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Digital games have the potential to address a variety of pedagogical objectives across a range of subject areas in education and research shows that teachers are interested to learn about the use of games in teaching. However, due to the lack of professional development opportunities, teachers typically learn about the use of games informally from their peers and on social media. This raises questions about the kind of knowledge that social media resources may be catering to teachers and their relevance for more formalized ways of game literacy development. Further, the reason for the lack of professional development options could be that research is lagging behind in testing and developing systemic models that frame teachers’ knowledge of game-based learning such as the recently proposed Game Literacy for Teacher Education (GLTE) framework. To address the research gap, we investigate the following question: How do social media resources address key literacy areas of the Game Literacy for Teacher Education framework? The study tests the GLTE framework to investigate the research question. Data has been collected between autumn 2021 to spring 2022 from YouTube, Twitch, and Twitter using 1) search words in English, German and Swedish, 2) built-in recommendations and discovery functions, and 3) following links and references. Data relevant to supporting teachers in Digital Game-based Learning (DGBL) at primary and secondary levels in education were included, and 150 multimedia resources were selected for further analysis. Data were deductively coded onto the broad categories of the GLTE framework and descriptive coding was used to explore new categories. Findings show that DGBL resources shared on social media address the key literacy areas of the GLTE framework at least partially while also indicating that conceptualisations of games literacy for teachers need to go beyond technological and pedagogical integration and consider the broader societal role of games and ga

Digital games and gamification tools have the potential to address a variety of pedagogical objectives across a range of subject areas in education.They can be valuable learning environments, increase student motivation and engagement, improve cognitive learning outcomes about processes, causes and effects, programming and the development of collaborative skills . In practice, however, teachers may have varying gaming backgrounds, game-related pedagogical competencies and access to relevant resources. This paper discusses the challenges of teachers regarding the implementation of digital games in education as identified in two studies conducted by the authors., No oral presentation due to Covid restrictions

The interest in research around digital games in education has been significant; however, the integration of games in teaching and teachers´ practice-based use is still somewhat an unexplored area. In this study, we investigate digital game implementation practices and challenges of teachers in Swedish compulsory and upper secondary schools and investigate how factors such as age, gender, and teaching-gaming background may influence digital game-based teaching practices. This study is the first to collect a comprehensive set of data in the Swedish context. Data were collected during March and April 2019 through an online survey consisting of 37 questions from 181 respondents. Our findings show that teachers in our sample apply gamification tools and a variety of digital games across different subject areas, typically to motivate student and practice knowledge. We find that slightly more females use gamification tools and educational games than males while males and young teachers are more likely to use entertainment games for teaching. Teachers report motivational and cognitive outcomes of digital games-based learning but perceive games as less effective for teaching communicative and analytical skills. The access to good quality resources applicable to the curriculum is a concern among all the teachers. However, teachers new to digital games-based teaching are mostly concerned about the integration of games and their unfamiliarity with game-related technologies. Teachers with experience in the area are mostly concerned about game costs, access to good quality resources and preparation time. Future work will include a broader analysis of the data and results may be used to support the customization of game-based teaching tools and professional development programs to meet the needs of teachers.

To effectively support digital game adoption in education, stakeholders need to understand teachers’ current game-based teaching practices, challenges, and needs. This study investigates digital game use of teachers at compulsory and upper secondary school levels in Sweden. Data were collected from 181 respondents during spring 2019 through an online survey. Cluster analysis and descriptive statistics are used to establish the characteristics of game-using teachers and explore their teaching practices, challenges, and professional development needs. Based on their disposition, three subsets of game-using teachers are identified. Findings indicate that a more positive disposition is related to increased pedagogical integration, a greater variety of game use, higher and more varied educational outcomes, as well as interest in professional development. Perceptions of inhibiting factors of games-based teaching tend to shift with teachers’ level of game-based teaching competency. Results highlight teachers’ need for good quality games with curricular relevance as well as relevant professional development options. Moreover, the potential of games to facilitate a collaborative form of learning and skill development may not have been yet fully realized in Swedish schools. Future research should have a twofold focus; the development of adequate game resources that can support collaborative forms of learning and higher-level skills development, as well as competency development solutions for teachers relevant to their needs.

The overall purpose of the project is to conduct a demonstration study that shows how two data collection methods that have been developed to collect travel survey data perform in the field, and how they perform compared with traditional TS (i.e., postal questionnaires and/or telephone interviews). The project is also intended to provide a better understanding of the ways in which different recruitment methods of respondents can be used so that future TS can be more cost effective. The two collection methods tested consist of a mobile app and an online questionnaire with a map to assist the respondents to identify travel destinations. Three recruitment methods were used, i.e., recruitment via random sampling, a web panel, and crowdsourcing. The portion of the random sample that received an online questionnaire was divided into two groups. Half the group was given no incentive, while the other half received a gift card worth SEK 100 after answering the questioner. Those who were recruited via a web panel and were to use the mobile app were rewarded in the form of a gift card worth SEK 100 if, at minimum, they made corrections to trips made on one day registered in the mobile app. A nonresponse analysis was performed of the random sample for both the online questionnaire and the mobile app. Cost estimates for each collection method and recruitment method were also performed, as were uncertainty estimates. Overall, the study shows that the mobile app registered significantly more trips per respondent than did the online questionnaire, while the distances travelled were comparable. There are several possible interpretations of this. One is that people who responded to the online questionnaire either forget about and/or combined short trips (particularly trips made for the purposes of leisure or shopping, and using the travel modes walking and car). One presumable explanation for this is that it is easier to confirm/correct the trips that the mobile app suggests than it

Inom samverkansprogrammet Nästa generations resor och transporter, som Trafikanalys är huvudansvarig för, har man identifierat ett behov av att finna och utveckla nya lösningar för resvaneundersökningar (RVU:er). Bakgrunden till detta är bland annat sjunkande svarsfrekvenser med dagens metoder, vilket skulle kunna ge problem med representativiteten. Det anses som mycket angeläget att utveckla nya metoder för datainsamling för framtidens RVU:er, både på kort och lång sikt. Det övergripande syftet med projektet är att göra en demonstrationsstudie som visar hur två datainsamlingsmetoder som har utvecklats för att samla in resevaneundersökningsdata presterar i fält, samt hur de presterar jämfört med ”traditionell” RVU (postal enkät och/eller telefonintervjuer). Projektet syftar också till att få bättre förståelse för hur olika rekryteringsmetoder kan användas för att framtida RVU:er ska kunna bli mer kostnadseffektiva. De två insamlingsmetoder som testats är webbenkät med karta och mobilapp. Tre rekryteringsmetoder har använts och dessa är rekrytering via slumpmässigt urval, webbpanel och crowdsourcing.

Digital games have potential to support increased student motivation and engagement in education, but their use is not yet a widespread practice. Meta-research indicates that empirical evidence for digital games as effective learning tools is mixed. The research area is predominantly quantitative with an emphasis on researcher-led, stand-alone experiments that disconnect research from real-life practices of teachers. This study examined teachers´ practice-based use of digital games. We conducted in-depth interviews with eight teachers from five Swedish schools. Findings show that teachers using nonserious games and game development tools co-design the gaming and learning experience. They develop and share conceptual and practical game-based pedagogical tools or use alongside games, and adopt these to their unique contexts. While access to technology and diversity of students´ background have implications for game implementation, we also find that teachers not only understand digital games as teaching tools but also as contemporary literature to be subjected to critical analysis. Future research includes examining students’ interaction with the pedagogical tools in game-based learning settings.

