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Small Indian mongooses are detrimental introduced predators in the United States, where they depredate native species, serve as vector of disease, and threaten public safety. Due to the risk of accidental introduction to mongoose-free islands, high cost and limitations to trapping, and no national (Section 3) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered toxicants for mongoose control, there is a need for an efficacious toxic bait for mongooses for use in conservation areas and at points of entry in the United States. Over the last five years, the National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) worked to develop a toxic bait for mongooses for registration with the EPA. This paper outlines the development pathway to registration of a toxic bait for mongooses in the United States.

ObjectivesPast research has not examined secondhand and thirdhand smoke (THS) exposure in children of cigar smokers. We examined hand nicotine and cotinine levels in children of cigar smokers to explore the contribution of cigar smoke to tobacco smoke exposure (TSE).MethodsParticipants were children (N = 24; mean (SD) age = 6.5 (3.6) years) whose parents smoked cigars only or poly-used cigars and/or cigarettes. Primary outcomes were hand nicotine and urinary cotinine levels.ResultsAll children had detectable hand nicotine (range: 7.6-312.5ng/wipe) and cotinine (range: 0.3-100.3ng/ml). Positive correlations were found between hand nicotine and cotinine (r = 0.693, p = .001), hand nicotine and parents who also smoked cigarettes (r = 0.407, p = .048), and hand nicotine and number of smokers around the child (r = 0.436, p = .03). Hand nicotine (r = -0.464, p = .02), but not cotinine (r = -0.266, p = .26), was negatively correlated with child age. Multiple regression results indicated a positive association between hand nicotine and cotinine (p = .002; semi-partial r2 = 0.415), irrespective of child age.ConclusionsThe significant association of hand nicotine with urinary cotinine suggests that THS pollution should be assessed in evaluating children's overall TSE to cigars and other tobacco products, and hand nicotine may be a proxy for overall TSE. Younger children may have increased THS pollutant uptake.

ObjectivesPast research has not examined secondhand and thirdhand smoke (THS) exposure in children of cigar smokers. We examined hand nicotine and cotinine levels in children of cigar smokers to explore the contribution of cigar smoke to tobacco smoke exposure (TSE).MethodsParticipants were children (N = 24; mean (SD) age = 6.5 (3.6) years) whose parents smoked cigars only or poly-used cigars and/or cigarettes. Primary outcomes were hand nicotine and urinary cotinine levels.ResultsAll children had detectable hand nicotine (range: 7.6-312.5ng/wipe) and cotinine (range: 0.3-100.3ng/ml). Positive correlations were found between hand nicotine and cotinine (r = 0.693, p = .001), hand nicotine and parents who also smoked cigarettes (r = 0.407, p = .048), and hand nicotine and number of smokers around the child (r = 0.436, p = .03). Hand nicotine (r = -0.464, p = .02), but not cotinine (r = -0.266, p = .26), was negatively correlated with child age. Multiple regression results indicated a positive association between hand nicotine and cotinine (p = .002; semi-partial r2 = 0.415), irrespective of child age.ConclusionsThe significant association of hand nicotine with urinary cotinine suggests that THS pollution should be assessed in evaluating children's overall TSE to cigars and other tobacco products, and hand nicotine may be a proxy for overall TSE. Younger children may have increased THS pollutant uptake.

ObjectiveTo describe a serious adverse event of gastrointestinal obstruction requiring surgery following routine administration of multiple doses of activated charcoal (AC) granules, which were prescribed for carprofen toxicosis.Case summaryA 2-year-old female neutered Airedale Terrier presented for ingestion of 207 mg/kg of carprofen. Decontamination was initiated with apomorphine to induce emesis. Along with additional supportive care, the dog received an initial dose of 75 mL of AC suspension containing sorbitol by mouth (15.6 g of AC, or 0.6 g/kg), followed by 50 g of AC granules every 8 hours for 4 additional doses. While hospitalized, the dog experienced clinical signs, including vomiting and black diarrhea, as well as bloodwork changes including mild to moderate elevations in kidney and liver enzymes. Given clinical improvement after 72 hours of hospitalization, the patient was discharged for monitoring and ongoing care at home. Two days later, the patient presented again for nausea, dark diarrhea with frank blood, and panting. Abdominal ultrasound showed findings suspicious for partially obstructive foreign material or atypical impacted fecal material partially occluding the distal ileum. Despite medical management overnight, recheck ultrasound the following day demonstrated persistent obstruction with ileal foreign material. Exploratory laparotomy and enterotomy revealed moderate distension and obstruction of the distal ileum with black granular foreign material consistent with charcoal granules. The patient remained in hospital for supportive care for 4 days following the procedure, and all clinical signs were resolved at the time of discharge.New or unique information providedThis report documents a serious adverse event of gastrointestinal obstruction associated with routine multidose AC administration, which has been occasionally reported in people but not in dogs. The potential for this complication should be taken into account when prescribing multipl

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by profound microglial driven inflammatory processes and the loss of dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra (SNc). Both microglia and dopamine neurons that are affected in the SNc are particularly vulnerable to environmental toxicants and finding more selective ways of targeting these cell types is of importance. Quantum dots (QDs) might be a useful vehicle for selectively delivering toxicants to microglia and owing to their fluorescent capability, they can be microscopically tracked within the cell. Accordingly, we assessed the impact of QDs alone and QDs conjugated to the ribosomal toxin, saporin, upon SNc microglia and dopamine neurons. We found that intra-SNc infused QDs selectively entered microglia and induced morphological changes consistent with an activated state. QDs conjugated to saporin also caused a significant loss of dopamine neurons and motor coordination (on a rotarod test) deficits, along with an increase in the inflammatory microglial actin regulatory factors, WAVE2. These data suggest that QDs might be a viable route for toxicant delivery and also has an added advantage of being fluorescently visible. Ultimately, we found SNc neurons to be exceptionally vulnerable to QD-saporin and suggest that this could be a novel targeted approach to model PD-like inflammatory pathology.

