather than reflecting the selective action of current pollinators

We aimed to describe the frequency and degree of diabetic ketoacidosis in children across Europe at the time of diagnosis of Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus and to determine if factors such as age and geographical region contribute to the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis. METHODS: The study was part of the EURODIAB project. A total of 24 centres, covering a population at risk of more than 15 million children below 15 years of age, recruited 1,260 children at the time of clinical diagnosis. RESULTS: Polyuria, by far the most frequent symptom, was observed in 96% of the children. In only 25% of the children was the duration of symptoms less than 2 weeks and this proportion was larger in the under 5 year age-group (37 vs 22%; p < 0. 001). Of the 11 centres that recorded diabetic ketoacidosis status, the overall proportion with diabetic ketoacidosis (pH < 7.3) was 40% (95%-CI: 36-44%) in at least 90 % of cases. After stratification by centre, the odds ratio for diabetic ketoacidosis in the under 5 age-group was 1.02 (95%-CI:0.69-1.49) relative to the older children. There was significant variation between the 11 centres in the frequency of diabetic ketoacidosis which ranged from 26 to 67% (p = 0.002). An inverse correlation between the frequency of diabetic ketoacidosis and the background incidence rate was found in these centres (Spearman's rank correlation, rs = -0.715;p = 0.012). CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: Rising standards of medical information and greater awareness concurrent with an overall increase in incidence could have resulted in changes in the clinical presentation at onset of Type I childhood diabetes in Europe.

Using a set of cranial morphometric characters, trends of variation in multivariate fluctuating asymmetry were evaluated and compared in popu- lations of African fruit bats Rousettus egyptiacus and Eidolon helvum from the Gulf of Guinea islands, and the adjacent mainland. Levels of asymmetry were compared across populations and species, and significant differences were found in both comparisons. Differences coincided with species-specific patterns of morphological and genetic differentiation. Concordance of corre- lation matrices of asymmetry was also compared. Results were significant; concordance is hypothesized to be a by-product of developmental processes that produce the ‘fox-like’ morphology shared by these species. Consistency of asymmetry patterns suggests that the developmental pathway producing it is highly canalized. A prediction of the above hypothesis is that a radical change in the ‘fox-like’ structural pattern would result in breakage of the asymmetry parameter associated with it.

Autonomous self-pollination may be considered as a mechanism enhancing plant reproductive success when plant access to pollen sources may limit seed production. We have studied the relationship between geographical patterns of variation in pollinator service to Helleborus foetidus and self-pollination ability in three widely spaced regions in the Iberian Peninsula. As could be expected from its early flowering period, pollinator visitation rates to both plants and flowers of H. foetidus were very low at all sites. Pollinator composition remained consistent among regions, but there was significant variation among regions in pollinator service. Despite the low visitation rates, fruit set did not appear to be pollen limited in any of the study areas, which may be explained by the long duration of flowers (up to 20 d). When pollinators were excluded experimentally, fruit set decreased significantly, but substantial levels of self- pollination occurred at all regions. Autonomous self-pollination levels were lowest in the two regions with lowest pollinator service and highest in the region with highest pollinator service. This disagreement between our results and the expectations derived from the reproductive assurance hypothesis may reflect a nonequilibrium situation of the northern H. foetidus populations in relation to their current pollinating environment