Digital games and simulations for learning are not new phenomena. However, with the advancements in technology, they have gathered increasing interest over recent years. With digital ubiquity, games and simulations offer a compelling case for use in schools. As such, it is useful to understand the value and issues related to the use of digital games and simulations for learning as well as to develop a new frame for thinking on how to design learning in educational settings, harnessing the affordances of technology through the effective use of digital games and simulations.

Inom samverkansprogrammet Nästa generations resor och transporter, som Trafikanalys är huvudansvarig för, har man identifierat ett behov av att finna och utveckla nya lösningar för resvaneundersökningar (RVU:er). Bakgrunden till detta är bland annat sjunkande svarsfrekvenser med dagens metoder, vilket skulle kunna ge problem med representativiteten. Det anses som mycket angeläget att utveckla nya metoder för datainsamling för framtidens RVU:er, både på kort och lång sikt. Det övergripande syftet med projektet är att göra en demonstrationsstudie som visar hur två datainsamlingsmetoder som har utvecklats för att samla in resevaneundersökningsdata presterar i fält, samt hur de presterar jämfört med ”traditionell” RVU (postal enkät och/eller telefonintervjuer). Projektet syftar också till att få bättre förståelse för hur olika rekryteringsmetoder kan användas för att framtida RVU:er ska kunna bli mer kostnadseffektiva. De två insamlingsmetoder som testats är webbenkät med karta och mobilapp. Tre rekryteringsmetoder har använts och dessa är rekrytering via slumpmässigt urval, webbpanel och crowdsourcing.

The overall purpose of the project is to conduct a demonstration study that shows how two data collection methods that have been developed to collect travel survey data perform in the field, and how they perform compared with traditional TS (i.e., postal questionnaires and/or telephone interviews). The project is also intended to provide a better understanding of the ways in which different recruitment methods of respondents can be used so that future TS can be more cost effective. The two collection methods tested consist of a mobile app and an online questionnaire with a map to assist the respondents to identify travel destinations. Three recruitment methods were used, i.e., recruitment via random sampling, a web panel, and crowdsourcing. The portion of the random sample that received an online questionnaire was divided into two groups. Half the group was given no incentive, while the other half received a gift card worth SEK 100 after answering the questioner. Those who were recruited via a web panel and were to use the mobile app were rewarded in the form of a gift card worth SEK 100 if, at minimum, they made corrections to trips made on one day registered in the mobile app. A nonresponse analysis was performed of the random sample for both the online questionnaire and the mobile app. Cost estimates for each collection method and recruitment method were also performed, as were uncertainty estimates. Overall, the study shows that the mobile app registered significantly more trips per respondent than did the online questionnaire, while the distances travelled were comparable. There are several possible interpretations of this. One is that people who responded to the online questionnaire either forget about and/or combined short trips (particularly trips made for the purposes of leisure or shopping, and using the travel modes walking and car). One presumable explanation for this is that it is easier to confirm/correct the trips that the mobile app suggests than it

The overall purpose of the project is to conduct a demonstration study that shows how two data collection methods that have been developed to collect travel survey data perform in the field, and how they perform compared with traditional TS (i.e., postal questionnaires and/or telephone interviews). The project is also intended to provide a better understanding of the ways in which different recruitment methods of respondents can be used so that future TS can be more cost effective. The two collection methods tested consist of a mobile app and an online questionnaire with a map to assist the respondents to identify travel destinations. Three recruitment methods were used, i.e., recruitment via random sampling, a web panel, and crowdsourcing. The portion of the random sample that received an online questionnaire was divided into two groups. Half the group was given no incentive, while the other half received a gift card worth SEK 100 after answering the questioner. Those who were recruited via a web panel and were to use the mobile app were rewarded in the form of a gift card worth SEK 100 if, at minimum, they made corrections to trips made on one day registered in the mobile app. A nonresponse analysis was performed of the random sample for both the online questionnaire and the mobile app. Cost estimates for each collection method and recruitment method were also performed, as were uncertainty estimates. Overall, the study shows that the mobile app registered significantly more trips per respondent than did the online questionnaire, while the distances travelled were comparable. There are several possible interpretations of this. One is that people who responded to the online questionnaire either forget about and/or combined short trips (particularly trips made for the purposes of leisure or shopping, and using the travel modes walking and car). One presumable explanation for this is that it is easier to confirm/correct the trips that the mobile app suggests than it

Inom samverkansprogrammet Nästa generations resor och transporter, som Trafikanalys är huvudansvarig för, har man identifierat ett behov av att finna och utveckla nya lösningar för resvaneundersökningar (RVU:er). Bakgrunden till detta är bland annat sjunkande svarsfrekvenser med dagens metoder, vilket skulle kunna ge problem med representativiteten. Det anses som mycket angeläget att utveckla nya metoder för datainsamling för framtidens RVU:er, både på kort och lång sikt. Det övergripande syftet med projektet är att göra en demonstrationsstudie som visar hur två datainsamlingsmetoder som har utvecklats för att samla in resevaneundersökningsdata presterar i fält, samt hur de presterar jämfört med ”traditionell” RVU (postal enkät och/eller telefonintervjuer). Projektet syftar också till att få bättre förståelse för hur olika rekryteringsmetoder kan användas för att framtida RVU:er ska kunna bli mer kostnadseffektiva. De två insamlingsmetoder som testats är webbenkät med karta och mobilapp. Tre rekryteringsmetoder har använts och dessa är rekrytering via slumpmässigt urval, webbpanel och crowdsourcing.

Assessment of students in traditional higher education has always had mechanisms to prevent cheating and plagiarism, and the same need exists today for online assessment in virtual learning platforms. The number of students that are suspended from courses in tertiary education has increased in the last decade and there is a need for new techniques to handle the problem in online environments. To achieve zero cheating is hard (or impossible) without repelling not only cheaters but also those students who do not cheat, where a zero-tolerance emphasis also would risk inhibiting students' intrinsic motivation. Several studies indicate that existing virtual learning environments do not provide the features needed to control that the intended student is the one taking the online exam. New technology opens up opportunities for online authentication through biometrics, but raises new ethical issues in the fields of integrity and data protection. The aim of this study is to explore and discuss how a reliable model for online authentication in distance education could be constructed with the use of biometrics without the risk of unnecessary integrity violation. Data has been collected in a literature study and discussed in the light of existing technology applied to the field. Findings show that promising digital techniques exist which could be combined to assure authentication in online exams without violating students' privacy or storing sensitive data. A suggestion is to develop a biometric belt and braces model with a combination of scanned facial coordinates and voice recognition, where only a minimum of biometric data is stored. Conclusions are that online examination becomes feasible when the associated cheat risks are not zero but as low as in traditional examination, and that students' integrity have to be considered in all learning modalities.