ObjectiveTo describe a serious adverse event of gastrointestinal obstruction requiring surgery following routine administration of multiple doses of activated charcoal (AC) granules, which were prescribed for carprofen toxicosis.Case summaryA 2-year-old female neutered Airedale Terrier presented for ingestion of 207 mg/kg of carprofen. Decontamination was initiated with apomorphine to induce emesis. Along with additional supportive care, the dog received an initial dose of 75 mL of AC suspension containing sorbitol by mouth (15.6 g of AC, or 0.6 g/kg), followed by 50 g of AC granules every 8 hours for 4 additional doses. While hospitalized, the dog experienced clinical signs, including vomiting and black diarrhea, as well as bloodwork changes including mild to moderate elevations in kidney and liver enzymes. Given clinical improvement after 72 hours of hospitalization, the patient was discharged for monitoring and ongoing care at home. Two days later, the patient presented again for nausea, dark diarrhea with frank blood, and panting. Abdominal ultrasound showed findings suspicious for partially obstructive foreign material or atypical impacted fecal material partially occluding the distal ileum. Despite medical management overnight, recheck ultrasound the following day demonstrated persistent obstruction with ileal foreign material. Exploratory laparotomy and enterotomy revealed moderate distension and obstruction of the distal ileum with black granular foreign material consistent with charcoal granules. The patient remained in hospital for supportive care for 4 days following the procedure, and all clinical signs were resolved at the time of discharge.New or unique information providedThis report documents a serious adverse event of gastrointestinal obstruction associated with routine multidose AC administration, which has been occasionally reported in people but not in dogs. The potential for this compli

Invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are a widely distributed and destructive invasive species throughout parts of North America, Australia, South America, Africa, and many island nations (Barrios-Garcia and Ballari 2012). The invasion of wild pigs is associated with extensive agricultural, ecological, and control costs (Hone 1995, Pimentel et al. 2000, Pimentel 2007). Wild pigs are expanding in distribution and population density throughout the United States and Australia (Bevins et al. 2014, Lewis et al. 2017, Snow et al. 2017b). These increases are attributed to intentional and accidental introductions by humans (Spencer and Hampton 2005, Barrios-Garcia and Ballari 2012), high reproductive potential (Mayer and Brisbin 2009), lack of predators (Bevins et al. 2014), human alterations to the landscape that improve suitability for wild pigs, and the adaptability of wild pigs to occupy a variety of landscapes and opportunistically feed on many food items (Seward et al. 2004). An international effort to develop an acute and humane toxic bait for invasive wild pigs is underway to assist in curtailing their expansion (Snow et al. 2017a). We evaluated the ability to expose a population of wild pigs to a simulated toxic bait (i.e., placebo bait containing a biomarker, rhodamine B, in lieu of the toxic ingredient) to gain insight on potential population reduction. We used 28 GPS collars and sampled 428 wild pigs to examine their vibrissae for evidence of consuming the bait. Overall, we found that (74.1%) of wild pigs tested were positive for RB from consuming the RB bait. These wild pigs were sampled from an average distance of 0.61 km (SE = 0.04) from the nearest bait sites. We estimated that 91% of wild pigs within 0.75 km of bait sites (total area = 16.8 km2) consumed the simulated toxic bait, exposing them to possible lethal effects. Bait sites spaced 0.75-1.5 km apart achieved optimal delivery of the bait, but wild pigs ranging ≥3 km away were susceptible. Use of wild pig-s

The distribution of feral hogs throughout North American has increased dramatically since their introduction. The use of toxicants has proven to be a n effective tool in controlling feral hog numbers in several countries. Using data from 13 GPS hogs, we compared movements and space use of control and treated hogs between pre-baiting and baiting phases of 3 feral hog toxicant field tests. Generalized linear mixed models were used to explain prospective changes in movements. In addition, we evaluated the distance of toxicant-killed feral hog carcasses from bait stations, roads, and cultivated crop plots. The mean distances traveled by treatment hogs between the pre-baiting and baiting periods was reduced by 43.9%, 32.1%, and 48.8% for daily, diurnal, and nocturnal periods, respectively. Daily and nocturnal movements exhibited a significant decrease between pre-baiting and baiting phases by feral hogs as a result of bait consumption. Mean space use size between the pre-baiting and baiting periods for treatment hogs was reduced by 37.5% and 30.0% for 95% MCP and 50% MCP, respectively but was not a result of bait consumption. Toxicant-killed feral hog carcass distance from bait stations, cultivated crops, and roads averaged (± SE) 919.4 ± 68.1 m, 908.9 ± 72.1 m, and 120.7 ± 34.9 m, respectively. These carcasses were never recovered from crop plots or near roads and were typically found in natural land cover types. The toxicant warfarin reduced movements of feral hogs, which in turn can reduce their damage to crop and reduce the spread of disease.

The feral hog is an invasive species that inflicts billions of dollars in agricultural damage every year in the U.S. Hog-specific baits have shown promise in reducing feral hog abundance but require species-specific feeders to exclude domestic animals and non-target wildlife. Four feeder types were tested during 2016 and 2017 field studies, including commercial feeders, prototype feeders, and a new species-specific feral hog feeder. Commercial feeders with 2.3 kg, 4.5 kg, and 6.8 kg weighted doors were used in 2016 and raccoons were observed on camera opening doors 10 times out of 164 camera observed visitations (6.1%). No other non-target species were observed entering the feeders. The following year, new feeders with 7.7 kg double-sided guillotine doors were used in a field study and no raccoons opened doors during 153 camera-observed visitations. Out of over 1,600 non-target camera images recorded, only one mouse was observed inside the feeders. Results of this study suggest the new hog feeder may provide reduced-risk to non-target species and a promising tool for controlling hog populations.