The so called "N-generation" or the "Digital natives" extensive use of computers and Internet resources have been widely discussed in research, but there are different opinions on how good their general computer skills are seen from a Computer science perspective. Considering digital gaming there seem to be stronger indications supporting the concept of a new generation with new habits. Most students in the group from where data has been collected for this study have gaming experiences from early pre-school childhood and will therefore in this paper be called "Digital gaming natives". Gaming has also been a considerable part of their later childhood and they are all enrolled for studies on computer game construction. The aim of this paper is to analyse and discuss digital native gamers’ gaming habits and how excessive gaming might have disturbed school studies or other social activities. Data has been collected from a course batch of 30 students following a university programme for Game construction at a department of Computer science. Out of the 28 students that wrote essays about their gaming habits 6 are female and 22 are male. A content analysis was conducted based on the student essays that were submitted and discussed online in a course on Games-based learning. Students’ experiences from gaming habits and study habits were also discussed at course seminars and have later been discussed with other teachers. Findings show that the Digital gaming natives’ gaming habits definitely are strong and that they in many situations have clashed with the informants’ study habits. In several cases parents have created gaming restrictions and there are examples of students’ self-restrictions, but there exist also examples of when excessive nightly gaming have interfered with the daily school work. Almost all students’ defend their gaming and claim that it has given them a richer life with nice experiences even if there are risks of addiction and displacement. One student wro

Providing information using a modality that is both non-visual and nonauditory such as haptic feedback may be a viable approach regarding web accessibility for deaf-blind. Haptic navigation systems have been shown easy to learn and modulating navigation related information as patterns of vibrations is viewed as natural and non-intrusive. To minimise the bandwidth needed, a varying length encoding scheme such as Morse code may be considered. A prototype Morse code vibration modulated system for web page navigation was developed, using a standard game controller as a means of output. Results show that simulated deaf-blind test subjects using the system were able to navigate a web site successfully in three cases out of four. In some situations a version of the system with a higher degree of manual interaction performed better., Special issue: Using technology to enhance rehabilitation and empower people with special needs.

To improve road safety on parts of the road network carrying low traffic volumes, road designs are proposed including single-lane road segments and periodic overtaking lanes. These roads have been proven to contribute to substantial benefits in terms of road safety. However, overtaking of slower vehicles is only possible on segments including an overtaking lane and not on the single-lane road segments. Driver and vehicle heterogeneity resulting in differences in desired speeds are consequently decisive for the traffic performance. Sufficient quality of service is relying on an appropriate design and distribution of single-lane segments and overtaking lanes. In this paper, we study the effect of the desired speed distribution on traffic performance on single-lane road segments. Expressions are derived for the travel time, delay and percent time spent following. The derived expressions link the desired speed distribution, the single-lane segment length and the traffic flow to the resulting traffic performance. The results are verified through comparison with measures based on microscopic traffic simulation. The conclusion is that there is a good agreement between derived measures and simulation results. The derived measures should therefore not only be of theoretical interest, but also of practical use to estimate traffic performance on single-lane road segments.

To improve road safety on parts of the road network carrying low traffic volumes, road designs are proposed including single-lane road segments and periodic overtaking lanes. These roads have been proven to contribute to substantial benefits in terms of road safety. However, overtaking of slower vehicles is only possible on segments including an overtaking lane and not on the single-lane road segments. Driver and vehicle heterogeneity resulting in differences in desired speeds are consequently decisive for the traffic performance. Sufficient quality of service is relying on an appropriate design and distribution of single-lane segments and overtaking lanes. In this paper, we study the effect of the desired speed distribution on traffic performance on single-lane road segments. Expressions are derived for the travel time, delay and percent time spent following. The derived expressions link the desired speed distribution, the single-lane segment length and the traffic flow to the resulting traffic performance. The results are verified through comparison with measures based on microscopic traffic simulation. The conclusion is that there is a good agreement between derived measures and simulation results. The derived measures should therefore not only be of theoretical interest, but also of practical use to estimate traffic performance on single-lane road segments.

Equal access to cultural activities is important for inclusion and computer gaming is one of the most common activities in digital culture. However, many people with impairments are excluded from participating. While parallel game universes (PGUs) provide a method to achieve equal access, the question is: how can a balanced collaborative real-time game be designed with the help of PGU for playing without sight or hearing? Balance is a central concept in game design and is important to avoid perceived cheating or disadvantages due to individual or environmental differences. The question was examined with a design science approach, where a game prototype was created in two iterations with a structured design method and evaluated using interviews and observations. In this first step of a more long-term study, ten experienced gamers without impairments were selected with purposive sampling to provide relevant data through simulation of temporary impairments or environmental issues, which can affect many or all gamers. By sorting out these issues first, later testing with actual blind and deaf gamers can focus on more specific issues for each group. The ten participants played either without sight or hearing. The results confirm the use of PGUs for creating a balanced experience but also finds that while multiplayer feel is not optimal, it is a reasonable trade-off for universal access for blind and deaf being able to play together. The results also show that a help system and equal understanding of the game play between the blind and deaf players are important aspects to achieve game balance. Further research should be done involving actual blind and deaf gamers, and similar evaluations of game balance should be conducted with users having other types of impairments.

The "N-generation" or the "digital natives" have now entered university programmes and their extensive use of computers and digital games is a fact (Spires 2008). Digital games and gamification are also proliferating in private, professional as well as in educational domains (Reinhardt & Sykes 2014). Phenomena as play, narration and gamification are classified as transmedial, i.e. they exist in digital as well as non-digital contexts (Dymek, 2010), but there is no consensus on learning transfer from digital gaming to real world contexts. While some researchers claim a strong learning potential (Gee, 2003; Reinhardt & Sykes, 2014), others have more sceptical standpoints (Hays 2005; Linderoth 2012). Would the opinions on learning transfer be different if the question is asked to the digital natives themselves? The aim of this paper is to analyse and discuss what students in the digital natives’ generation might have learnt in gaming and if acquired skills and knowledge can be transferred to other contexts. A content analysis has been carried out on student essays submitted and discussed in a course on Games-based learning. Students’ experiences from gaming and learning transfer have also been discussed in course examination seminars. Findings show that the digital natives definitely have strong gaming habits, and a majority of the students perceived that they had learnt meaningful things from gaming. Regarding knowledge and skill transfer, variations were noted among the various types of games. Furthermore, there are several examples from both educational games and commercial-off-the-shelf games where acquired skills and knowledge can be seen as transmedial and of use in non-digital contexts.