The feral hog is an invasive species that inflicts billions of dollars in agricultural damage every year in the U.S. Hog-specific baits have shown promise in reducing feral hog abundance but require species-specific feeders to exclude domestic animals and non-target wildlife. Four feeder types were tested during 2016 and 2017 field studies, including commercial feeders, prototype feeders, and a new species-specific feral hog feeder. Commercial feeders with 2.3 kg, 4.5 kg, and 6.8 kg weighted doors were used in 2016 and raccoons were observed on camera opening doors 10 times out of 164 camera observed visitations (6.1%). No other non-target species were observed entering the feeders. The following year, new feeders with 7.7 kg double-sided guillotine doors were used in a field study and no raccoons opened doors during 153 camera-observed visitations. Out of over 1,600 non-target camera images recorded, only one mouse was observed inside the feeders. Results of this study suggest the new hog feeder may provide reduced-risk to non-target species and a promising tool for controlling hog populations.

The distribution of feral hogs throughout North American has increased dramatically since their introduction. The use of toxicants has proven to be a n effective tool in controlling feral hog numbers in several countries. Using data from 13 GPS hogs, we compared movements and space use of control and treated hogs between pre-baiting and baiting phases of 3 feral hog toxicant field tests. Generalized linear mixed models were used to explain prospective changes in movements. In addition, we evaluated the distance of toxicant-killed feral hog carcasses from bait stations, roads, and cultivated crop plots. The mean distances traveled by treatment hogs between the pre-baiting and baiting periods was reduced by 43.9%, 32.1%, and 48.8% for daily, diurnal, and nocturnal periods, respectively. Daily and nocturnal movements exhibited a significant decrease between pre-baiting and baiting phases by feral hogs as a result of bait consumption. Mean space use size between the pre-baiting and baiting periods for treatment hogs was reduced by 37.5% and 30.0% for 95% MCP and 50% MCP, respectively but was not a result of bait consumption. Toxicant-killed feral hog carcass distance from bait stations, cultivated crops, and roads averaged (± SE) 919.4 ± 68.1 m, 908.9 ± 72.1 m, and 120.7 ± 34.9 m, respectively. These carcasses were never recovered from crop plots or near roads and were typically found in natural land cover types. The toxicant warfarin reduced movements of feral hogs, which in turn can reduce their damage to crop and reduce the spread of disease.

Invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are a widely distributed and destructive invasive species throughout parts of North America, Australia, South America, Africa, and many island nations (Barrios-Garcia and Ballari 2012). The invasion of wild pigs is associated with extensive agricultural, ecological, and control costs (Hone 1995, Pimentel et al. 2000, Pimentel 2007). Wild pigs are expanding in distribution and population density throughout the United States and Australia (Bevins et al. 2014, Lewis et al. 2017, Snow et al. 2017b). These increases are attributed to intentional and accidental introductions by humans (Spencer and Hampton 2005, Barrios-Garcia and Ballari 2012), high reproductive potential (Mayer and Brisbin 2009), lack of predators (Bevins et al. 2014), human alterations to the landscape that improve suitability for wild pigs, and the adaptability of wild pigs to occupy a variety of landscapes and opportunistically feed on many food items (Seward et al. 2004). An international effort to develop an acute and humane toxic bait for invasive wild pigs is underway to assist in curtailing their expansion (Snow et al. 2017a). We evaluated the ability to expose a population of wild pigs to a simulated toxic bait (i.e., placebo bait containing a biomarker, rhodamine B, in lieu of the toxic ingredient) to gain insight on potential population reduction. We used 28 GPS collars and sampled 428 wild pigs to examine their vibrissae for evidence of consuming the bait. Overall, we found that (74.1%) of wild pigs tested were positive for RB from consuming the RB bait. These wild pigs were sampled from an average distance of 0.61 km (SE = 0.04) from the nearest bait sites. We estimated that 91% of wild pigs within 0.75 km of bait sites (total area = 16.8 km2) consumed the simulated toxic bait, exposing them to possible lethal effects. Bait sites spaced 0.75-1.5 km apart achieved optimal delivery of the bait, but wild pigs ranging ≥3 km away were susceptible. Use of wild pig-s

Registration of a new toxicant for feral swine in the United States requires meeting test standards under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act as regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A primary requirement is to compare the palatability and efficacy of the toxicant to a non-toxic challenge diet in a 2-choice test; however, no standardized challenge diet exists for feral swine. We conducted a series of 2-choice tests to examine four potential challenge diet items for preference by feral swine. We found that feral swine consumed the most and spent the most time feeding on rough rice (i.e., seed rice), although dog food and rough rye could not be wholly discounted as potential challenge diets. Rough rice was preferred, provided adequate nourishment, and is readily consumed by free-ranging feral swine. Therefore, we conclude that rough rice is an appropriate challenge diet for incorporating into 2-choice tests to meet test standards for evaluating the effectiveness of an oral toxicant for feral swine.

Registration of a new toxicant for feral swine in the United States requires meeting test standards under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act as regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A primary requirement is to compare the palatability and efficacy of the toxicant to a non-toxic challenge diet in a 2-choice test; however, no standardized challenge diet exists for feral swine. We conducted a series of 2-choice tests to examine four potential challenge diet items for preference by feral swine. We found that feral swine consumed the most and spent the most time feeding on rough rice (i.e., seed rice), although dog food and rough rye could not be wholly discounted as potential challenge diets. Rough rice was preferred, provided adequate nourishment, and is readily consumed by free-ranging feral swine. Therefore, we conclude that rough rice is an appropriate challenge diet for incorporating into 2-choice tests to meet test standards for evaluating the effectiveness of an oral toxicant for feral swine.