Computer games can be designed as tools for school, but formal education can also be game-oriented based on dialogue enabling the use of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) entertainment games. The latter design was applied in two upper-secondary school trial educations, called the Digital Room. A problem is that teachers have to grade pupils based on assessment of the learning process through playing COTS games together with the pupils, while retaining compliance with the school regulations which can also change over time. The question is: what are the requirements for designing a system supporting teachers in bridging this gap? This paper describes and compares two trials of the Digital Room, enabling a long-term study between 2003-2013 with secondary school pupils and teachers. To answer the question in this paper, teachers from both trials were interviewed and situations were analysed based on a critical realist approach. Lack of time to manage and reflect on the documentation for assessment was a critical part of the results, and a teacher support system was explicitly asked for. Knowing what to document was crucial as games have many modes of expression, and understanding how to assess what has been documented was the hardest part. Conclusions are that a knowledge management system (KMS) could aid teachers in supporting each pupil to fulfil their goals and the requirements of the existing school system. Due to the expressed lack of time for management and assessment of documentation, the KMS should compile the data of each pupil’s actions in the game as basis for grading. Further, this KMS could be used for further learning by combining explicated knowledge from the socialisation process. Pupils could also add explicit information to the KMS about findings on the Internet and from oral dialogue with peers and teachers. Thus, the KMS must enable multimodal expressions to be as accessible as possible, including pupils with impairments. Information must be searchable

Pupils in Sweden are socialized in commercial off-the-shelf games, and, therefore, game-oriented formal education can constitute a foundation for further socialization of pupils excluded in school. However, digital illiteracy and traditional views among school staff forced a regression from the game-oriented formal trial education in this study back to the traditional education form. Research questions were as follows: How did the pupils act upon the consequences of the regression? How can these acts inform the design of education in digital culture? These questions were addressed using ethnography over 3 years. The pupils' acts differed depending on their socialization in school and in games. While the game-oriented formal education included all in the socialization process, the regression caused half of the pupils to drop out. The pupils' acts are discussed with a conceptual framework. Conclusions show the need for digital literacy and understanding pupils' perspectives on education among school staff.

Tillhandahållande av information med hjälp av ett tillvägagångssätt som är både icke-visuellt och icke-auditivt såsom haptisk återkoppling kan vara en framkomlig väg när det gäller webbtillgänglighet för dövblinda. Haptiska navigationssystem har visat sig vara lätt att lära och modulerad navigeringsrelaterad Information som mönster av vibrationer ses som naturliga och icke störande. För att minimera den bandbredd som krävs, kan en varierande längd kodningsschema såsom morsekod övervägas. En prototyp av ett morsekodat vibrationsmodulsystem för webbsidesnavigering utvecklades med en vanlig spelkontroll som ett medel för utmatning. Resultaten visar att simulerade dövblinda försökspersoner som använder systemet kunde navigera en webbplats med framgång i tre fall av fyra. I vissa situationer presterade versionen av systemet med en högre grad av manuell interaktion bättre., Providing information using a modality that is both non-visual and non-auditory such as haptic feedback may be a viable approach regarding web accessibility for deaf-blind. Haptic navigation systems have been shown easy to learn and modulating navigation related information as patterns of vibrations is viewed as natural and non-intrusive. To minimise the bandwidth needed, a varying length encoding scheme such as Morse code may be considered. A prototype Morse code vibration modulated system for web page navigation was developed, using a standard game controller as a means of output. Results show that simulated deaf-blind test subjects using the system were able to navigate a web site successfully in three cases out of four. In some situations a version of the system with a higher degree of manual interaction performed better., Nova Science

The issue of using educational games versus entertainment games as the base for learning environments is complex, and various data to base the decision on is needed. While participants’ verbal accounts of their situation is important, also other modes of expression would be meaningful as data sources. The availability of valid and reliable methods for evaluating games is central to building ones that are successful, and should preferably include outside measurements that are less affected by the participants’ choice of what to share. The present study considers a method using software for analysing facial expressions during gameplay, testing its ability to reveal inherent differences between educational and entertainment games. Participants (N=11) played two games, an entertainment game and an educational game, while facial expressions were measured continuously. The main finding was significantly higher degrees of expressions associated with negative emotions (anger [p < 0.001], fear [p < 0.001] and disgust [p < 0.001]) while playing the educational game, indicating that participants were more negative towards this game type. The combination of cognitive load inherent in learning and negative emotions found in the educational game may explain why educational games sometimes have been less successful. The results suggest that the method used in the present study might be useful as part of the evaluation of educational games.

To improve road safety on parts of the road network carrying low traffic volumes, road designs are proposed including single-lane road segments and periodic overtaking lanes. These roads have been proven to contribute to substantial benefits in terms of road safety. However, overtaking of slower vehicles is only possible on segments including an overtaking lane and not on the single-lane road segments. Driver and vehicle heterogeneity resulting in differences in desired speeds are consequently decisive for the traffic performance. Sufficient quality of service is relying on an appropriate design and distribution of single-lane segments and overtaking lanes. In this paper, we study the effect of the desired speed distribution on traffic performance on single-lane road segments. Expressions are derived for the travel time, delay and percent time spent following. The derived expressions link the desired speed distribution, the single-lane segment length and the traffic flow to the resulting traffic performance. The results are verified through comparison with measures based on microscopic traffic simulation. The conclusion is that there is a good agreement between derived measures and simulation results. The derived measures should therefore not only be of theoretical interest, but also of practical use to estimate traffic performance on single-lane road segments.

To improve road safety on parts of the road network carrying low traffic volumes, road designs are proposed including single-lane road segments and periodic overtaking lanes. These roads have been proven to contribute to substantial benefits in terms of road safety. However, overtaking of slower vehicles is only possible on segments including an overtaking lane and not on the single-lane road segments. Driver and vehicle heterogeneity resulting in differences in desired speeds are consequently decisive for the traffic performance. Sufficient quality of service is relying on an appropriate design and distribution of single-lane segments and overtaking lanes. In this paper, we study the effect of the desired speed distribution on traffic performance on single-lane road segments. Expressions are derived for the travel time, delay and percent time spent following. The derived expressions link the desired speed distribution, the single-lane segment length and the traffic flow to the resulting traffic performance. The results are verified through comparison with measures based on microscopic traffic simulation. The conclusion is that there is a good agreement between derived measures and simulation results. The derived measures should therefore not only be of theoretical interest, but also of practical use to estimate traffic performance on single-lane road segments.

To improve road safety on parts of the road network carrying low traffic volumes, road designs are proposed including single-lane road segments and periodic overtaking lanes. These roads have been proven to contribute to substantial benefits in terms of road safety. However, overtaking of slower vehicles is only possible on segments including an overtaking lane and not on the single-lane road segments. Driver and vehicle heterogeneity resulting in differences in desired speeds are consequently decisive for the traffic performance. Sufficient quality of service is relying on an appropriate design and distribution of single-lane segments and overtaking lanes. In this paper, we study the effect of the desired speed distribution on traffic performance on single-lane road segments. Expressions are derived for the travel time, delay and percent time spent following. The derived expressions link the desired speed distribution, the single-lane segment length and the traffic flow to the resulting traffic performance. The results are verified through comparison with measures based on microscopic traffic simulation. The conclusion is that there is a good agreement between derived measures and simulation results. The derived measures should therefore not only be of theoretical interest, but also of practical use to estimate traffic performance on single-lane road segments.

Preventing cheating in online as well as more traditional examination is important, but achieving zero cheating is hard or impossible without repelling not only cheaters but also those who would not cheat. A zero-tolerance emphasis on cheating shifts the focus from what is being learned to test scores, destroying the intrinsic motivation of learning. Test scores are only meaningful within the education, while the actual learning is what creates meaning outside of the education. What forms of cheat prevention in online examinations are reasonable in relation to traditional examination, without ruining the students' intrinsic motivation? A literature study was conducted. From the discussion of previous research it can be concluded that zero tolerance of cheating in online examination is unrealistic, unnecessary and not required compared to traditional examination. Further, zero tolerance could also ruin the intrinsic motivation of learning. This enables forms of examination such as web camera observation but also dialogue based interaction for examination.

Well-designed games can support intrinsic as well as extrinsic motivation, but to what degree the use of computer games stimulates learning has been widely discussed during the last decade. Some researchers claim that it is the underlying architecture in digital games that provides the learning potential. The use of computer games as a tool for social inclusion in remedial education has also been investigated and presented as a promising idea. Less has been written on how groups should be formed to support school drop-outs and scaffold their inclusion and create a way towards a second chance to education for disaffected youth. The aim of this study is to describe and discuss how game based learning might facilitate the integration of disaffected youth through the avoidance of stigmatising remedial education groups. Empirical data has been collected from a secondary education initiative called The Digital Room. This was a project where all participants had a strong interest in computer games but different educational background. The two main groups can briefly be described as students with grades in core subjects in a traditional secondary school curriculum, and school drop-outs without a complete set of core subject grades. Interviews were conducted with participants from both groups in a longitudinal study between 2005 and 2010, including a retrospective follow-up. Findings show that the initial group division that still was present after two years of the project later had dissolved when new interviews were carried out towards the end of the project. From a teacher’s perspective this game-based setup facilitated individual student support in a heterogeneous group with large variations in study techniques and learning tempo.

Digital games have been introduced as educational tools in upper secondary education and studies show signs of improved language skills for students playing digital games, but there are few cases where digital games are used for physical education, or exergaming. To explore former secondary school students’ attitudes towards the use of digital games in physical education, a study was conducted. Survey findings were complemented through interviews aligned to the survey questionnaire. Results show that 59% of the respondents were positive to the concept of using computer games to aid physical education, while 40% claimed that it would not affect their attitude towards physical activities. The remaining 1% stated that it would reduce their motivation for physical education classes if exergames were introduced. Results showed no clear connection between individual interests and attitude towards exergames, except for those with a high interest in gaming showing a more positive attitude in general. Some variations in the attitudes towards different game genres were shown with stationary exergames being the most popular.

Tillhandahållande av information med hjälp av ett tillvägagångssätt som är både icke-visuellt och icke-hörbart så som haptisk återkoppling, kan vara en väg att skapa webbtillgänglighet för dövblinda. Haptiska navigationssystem har visat sig vara lätta att lära sig (Venesvirta 2008), och att modulera den information som navigering på en webbplats ger, som mönster av vibrationer har visat sig uppfattas som naturligt och icke störande (Szymzcak, Magnusson och Rassmus-Gröhn 2012). För att minimera den bandbredd som krävs, kan ett kodningsschema med en varierande längd så som morsekod, övervägas. En prototyp av ett system som använder morsekod översatt till vibrationer anpassat för navigation på en webbsida, utvecklades med en vanlig spelkontroll som ett mottagarverktyg för användaren. Resultaten visar att tester där seende försökspersoner simulerade dövblinda skulle kunna navigera en webbplats med hjälp av systemet med framgång i tre fall av fyra, och att en version av systemet med en högre grad av manuell interaktion, i vissa situationer presterade bättre., Providing information using a modality that is both non-visual and non-auditory such as haptic feedback, may be a viable approach regarding web accessibility for deaf-blind. Haptic navigation systems have been shown to be easy to learn (Venesvirta 2008), and modulating navigation related information as patterns of vibrations has been shown to be perceived as natural and non-intrusive (Szymzcak, Magnusson and Rassmus-Gröhn 2012). To minimise the bandwidth needed, a varying length encoding scheme such as Morse code may be considered. A prototype Morse code vibration modulated system for web page navigation was developed, using a standard game controller as a means of output. Results show that simulated deaf-blind test subjects using the system were able to navigate a web site successfully in three cases out of four, and that in some situations a version of the system with a higher degree of manual interaction performed better.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängd och restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metoden utvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen var att dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, det vill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utvecklade beräkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningar för 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vid framtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband för vägtransportsystemet”. Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelse som indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstaka långsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdata saknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar med den mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativt god korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägre restidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden bör kunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas att varken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats och validerats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebär således inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel time delay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method was developed 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the model development was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish Transport Administration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sections without overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to be valuable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lane sections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effect calculations for road facilities”. The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation as input. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunning vehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data were available when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared to traffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The results show a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 per cent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by the stochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither the analytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with real data for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessary imply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Playing games to support learning is a classic concept that is seeing a revival today in the widespread use of computer games. Inserting educational content into various types of computer games is a strong trend that some researchers have described as a mad rush. The aim of this article is to discuss possible learning stimulating effects of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games in a long-term perspective. We argue that COTS game players’ attitudes towards learning may change in a positive direction even in cases where direct learning outcomes are not aimed for. This may be the case when in-game skills are described in terms of real life skills commonly associated with higher education. When a high enough skill level is achieved, then and only then is the player rewarded with pleasant in-game experiences. The causality of the perceived experience is ideally that with high enough skills, positive stimulation follows. The contribution of the gaming lies not in the short-term learning outcome, but rather in the long-term effects it may have on future educational choices. Even if such a game do not fulfil the criteria for learning games it may still be seen as a learning stimulating game.

The computer game industry sales are counted in billions of dollars, and gamers with disabilities play more casual games than non-disabled gamers. Yet many potential gamers are excluded and gamers with cognition impairments have not been in focus for research and development. With recently published game accessibility guidelines as a framework, professional game producers were surveyed about the number of man-hours needed to implement basic guidelines for cognition. The survey data was compared with a previous survey on the number of people with cognition impairments constituting barriers to gaming, showing that return on investment may be achieved.

Playing games to support learning is an old conceptthat has got a revival today in the widespread use ofcomputer games. To insert educational content intovarious types of computer games is a strong trendthat some researchers have described as a mad rush.Game based learning has become a wide andheterogeneous field with large variations in designbetween serious games that has been developed for adistinct educational purpose, and Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) games designed for playabilityand entertainment.The aim of this article is to discuss the possiblelearning stimulating effects of COTS games in along-term perspective. We argue that COTS gameplayers’ attitudes towards learning may change in apositive direction even in cases where the directlearning outcomes are not that high. This may be thecase when in-game skills are described in terms ofreal life skills commonly associated with highereducation, such as engineering, electronics orgeology. A common game design is that when a highenough skill level is achieved, then and only then isthe player rewarded with access to better equipment,access to interesting areas and similar pleasantexperiences. The game then has a potential to triggeran important psychological reward mechanism in theplayer’s mind.COTS games could like educational games havemore than just in-game goals and the meta goals in agame are the ones that remain in the player’s mindafter the game has ended. The causality of theperceived experience is ideally that with high enoughskills, the player receives positive stimulation. Withthis approach it would not matter that the actuallearning will have to take place elsewhere, and mostlikely later when the player makes decisions abouthis or her higher education. The contribution of thegaming lies not in the short-term learning outcome,but rather in the long-term effects it may have onpersonal development and future educational choices.Even if such a game do not fulfill the criteria forlearning games it may sti