Brachymonas chironomi strain AIMA4(T) (Halpern et al., 2009) is a Gram-negative, non-motile, aerobic, chemoorganotroph bacterium. B. chironomi is a member of the Comamonadaceae, a family within the class Betaproteobacteria. This species was isolated from a chironomid (Diptera; Chironomidae) egg mass, sampled from a waste stabilization pond in northern Israel. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences placed strain AIMA4(T) in the genus Brachymonas. Here we describe the features of this organism, together with the complete genome sequence and annotation. The DNA GC content is 63.5%. The chromosome length is 2,509,395 bp. It encodes 2,382 proteins and 68 RNA genes. Brachymonas chironomi genome is part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Type Strains, Phase I: the one thousand microbial genomes (KMG) project.

The United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services (USDA APHIS WS), National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) “Chemical Effects Database” is an internet-accessible and searchable database that contains bioassay data records for chemicals evaluated for repellency, toxicity, reproductive inhibition, and immobilization of higher vertebrates, and phytotoxicity. These data are of value for environmental risk assessment, conduct of toxicology studies, and the development of safe, effective, and responsible tools to manage vertebrate pest species that cause damage. Chemical screening studies were conducted from 1943 to 1987 by predecessors of the NWRC, and by the U.S. Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (PWRC), formerly the Patuxent Research Refuge (PRR) and part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The screening activities were broadly divided into 2 phases. Data collected primarily at the PRR prior to 1960 are published in DeWitt et al. (1953) and Bowles et al. (1974). Research after 1960 was conducted at the Denver Wildlife Research Center (DWRC). Much of these data are also published and now accessible by searching the on-line “Chemical Effects Database” located on the NWRC website (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/information_services/chemical_effects.shtml). The database search capabilities provide easy access to approximately 11,000 bioassay data records for nearly 2,000 chemicals.

The United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services (USDA APHIS WS), National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) “Chemical Effects Database” is an internet-accessible and searchable database that contains bioassay data records for chemicals evaluated for repellency, toxicity, reproductive inhibition, and immobilization of higher vertebrates, and phytotoxicity. These data are of value for environmental risk assessment, conduct of toxicology studies, and the development of safe, effective, and responsible tools to manage vertebrate pest species that cause damage. Chemical screening studies were conducted from 1943 to 1987 by predecessors of the NWRC, and by the U.S. Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (PWRC), formerly the Patuxent Research Refuge (PRR) and part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The screening activities were broadly divided into 2 phases. Data collected primarily at the PRR prior to 1960 are published in DeWitt et al. (1953) and Bowles et al. (1974). Research after 1960 was conducted at the Denver Wildlife Research Center (DWRC). Much of these data are also published and now accessible by searching the on-line “Chemical Effects Database” located on the NWRC website (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/information_services/chemical_effects.shtml). The database search capabilities provide easy access to approximately 11,000 bioassay data records for nearly 2,000 chemicals.

The work described in the following report was initiated to investigate the possibility of using novel biotechnologies for the discovery, down-selection, and pre-validation of biomarkers of toxic substance effects within the warfighter prior to health and operational performance decrement. Using the biotechnology of metabonomics, this effort focused on using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and ultra pressure liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC/MS) for identification of liver-selective toxic effects following exposure to a known hepatotoxicant (alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate; ANIT) that induces cholestasis. Urine samples were analyzed by NMR spectroscopy and UPLC/MS and the data processed and analyzed by principal component analysis, linear discriminant analysis, and hierarchical clustering analysis. NMR- and UPLC/MS-based urinary metabonomics were sensitive enough to detect ANIT-induced toxic effects with respect to both dose and time. Understanding the cellular response to chemical exposure at the molecular level will not only facilitate the elucidation of the mechanism of chemical toxicity, but also allow accurate prediction of chemical toxicity and phenotypic outcome. Ultimately, this will lead to the identification of novel biomarkers for rapid monitoring and prediction of health hazards to the warfighter associated with chemical exposure., Prepared in cooperation with Wright State University, Dayton, OH; Solutions Labs Inc., Cambridge, MA; Tufts Medical School, Boston, MA; and U.S. Air Force Academy, CO.

The mountain beaver is a fossorial rodent species endemic to the Pacific Northwest and portions of California. This herbivore is managed as a pest species because of the impact it has on newly planted Douglas-fir seedlings. Currently, managers are limited to trapping for population control; however, in Washington trapping has been further curtailed by anti-trapping legislation. Presently there are no registered underground toxicants for mountain beaver control. We have documented the efficacy of chlorophacinone, presented in daily doses, as a possible alternative for mountain beaver control. Daily baiting would be unreasonable and costly alternative for timber managers, so we conducted a series of tests to determine if a single or double baiting was efficacious. In addition, we tested the caching behavior of the mountain beaver when offered bags of oats. This behavior may help reduce impacts to non-target species as well reduce environmental exposure and degradation. Mountain beaver readily cached bags of chlorophacinone within their artificial burrows, and efficacy of a one-time and two-time dose was 100%. We determined that even with the highest chlorophacinone residuals (0.354 ppm) that the risk quotient for mink and red-tailed hawk was exactly at the level of concern that EPA recognizes for endangered and threatened species.

The mountain beaver is a fossorial rodent species endemic to the Pacific Northwest and portions of California. This herbivore is managed as a pest species because of the impact it has on newly planted Douglas-fir seedlings. Currently, managers are limited to trapping for population control; however, in Washington trapping has been further curtailed by anti-trapping legislation. Presently there are no registered underground toxicants for mountain beaver control. We have documented the efficacy of chlorophacinone, presented in daily doses, as a possible alternative for mountain beaver control. Daily baiting would be unreasonable and costly alternative for timber managers, so we conducted a series of tests to determine if a single or double baiting was efficacious. In addition, we tested the caching behavior of the mountain beaver when offered bags of oats. This behavior may help reduce impacts to non-target species as well reduce environmental exposure and degradation. Mountain beaver readily cached bags of chlorophacinone within their artificial burrows, and efficacy of a one-time and two-time dose was 100%. We determined that even with the highest chlorophacinone residuals (0.354 ppm) that the risk quotient for mink and red-tailed hawk was exactly at the level of concern that EPA recognizes for endangered and threatened species.

The decline and extinction of Australian mammals since the arrival of Europeans has been catastrophic. Attempts to reintroduce threatened species of native mammals to their former ranges have failed due to predation by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis silvestris catus). Baiting with poisoned meat baits will control foxes, but feral cats are generally unwilling to consume a bait. This has seen recent reintroduction attempts fail due to cat predation, possibly involving only a few individual animals. Historical anecdotes from Western Australia record the death of cats and dogs after feeding on a number of the native animal species, with the bronzewing pigeons, Phaps chalcoptera and P. elegans, most frequently mentioned. The toxicity of the pigeons has been attributed to the birds’ feeding on seeds from plants of the Gastrolobium genus. Such a mechanism has been suggested to have aided the survival of 35- to 5,500-g mammals in southwest Western Australia when such species have disappeared elsewhere. Analysis of the seeds of members of the genus Gastrolobium has found extremely high levels of organically bound fluorine. Previous studies report this fluorine to be stored in the seeds as monofluoroacetate (MFA – synonymous with Compound 1080). However, a number of the poisoning anecdotes suggest toxicity of the pigeon skeleton, and report times to death which appear too rapid for the known action of MFA or “1080.” The objective of this research is to examine the authenticity of the historical anecdotes and the feasibility of using a skeletally retained natural plant toxicant to aid the reintroduction of native fauna. Those individual cats and foxes effecting the predation may be removed at the first predatory event if the reintroduced fauna were toxic to the predating animal. This is anticipated to greatly improve the success rate of future reintroduction programs. Exhaustive extraction of Gastrolobium seeds with a variety of solvents and subseq

The decline and extinction of Australian mammals since the arrival of Europeans has been catastrophic. Attempts to reintroduce threatened species of native mammals to their former ranges have failed due to predation by the introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis silvestris catus). Baiting with poisoned meat baits will control foxes, but feral cats are generally unwilling to consume a bait. This has seen recent reintroduction attempts fail due to cat predation, possibly involving only a few individual animals. Historical anecdotes from Western Australia record the death of cats and dogs after feeding on a number of the native animal species, with the bronzewing pigeons, Phaps chalcoptera and P. elegans, most frequently mentioned. The toxicity of the pigeons has been attributed to the birds’ feeding on seeds from plants of the Gastrolobium genus. Such a mechanism has been suggested to have aided the survival of 35- to 5,500-g mammals in southwest Western Australia when such species have disappeared elsewhere. Analysis of the seeds of members of the genus Gastrolobium has found extremely high levels of organically bound fluorine. Previous studies report this fluorine to be stored in the seeds as monofluoroacetate (MFA – synonymous with Compound 1080). However, a number of the poisoning anecdotes suggest toxicity of the pigeon skeleton, and report times to death which appear too rapid for the known action of MFA or “1080.” The objective of this research is to examine the authenticity of the historical anecdotes and the feasibility of using a skeletally retained natural plant toxicant to aid the reintroduction of native fauna. Those individual cats and foxes effecting the predation may be removed at the first predatory event if the reintroduced fauna were toxic to the predating animal. This is anticipated to greatly improve the success rate of future reintroduction programs. Exhaustive extraction of Gastrolobium seeds with a variety of solvents and subseq

In this work, we have studied the antifeedant and insecticidal effects of several natural ryanoid diterpenes. These compounds can be classified in two groups according to their chemical structures: ryanodol/isoryanodol-type (nonalkaloidal type) and ryanodine-type (alkaloidal type) ryanoids. The nonalkaloidal ryanoids were isolated from Persea indica (Lauraceae) while the alkaloidal ryanoids (ryanodines and spiganthines) were isolated from Spigelia anthelmia (Loganiaceae). The effects of these compounds on the feeding behavior and performance (with and without piperonyl butoxide pretreatment) of Spodoptera littoralis larvae and Leptinotarsa decemlineata adults indicate that some strongly deterred these insects, L. decemlineata being less sensitive than S. littoralis. Their antifeedant effects did not parallel their toxic action. Additionally, more than 60% of the nonalkaloidal ryanoids were antifeedants and/or toxic in contrast to 30% of active alkaloidal ones, supporting the hypothesis of a ryanodol-specific mode of action in insects.

In this work, we have studied the antifeedant and insecticidal effects of several natural ryanoid diterpenes. These compounds can be classified in two groups according to their chemical structures: ryanodol/isoryanodol-type (nonalkaloidal type) and ryanodine-type (alkaloidal type) ryanoids. The nonalkaloidal ryanoids were isolated from Persea indica (Lauraceae) while the alkaloidal ryanoids (ryanodines and spiganthines) were isolated from Spigelia anthelmia (Loganiaceae). The effects of these compounds on the feeding behavior and performance (with and without piperonyl butoxide pretreatment) of Spodoptera littoralis larvae and Leptinotarsa decemlineata adults indicate that some strongly deterred these insects, L. decemlineata being less sensitive than S. littoralis. Their antifeedant effects did not parallel their toxic action. Additionally, more than 60% of the nonalkaloidal ryanoids were antifeedants and/or toxic in contrast to 30% of active alkaloidal ones, supporting the hypothesis of a ryanodol-specific mode of action in insects.

A two-dimensional (2-D) vertically-averaged finite element model suite was adapted to investigate the hydrodynamics, water quality (WQ), and sediment-toxicant transport in San Diego Bay. The hydrodynamic model was calibrated and verified with two sets of observed data. Model predictions were also compared with the results from a previous study wherein a one-dimensional (1-D) finite difference approach was used. The 2-D model predictions of water surface elevations and velocities at specified locations in the bay were generally superior. The results of simulation of WQ constituents (temperature, nitrate-nitrogen, algae, and dissolved oxygen) using the 2-D WQ model compared well with the results from the I-D WQ model, both in the general trend as well as the specific distribution of constituent concentrations. Investigations were also carried out to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of sediments and a hypothetical sediment-borne toxicant in the bay. Results were found to be in general agreement with conclusions drawn from the hydrodynamic study.