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängd och restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metoden utvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen var att dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, det vill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utvecklade beräkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningar för 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vid framtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband för vägtransportsystemet”. Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelse som indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstaka långsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdata saknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar med den mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativt god korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägre restidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden bör kunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas att varken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats och validerats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebär således inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel time delay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method was developed 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the model development was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish Transport Administration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sections without overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to be valuable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lane sections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effect calculations for road facilities”. The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation as input. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunning vehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data were available when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared to traffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The results show a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 per cent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by the stochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither the analytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with real data for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessary imply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

Detta VTI notat presenterar en beräkningsmetod för beräkning av förväntad kölängdoch restidsfördröjning för enfältiga vägavsnitt utan omkörningsmöjligheter. Metodenutvecklades 2001 och presenterades i ett PM. Bakgrunden till modellutvecklingen varatt dåvarande Vägverket (nu Trafikverket) planerade att införa så kallade 1+1-vägar, detvill säga, vägar med längre delsträckor utan omkörningsmöjlighet. Den utveckladeberäkningsmetoden har sedermera visat sig värdefull även vid framkomlighetsberäkningarför 2+1-vägar med varierande andel tvåfältsavsnitt och har använts vidframtagning av hastighetsflödessamband till Trafikverkets ”Effektsamband förvägtransportsystemet”.Metoden använder avsnittslängd, trafikflöde samt medelhastighet och standardavvikelsesom indata. Metoden är uppdelad på beräkning av effekter på grund av enstakalångsamtgående fordon samt effekter vid ”normal” hastighetsfördelning. Då mätdatasaknades vid modellutvecklingen jämfördes metoden med simuleringskörningar medden mikroskopiska trafiksimuleringsmodellen AIMSUN. Resultaten visar på en relativtgod korrelation men generellt så ger den analytiska metoden cirka 1,2 procent lägrerestidsfördröjning. En stor del av skillnaden mellan modellerna vid måttliga flöden börkunna härledas till det stokastiska inslaget i simuleringen. Det bör även påpekas attvarken den analytiska modellen eller trafiksimuleringsmodellen har kalibrerats ochvaliderats mot verkliga data för denna typ av väg. Skillnaden mellan modellerna innebärsåledes inte att den analytiska modellen självklart är den som avviker från verkligheten., This VTI report presents a method for calculating expected queue length and travel timedelay on one lane road sections without overtaking possibilities. The method wasdeveloped 2001 and presented in a working paper. The background for the modeldevelopment was that the Swedish Road Administration (now the Swedish TransportAdministration) planned to build so called 1+1 roads, i.e. roads with longer sectionswithout overtaking possibilities. The method developed has later on also shown to bevaluable for level of service calculations of 2+1 roads with varying share of two lanesections and for developing speed-flow relationships for the Administration’s ”Effectcalculations for road facilities”.The method uses section length, traffic flow, average speed and standard deviation asinput. The method is divided with respect to calculation of effects due to single slowrunningvehicles and effects at “normal” speed distribution. Since no data wereavailable when the model was developed, the model results were instead compared totraffic simulations with the microscopic traffic simulation model AIMSUN. The resultsshow a good correlation but the analytical model gives in general approximately 1.2 percent lower travel time delay. The differences can probably partly be explained by thestochastic parts of the simulation model. One should also remember that neither theanalytical model nor the simulation model has been calibrated and validated with realdata for this type of roads. Thus, the differences between the models do not necessaryimply that the analytical model is the one deviating from reality.

This paper presents a study aimed at quantifying and comparing the risk of personal injuries associated with road barrier collisions. Documented data from actual barrier collisions, including post-impact collisions, in Sweden between 2005 and 2008 were analyzed. The analyses were based on the injury classification made by healthcare services. The injury rates, measured in number of injuries per vehicle kilometer travelled, were calculated for the different injury classes as a basis for evaluating barrier performance. The results show that the rate of injuries was higher due to collisions with flexible barrier systems, such as cable barrier, than with other semi-rigid and rigid barrier system, such as w-beam and concrete barriers. This result might be explained by a high rate of post-impact events, such as post-impact collisions, roll-overs and over-rides, associated with the placement and mechanical properties of the cable barriers. The study also showed a considerable difference in injury classifications made by the police and the healthcare services, as well as a considerable under-reporting of barrier collisions by the police., QC 20130315

In studies of traffic safety is it important to have good knowledge of both internal and external factors. Examples of the former are driver behaviour and the roads’ safety standard, while examples of the latter are the demographic structure and the economic situation. This report includes a survey of methods used by previous researchers comprising which variables they used as indicators of the state of the market. It was concluded that unemployment was the most common economic variable, where an increase in unemployment indicates a decrease in the number of killed road users. The same result was found when a time series analysis was performed on Swedish data. It was also shown that part of the reduction in the number of fatalities in Sweden during a recession was explained by young drivers’ reducing their car use. There is, however, still a remaining effect of unemployment that cannot be explained by young drivers car use. One theory is that the state of the market affects the road users´ travel patterns. Data collected from fatal accident reports during the recession in December 2008-March 2009, were compared to the same period in 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 during which period the economy was stronger. The only significant difference was that the number of fatalities and number of fatal accidents were higher during periods of economic growth. No significant difference was found with respect to, among others, accident type, time of day, age or gender distribution., VTI rapport R704A är en förkortad engelsk version av VTI rapport 704, ”Trafiksäkerhet och konjunktur: modellansatser och litteraturstudie” utgiven 2011

In studies of traffic safety is it important to have good knowledge of both internal and external factors. Examples of the former are driver behaviour and the roads’ safety standard, while examples of the latter are the demographic structure and the economic situation. This report includes a survey of methods used by previous researchers comprising which variables they used as indicators of the state of the market. It was concluded that unemployment was the most common economic variable, where an increase in unemployment indicates a decrease in the number of killed road users. The same result was found when a time series analysis was performed on Swedish data. It was also shown that part of the reduction in the number of fatalities in Sweden during a recession was explained by young drivers’ reducing their car use. There is, however, still a remaining effect of unemployment that cannot be explained by young drivers car use. One theory is that the state of the market affects the road users´ travel patterns. Data collected from fatal accident reports during the recession in December 2008-March 2009, were compared to the same period in 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 during which period the economy was stronger. The only significant difference was that the number of fatalities and number of fatal accidents were higher during periods of economic growth. No significant difference was found with respect to, among others, accident type, time of day, age or gender distribution., VTI rapport R704A är en förkortad engelsk version av VTI rapport 704, ”Trafiksäkerhet och konjunktur: modellansatser och litteraturstudie” utgiven 2011

This paper presents a study aimed at quantifying and comparing the risk of personal injuries associated with road barrier collisions. Documented data from actual barrier collisions, including post-impact collisions, in Sweden between 2005 and 2008 were analyzed. The analyses were based on the injury classification made by healthcare services. The injury rates, measured in number of injuries per vehicle kilometer travelled, were calculated for the different injury classes as a basis for evaluating barrier performance. The results show that the rate of injuries was higher due to collisions with flexible barrier systems, such as cable barrier, than with other semi-rigid and rigid barrier system, such as w-beam and concrete barriers. This result might be explained by a high rate of post-impact events, such as post-impact collisions, roll-overs and over-rides, associated with the placement and mechanical properties of the cable barriers. The study also showed a considerable difference in injury classifications made by the police and the healthcare services, as well as a considerable under-reporting of barrier collisions by the police., QS 20120316