A two-dimensional (2-D) vertically-averaged finite element model suite was adapted to investigate the hydrodynamics, water quality (WQ), and sediment-toxicant transport in San Diego Bay. The hydrodynamic model was calibrated and verified with two sets of observed data. Model predictions were also compared with the results from a previous study wherein a one-dimensional (1-D) finite difference approach was used. The 2-D model predictions of water surface elevations and velocities at specified locations in the bay were generally superior. The results of simulation of WQ constituents (temperature, nitrate-nitrogen, algae, and dissolved oxygen) using the 2-D WQ model compared well with the results from the I-D WQ model, both in the general trend as well as the specific distribution of constituent concentrations. Investigations were also carried out to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of sediments and a hypothetical sediment-borne toxicant in the bay. Results were found to be in general agreement with conclusions drawn from the hydrodynamic study.

A two-dimensional (2-D) vertically-averaged finite element model suite was adapted to investigate the hydrodynamics, water quality (WQ), and sediment-toxicant transport in San Diego Bay. The hydrodynamic model was calibrated and verified with two sets of observed data. Model predictions were also compared with the results from a previous study wherein a one-dimensional (1-D) finite difference approach was used. The 2-D model predictions of water surface elevations and velocities at specified locations in the bay were generally superior. The results of simulation of WQ constituents (temperature, nitrate-nitrogen, algae, and dissolved oxygen) using the 2-D WQ model compared well with the results from the I-D WQ model, both in the general trend as well as the specific distribution of constituent concentrations. Investigations were also carried out to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of sediments and a hypothetical sediment-borne toxicant in the bay. Results were found to be in general agreement with conclusions drawn from the hydrodynamic study.

The starling is one of the major pest birds in France. During the winter, starlings coming from other parts of Europe gather in the Northwest of France and cause extensive damage in the corn silage distributed to the cattle, by eating and spoiling the grains. As it is impossible to protect the cattle food by physical means in most of the situations, the persons in charge of resolving the problem have chosen to turn towards chemical roost treatments. Between 1980 and 1988, nearly 40 treatments have been carried out on 25 different roosts. The chemical used is CPT (chloro-para-toluidin) applied at the rate of 100 kg per hectare. Water is added to the formulated product and a volume of 1000 liters per hectare of the treatment mixture is applied with a fixed-wing aircraft. Results usually ranged from 30% to 80% of the birds killed. No phytotoxic problems have been reported on the roost sites, and only light wildlife adverse effects arc mentioned. Studies are going on with the following points: degradation of CPT in the soil, and reduction of the amount of CPT and/or water without drop of effectiveness.

Carcasses and viscera of coyotes poisoned by Compound 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate) in single-dose tallow baits (SOBs) were fed to 3 coyotes, 3 domestic dogs, 4 striped skunks, and 15 black-billed magpies to determine if these species would be poisoned secondarily. Test subjects received no food other than tissues from poisoned coyotes for periods of 14 to 35 days. Total amounts of contaminated coyote tissues consumed by dogs, coyotes, skunks, and magpies, respectively, averaged 67, 152, 117, and 371% of body weight. Except for one skunk that refused to eat, no mortalities occurred, and no evidence of poisoning was seen. The average 1080 residue in tissues fed to nontarget animals from coyotes poisoned by one to three SDBs (5 to 15 mg 1080 per coyote) was 0.29, 0.30, and 0.31 ppm in muscle (n = 15 coyotes), small intestine (n = 13), and stomach tissue (n = 8), respectively. Highest residue levels observed were 0.66 ppm in muscle, 0.79 ppm in small intestine, and 0.76 ppm in stomach tissue. These concentrations were apparently too low to cause secondary poisoning in the species tested.

The Sun Refinery at Tulsa, OK, presented a new and special type of problem that I had never faced before. The refinery is just across the Arkansas River from downtown Tulsa. Many species of protected birds roost and nest within the confines of the refinery proper and in the surrounding riverbank areas to the north, urban and manufacturing area to the east and southeast, rail yards to the south, and hills to the south and southwest. According to Sidney Cabbiness, Environmental Engineer for Sun, the following birds and other animals are known to make this area their home or feeding sites at least some time during the year: meadowlarks, scissortails, mallards, yellowthroat, killdeer, red-tailed hawks, sparrow hawks, red-winged blackbirds, mourning doves, mockingbirds, robins, grackles, magpies, crows, squirrels, red foxes, rabbits, raccoons, bobwhites, great blue herons, domestic cats, bald eagles, golden eagles, great white egrets, kingfishers, Canadian geese, blue geese, roadrunners, skunks, horses just outside the south fence, dairy cattle just to the west, and, of course, our pigeons, starlings and house sparrows. Hawks are prevalent year-round, and the eagles primarily winter at Keystone Lake, just west of Tulsa, and are known to feed up and down the river as well as occasionally on the tank farm. The problem species is starlings, more than 750,000, by my best estimate, along with about 3,000 to 4,000 pigeons. A few sparrows roost around the Club Room and on a loading dock, but they aren't the real problem. Regularly available registered products and techniques would have been either ineffective in solving the existing problem or too dangerous to use in such an environmentally sensitive area. Damage to the units from the droppings was extensive, but the potential health and safety hazards that the birds and their droppings presented to the employees were the primary factors in prompting Sun to seek outside professional help. The development of the avicide BCF 7000

Compound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) is a uniquely selective predacide for controlling coyotes, compared to other predacides. In addition to discussing the biological aspects of 1080, the reasons for the current emotional-political status of 1080 are also reviewed because the biological rationale concerning 1080 has been largely determined by a conspiracy orchestrated in 1972 by an individual of the Council on Environmental Quality but assisted by others from the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Environmental Protection Agency. Many of the distortions about 1080 can also be traced to environmental organizations which still use 1080 as an issue which they can be "anti" in order to solicit funds from the public. This paper is an attempt to clarify the true biological facts about 1080 and to expose the political conspiracies against 1080 by government and environmental organizations.