Det saknas idag tillfredsställande effektmodeller för beräkning av konsekvenser och kostnader för trafikanterna av olika underhållsstrategier. Det största problemet identifierat av Trafikverken/Vägverken i Finland, Sverige, Norge och Estland är sambandet mellan vägytans tillstånd och olyckor, effekten av den viktigaste tillståndsparametern spårdjup för trafikantkostnaderna, liksom betydelsen av trafikantkostnaderna/- effekterna för ett vägnät som är i ett huvudsakligen gott tillstånd. Detta är problem som måste lösas för att bättre kunna rättfärdiga budgettilldelningen för vägunderhåll. VTI har därför i uppdrag på finska Trafikverket och med finansiering även från de övriga Trafikverken/Vägverken, genomfört en studie för att avgöra hur spårdjup påverkar olycksrisken för trafikanter. Separata analyser har gjorts för data från Sverige, Finland respektive Norge. Det antogs att olycksrisken också beror på andra vägtillståndsvariabler, t.ex. längsgående ojämnhet, textur, tvärfall, geografiskt läge (land), fordonsflöde, klimat, väderförhållanden etc. En modellansats valdes som skulle kunna hantera påverkan av alla dessa övriga vägtillståndsvariabler, samt eventuella interaktioner mellan dessa, på olycksrisken. Det antogs vidare att förhållandet mellan olycksrisk och spårdjup inte nödvändigtvis är en linjär funktion, varför spårdjup delades upp i ett antal kategorier. Det beslutades också att separata ekvationer skulle härledas för olika hastighets- och ÅDT (Årsmedeldygnstrafiken)-klasser. Spårdjupskategorier samt hastighets- och ÅDT-klasser valdes för att matcha varje lands strategier för underhåll. Den övergripande slutsatsen av analysen är att data inte ger stöd för några allmänna regler i en underhållsplan. Det finns inga resultat från studien som säger att djupare spår generellt tenderar att öka olycksrisken. Det finns heller inga resultat som säger att spår har samma påverkan på olycksrisken i olika ÅDT-klasser vid en given hastighet eller vice versa. Det tycks finna, There are currently no satisfactory effect models for calculating the consequences and costs for road users of different maintenance strategies. The main problems identified by the Transport/Road Administrations in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Estonia, are the relationship between road surface condition and accidents, the effect of the most important state parameter rut depth on road user costs, as well as the role of road-user costs/effects of a road network that is mostly in good condition. These are problems that must be resolved in order to better justify budget allocation for road maintenance. VTI has therefore on commission by the Finnish Transport Administration and with funding from the other Transport/Road Administrations conducted a study to determine the influence of rut depth effects on the accident risk of road users. Separate analyses were made of data from Sweden, Finland and Norway, respectively. It was assumed that the accident risk also depends on other road condition variables, such as longitudinal unevenness, texture, cross slope, geographic location (country), vehicle flow, climate, weather, etc. A model approach was chosen that could address the impact of all these other road condition variables, and the possible interactions between them, on the accident risk. It was assumed that the relationship between accident risk and rut depth is not necessarily a linear function, why rut depth was divided into several categories. It was also agreed that separate equations should be derived for different speed and AADT (Annual average daily traffic) classes. Rut depth categories, as well as speed and AADT classes were chosen to match each country's strategies for maintenance. The overall conclusion of the analysis is that the data does not support any general rules for a maintenance scheme. There are no results to show that deeper ruts generally tend to increase the accident risk. Nor are there results that show that ruts have the same influence on the acc

Detta projekt har omfattat två delstudier. Syftet med den första har varit att undersöka vilka typer av olyckor som är mest känsliga för ekonomisk konjunktur och vilka trafikantgrupper som är inblandade. Syftet med den andra studien har varit att titta på vissa tillstånd, såsom andel tung trafik, andel ungdomar bland körkortsinnehavare, trafikarbete uppdelat på åldersgrupper, etcetera, och se hur dessa samvarierardels med konjunkturen, dels med utfallet i dödade och skadade. I denna rapport ges en översikt över de statistiska metoder andra forskare använt och vilka mått på det ekonomiska läget de tagit in i sina modeller. Det visade sig att arbetslöshet var den vanligaste ekonomiska förklaringsvariabeln där en ökning av arbetslösheten indikerar en nedgång av antalet trafikdödade. En del av nedgången i antalet trafikdödade förklaras av att unga förare minskar sitt bilåkande, detta gällde särskilt för lågkonjunkturen i början av 1990-talet. Det finns ändå kvar en effekt av arbetslöshet som inte förklaras av unga förares bilåkande. Ett försök att jämföra dödsolyckor där föraren visat prov på olämpligt beteende, såsom hastighetsöverträdelse, ej använt bilbälte eller drogpåverkan, i en period av lågkonjunktur jämfört med perioder av högkonjunktur påvisade en ibland oväntad likhet. Sett till det absoluta antalet dödsolyckor tycks en del riskbenägna bilförare ha försvunnit från trafiken eller ändrat sitt beteende i och med lågkonjunkturen. Dock har även antalet dödsolyckor med mer försiktiga bilförare minskat i motsvarande grad. Orsaken till att andelen dödsolyckor med riskbenägna respektive med mer försiktiga bilförare är oförändrad är dock oklar., This project includes two subprojects. The objective of the first subproject has been to investigate which types of accidents are most sensitive to the state of the market and which road user groups are involved. The objective of the second subproject was to study certain conditions, such as percentage of heavy vehicles, percentage of young driving licence holders, vehicle milage per age group, etc., and to see how these covary with the state of the market as well as with the resulting number of killed and injured road users. An overview of the statistical methods that other researchers have used and which measures of the state of the market they have included in their models is given in this report. It was concluded that unemployment was the most common economic variable, where an increase in unemployment indicates a decrease in the number of killed road users. It was then shown that part of the reduction in the number of fatalities is explained by young drivers' reducing their car use. This applies particulary to the regression in the early 1990s. There is, however, still a remaining effect of unemployment that cannot be explained by young drivers car use. An attempt to compare fatal accidents where the driver behavior has been inappropriate, such as speeding, not using safety belt or being under the influence of drugs, before and in a recession revealed a sometimes surprising similarity. In absolute numbers it seems that some risk-taking drivers may have dropped out of the traffic or changed behaviour in the recession. The number of fatal accidents with more careful drivers has however decreased by a similar degree. Why the number of fatal accidents with risk-taking and more careful drivers decreased by a similar amount, in a relative sense, is not clear.