The starling is one of the major pest birds in France. During the winter, starlings coming from other parts of Europe gather in the Northwest of France and cause extensive damage in the corn silage distributed to the cattle, by eating and spoiling the grains. As it is impossible to protect the cattle food by physical means in most of the situations, the persons in charge of resolving the problem have chosen to turn towards chemical roost treatments. Between 1980 and 1988, nearly 40 treatments have been carried out on 25 different roosts. The chemical used is CPT (chloro-para-toluidin) applied at the rate of 100 kg per hectare. Water is added to the formulated product and a volume of 1000 liters per hectare of the treatment mixture is applied with a fixed-wing aircraft. Results usually ranged from 30% to 80% of the birds killed. No phytotoxic problems have been reported on the roost sites, and only light wildlife adverse effects arc mentioned. Studies are going on with the following points: degradation of CPT in the soil, and reduction of the amount of CPT and/or water without drop of effectiveness.

The Sun Refinery at Tulsa, OK, presented a new and special type of problem that I had never faced before. The refinery is just across the Arkansas River from downtown Tulsa. Many species of protected birds roost and nest within the confines of the refinery proper and in the surrounding riverbank areas to the north, urban and manufacturing area to the east and southeast, rail yards to the south, and hills to the south and southwest. According to Sidney Cabbiness, Environmental Engineer for Sun, the following birds and other animals are known to make this area their home or feeding sites at least some time during the year: meadowlarks, scissortails, mallards, yellowthroat, killdeer, red-tailed hawks, sparrow hawks, red-winged blackbirds, mourning doves, mockingbirds, robins, grackles, magpies, crows, squirrels, red foxes, rabbits, raccoons, bobwhites, great blue herons, domestic cats, bald eagles, golden eagles, great white egrets, kingfishers, Canadian geese, blue geese, roadrunners, skunks, horses just outside the south fence, dairy cattle just to the west, and, of course, our pigeons, starlings and house sparrows. Hawks are prevalent year-round, and the eagles primarily winter at Keystone Lake, just west of Tulsa, and are known to feed up and down the river as well as occasionally on the tank farm. The problem species is starlings, more than 750,000, by my best estimate, along with about 3,000 to 4,000 pigeons. A few sparrows roost around the Club Room and on a loading dock, but they aren't the real problem. Regularly available registered products and techniques would have been either ineffective in solving the existing problem or too dangerous to use in such an environmentally sensitive area. Damage to the units from the droppings was extensive, but the potential health and safety hazards that the birds and their droppings presented to the employees were the primary factors in prompting Sun to seek outside professional help. The development of the avicide BCF 7000

Compound 1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate) is a uniquely selective predacide for controlling coyotes, compared to other predacides. In addition to discussing the biological aspects of 1080, the reasons for the current emotional-political status of 1080 are also reviewed because the biological rationale concerning 1080 has been largely determined by a conspiracy orchestrated in 1972 by an individual of the Council on Environmental Quality but assisted by others from the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Environmental Protection Agency. Many of the distortions about 1080 can also be traced to environmental organizations which still use 1080 as an issue which they can be "anti" in order to solicit funds from the public. This paper is an attempt to clarify the true biological facts about 1080 and to expose the political conspiracies against 1080 by government and environmental organizations.

Carcasses and viscera of coyotes poisoned by Compound 1080 (sodium fluoroacetate) in single-dose tallow baits (SOBs) were fed to 3 coyotes, 3 domestic dogs, 4 striped skunks, and 15 black-billed magpies to determine if these species would be poisoned secondarily. Test subjects received no food other than tissues from poisoned coyotes for periods of 14 to 35 days. Total amounts of contaminated coyote tissues consumed by dogs, coyotes, skunks, and magpies, respectively, averaged 67, 152, 117, and 371% of body weight. Except for one skunk that refused to eat, no mortalities occurred, and no evidence of poisoning was seen. The average 1080 residue in tissues fed to nontarget animals from coyotes poisoned by one to three SDBs (5 to 15 mg 1080 per coyote) was 0.29, 0.30, and 0.31 ppm in muscle (n = 15 coyotes), small intestine (n = 13), and stomach tissue (n = 8), respectively. Highest residue levels observed were 0.66 ppm in muscle, 0.79 ppm in small intestine, and 0.76 ppm in stomach tissue. These concentrations were apparently too low to cause secondary poisoning in the species tested.

Because of the increased concern for the environment and the public's positive action toward preservation of all forms of plant and animal life, future control methods for pest animals will require a greater degree of specificity than in the past. Vertebrate pest control does not face a very promising future unless the independent and cooperative effort of both industry and government is expanded. The time has passed when one could use a chemical simply because it was a good poison or repellent. Now, especially when food or feed crops are involved, it is necessary to know a lot more about a chemical than just its effect on the target species. Our knowledge now must include: 1) chemical and physical properties, including chemical structure, 2) micro-analytical methods for detecting or measuring the chemical, 3) degradation rates and resultant by-products, 4) oral and dermal toxicity (acute and chronic) to target and non-target animals, 5) efficacy as toxicant or repellent, 6) phytotoxicity, 7) pharmacology, and 8) secondary hazards. At present there is need for more chemists and pharmacologists in the field of vertebrate pest control research. Due to the comparatively small market for chemicals used in vertebrate pest control, most chemical companies are reluctant to spend the large sums necessary for their development. Also, a potential source of personnel for increasing this type of research is available at many state universities and experiment stations. Support from these institutions should be encouraged.

A 3-inch-diameter plastic tube mounted on a truck was designed for distributing bait (cut carrots or grain) for mammal control. Baits are fed into the tube by an operator standing in the truck bed. The device is light-weight and detachable and permits rapid, accurate placement of bait along a line on the ground or in a plowed furrow.