En kunskapssammanställning avseende nyare metoder för att öka säkerheten vid vägarbetsplatser hartidigare genomförts. Den resulterade i en lista med åtgärdsförslag. Vägverket har prioriterat utvärderingav flera av de föreslagna åtgärderna. Utvärderingar avseende tre av dessa åtgärder redovisas i dennarapport. - Intelligent kövarningssystem, - Variabla meddelandeskyltar (VMS) vid intermittent vägarbete, - Optiska hastighetslinjer. De tre åtgärderna har testats i samband med verkliga vägarbeten och alla tre åtgärderna har var och en påsitt sätt visat sig ha potential att öka säkerheten vid vägarbeten. I rapporten pekas på frågor som återståratt besvara samt ges flera förslag på alternativa utformningar.De optiska hastighetslinjerna var den åtgärd som var klart billigast att implementera, men åtgärdenfungerar bara vid barmark. För att kunna utnyttja metoden med optisk synvilla även vintertid föreslås ettförsök med skärmar som placeras ut med succesivt minskade avstånd på sträcka där hastighetssänkningeftersträvas.Positiva reaktioner avseende de testade åtgärderna och deras effekter har erhållits både från vägarbetareoch driftledare., A state-of-the-art literature survey concerning the improvement of road-work safety has previously been carried out. A list of potential new measures was produced and several of these were prioritized, for further investigation, by the Swedish Road Administration. The investigations of three of these prioritized measures are documented in this report: - Intelligent congestion warning system, - Dynamic message sign (DMS), - Optical speed bars. The measures were tested in field at real road-works and all three measures, each in their own way, have the potential to increase traffic safety at road-work zones. In the report, questions that remain to be answered are highlighted and some alternative designs of the measures are proposed.

VTI har utvärderat sporthojskurserna som Sveriges MotorCyklister erbjuder. Utvärderingen har skettgenom två delstudier. I den första delstudien genomfördes telefonintervjuer med personer som deltog ikurserna år 2007. Syftet med den kvalitativa delstudien var att utröna vilken behållning deltagarna hadeav kurserna, vilka lärdomar som dragits och hur syftet har tolkats.Den andra delstudien omfattade en uppföljning av försäkringsrapporterade skador (person- och/elleregendomsskador) under perioden 2007–2009. Två grupper jämfördes: de som deltagit i en avanceradSMC-kurs och de som inte deltagit i någon sådan kurs.Ur intervjustudien framkom att kursernas upplägg fick övervägande positiva omdömen. Körning på vägskiljer sig från bankörning, vilket gör att alla moment inte blir aktuella vid de hastigheter och omständighetersom förekommer i trafiken. Några förbättringsförslag fördes fram som handlade om att få merindividuell återkoppling, att använda videokameror och att få ut skriftligt material före kursstarten.Utifrån uppföljningen av försäkringsrapporterade skador konstaterades att ingen signifikant skillnadförelåg mellan dem som genomgått kurs/kurser och dem som inte gått en avancerad kurs i SMC:s regi.Någon trafiksäkerhetseffekt av SMC:s sporthojskurser gick inte att påvisa med hjälp av det tillgängligadatamaterialet.Fördelar och nackdelar med olika angreppssätt för att undersöka vilken effekt fortbildning har på trafiksäkerhetdiskuteras., VTI has evaluated further training courses offered by the Swedish Motorcyclists Association (SMC) to riders of super-sport motorcycles. This was done through two substudies. In the first study, a series of telephone interviews were performed with persons who participated in the courses in 2007. The aim with this qualitative part of the study was to identify what respondents recalled from their participation in the courses, what they learned from them, and how the aims of the course have been interpreted. The second study included a follow-up of insurance reported claims during the period 2007-2009. Two groups were compared: those who participated in SMC further training course and those who did not participate in any such course. From the interview study, it was found that the course structure, i.e. practical exercises interleaved with discussions, received largely positive comments. Riding a motorcycle on public roads was seen as significantly different to riding on a designated track or course, which is why not all aspects of the further training course were viewed as relevant for speeds and circumstances that arise in normal traffic conditions. Some suggestions for improvement dealt with greater individual feedback, use of video cameras, and distribution of printed course material in advance. According to the follow-up study of insurance reported claims, no significant difference existed between those who completed the course/courses and those who have not passed SMC further training course. Any traffic safety effect of the SMC's courses for sport motorcycle riders was thus not possible to detect by the available data material.

Det saknas idag tillfredsställande effektmodeller för beräkning av konsekvenser och kostnader för trafikanterna av olika underhållsstrategier. Det största problemet identifierat av Trafikverken/Vägverken i Finland, Sverige, Norge och Estland är sambandet mellan vägytans tillstånd och olyckor, effekten av den viktigaste tillståndsparametern spårdjup för trafikantkostnaderna, liksom betydelsen av trafikantkostnaderna/- effekterna för ett vägnät som är i ett huvudsakligen gott tillstånd. Detta är problem som måste lösas för att bättre kunna rättfärdiga budgettilldelningen för vägunderhåll. VTI har därför i uppdrag på finska Trafikverket och med finansiering även från de övriga Trafikverken/Vägverken, genomfört en studie för att avgöra hur spårdjup påverkar olycksrisken för trafikanter. Separata analyser har gjorts för data från Sverige, Finland respektive Norge. Det antogs att olycksrisken också beror på andra vägtillståndsvariabler, t.ex. längsgående ojämnhet, textur, tvärfall, geografiskt läge (land), fordonsflöde, klimat, väderförhållanden etc. En modellansats valdes som skulle kunna hantera påverkan av alla dessa övriga vägtillståndsvariabler, samt eventuella interaktioner mellan dessa, på olycksrisken. Det antogs vidare att förhållandet mellan olycksrisk och spårdjup inte nödvändigtvis är en linjär funktion, varför spårdjup delades upp i ett antal kategorier. Det beslutades också att separata ekvationer skulle härledas för olika hastighets- och ÅDT (Årsmedeldygnstrafiken)-klasser. Spårdjupskategorier samt hastighets- och ÅDT-klasser valdes för att matcha varje lands strategier för underhåll. Den övergripande slutsatsen av analysen är att data inte ger stöd för några allmänna regler i en underhållsplan. Det finns inga resultat från studien som säger att djupare spår generellt tenderar att öka olycksrisken. Det finns heller inga resultat som säger att spår har samma påverkan på olycksrisken i olika ÅDT-klasser vid en given hastighet eller vice versa. Det tycks finna, There are currently no satisfactory effect models for calculating the consequences and costs for road users of different maintenance strategies. The main problems identified by the Transport/Road Administrations in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Estonia, are the relationship between road surface condition and accidents, the effect of the most important state parameter rut depth on road user costs, as well as the role of road-user costs/effects of a road network that is mostly in good condition. These are problems that must be resolved in order to better justify budget allocation for road maintenance. VTI has therefore on commission by the Finnish Transport Administration and with funding from the other Transport/Road Administrations conducted a study to determine the influence of rut depth effects on the accident risk of road users. Separate analyses were made of data from Sweden, Finland and Norway, respectively. It was assumed that the accident risk also depends on other road condition variables, such as longitudinal unevenness, texture, cross slope, geographic location (country), vehicle flow, climate, weather, etc. A model approach was chosen that could address the impact of all these other road condition variables, and the possible interactions between them, on the accident risk. It was assumed that the relationship between accident risk and rut depth is not necessarily a linear function, why rut depth was divided into several categories. It was also agreed that separate equations should be derived for different speed and AADT (Annual average daily traffic) classes. Rut depth categories, as well as speed and AADT classes were chosen to match each country's strategies for maintenance. The overall conclusion of the analysis is that the data does not support any general rules for a maintenance scheme. There are no results to show that deeper ruts generally tend to increase the accident risk. Nor are there results that show that ruts have the same influence on the acc