Fish toxicants have been used for nearly 60 years by sport fishery managers to remove predaceous or competing fishes from gamefish waters. The reclamation of lakes and streams by poisoning unwanted fish is considered to be one of the better management tools, and the demand for reclamations is increasing as more waters come under intensive management. Many chemicals have been tried as fish toxicants, but the insecticides rotenone and toxaphene have been most widely used despite their disadvantages of non-selectivity between wanted and unwanted fishes, persistence in water, and toxic effects on aquatic invertebrates. Research In the past 20 years led to the development of toxicants specific to fish and formulations better suited to aquatic applications. Further progress is noted in the search for safe, more selective controls for pest fishes in the wide variety of aquatic environments.

This review of the public health importance and control of bats is oriented to Trinidad, since this country is well known for its studies of bat problems, especially rabies, and its bat control program. Bat problems which require control are: bat-associated diseases (viral, spirochetal, fungal, bacterial, and protozoan), vampire bats, and house bats. Present methods of bat control and possibilities for future control are discussed, as this is a matter of importance to Trinidad and other countries in Central and South America. Because of its large variety of bats and location, the small island of Trinidad is a natural laboratory to study bat ecology and evaluate control measures. A list of pertinent references is provided.

Research efforts to combat the problem of European starling damage in livestock feeding areas (feedlots) by developing appropriate toxicants and stupefacients are described. Of about 500 chemicals screened for possible utility, 4 compounds showed promise at potential toxicants for further development and testing: TEPP (tetraethyl pyrophosphate), DRC-632 (0-[4-(methylthio-m-tolyl] phosphorothioate)), DRC-1327 (4-aminopyridine), and DRC-1339 (3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride). TEPP was found to be too toxic to mammals to further develop its potential use against starlings. However, because it causes rapid death, it was useful in subsequent tests of bait acceptance by various avian species. DRC-632 was the first material noted to be far more toxic to birds than to mammals. Dermal toxicity proved more important than oral toxicity, but its extreme secondary hazard, especially to avian predators and scavengers, made it generally unsuitable for use. DRC-1327 was found to cause birds to emit distress cries and violent reactions in birds ingesting the materials, which often died, but also causing flocks to abandon the treated area. Field trials showed promise, and when bait acceptance by starlings is poor or fair, it is more effective than other known toxicants in reducing damage. DRCC-1339 (Starlicide) is the most selective bird toxicant presently known, providing starling control that is virtually nonhazardous to other animals. Discussions of bait materials and formulation, active ingredient dilutions, and baiting methods are provided.

The mission of the Branch of Animal Control, Division of Wildlife Services, Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife, U.S. Department of the Interior, is discussed. While there is an ever-increasing need to protect agricultural products both at home and abroad, as well as to protect human health and safety, there is also a real concern to reduce impacts of animal control on the environment and on nontarget wildlife, in particular. We need techniques and materials that are more selective, and control needs to be based on demonstrated need. Compound 1339 is in the last stages of registration and promises appreciable relief from starling problems, particularly in feedlot situations. Compound 714, “Gophacide,” has been registered and will serve as a replacement for Compound 1080 in the control of certain burrowing rodents, as it substantially reduced secondary hazards. Compound 1080 remains the most effective and selective tool for controlling coyotes., with significant advantages over strychnine or trapping. Aerial hunting is now used more than ever and is a selective method. The agency’s new responsibilities in the areas of pesticide surveillance and in wildlife enhancement are discussed.

Because of the increased concern for the environment and the public's positive action toward preservation of all forms of plant and animal life, future control methods for pest animals will require a greater degree of specificity than in the past. Vertebrate pest control does not face a very promising future unless the independent and cooperative effort of both industry and government is expanded. The time has passed when one could use a chemical simply because it was a good poison or repellent. Now, especially when food or feed crops are involved, it is necessary to know a lot more about a chemical than just its effect on the target species. Our knowledge now must include: 1) chemical and physical properties, including chemical structure, 2) micro-analytical methods for detecting or measuring the chemical, 3) degradation rates and resultant by-products, 4) oral and dermal toxicity (acute and chronic) to target and non-target animals, 5) efficacy as toxicant or repellent, 6) phytotoxicity, 7) pharmacology, and 8) secondary hazards. At present there is need for more chemists and pharmacologists in the field of vertebrate pest control research. Due to the comparatively small market for chemicals used in vertebrate pest control, most chemical companies are reluctant to spend the large sums necessary for their development. Also, a potential source of personnel for increasing this type of research is available at many state universities and experiment stations. Support from these institutions should be encouraged.

A 3-inch-diameter plastic tube mounted on a truck was designed for distributing bait (cut carrots or grain) for mammal control. Baits are fed into the tube by an operator standing in the truck bed. The device is light-weight and detachable and permits rapid, accurate placement of bait along a line on the ground or in a plowed furrow.

Fish toxicants have been used for nearly 60 years by sport fishery managers to remove predaceous or competing fishes from gamefish waters. The reclamation of lakes and streams by poisoning unwanted fish is considered to be one of the better management tools, and the demand for reclamations is increasing as more waters come under intensive management. Many chemicals have been tried as fish toxicants, but the insecticides rotenone and toxaphene have been most widely used despite their disadvantages of non-selectivity between wanted and unwanted fishes, persistence in water, and toxic effects on aquatic invertebrates. Research In the past 20 years led to the development of toxicants specific to fish and formulations better suited to aquatic applications. Further progress is noted in the search for safe, more selective controls for pest fishes in the wide variety of aquatic environments.

This review of the public health importance and control of bats is oriented to Trinidad, since this country is well known for its studies of bat problems, especially rabies, and its bat control program. Bat problems which require control are: bat-associated diseases (viral, spirochetal, fungal, bacterial, and protozoan), vampire bats, and house bats. Present methods of bat control and possibilities for future control are discussed, as this is a matter of importance to Trinidad and other countries in Central and South America. Because of its large variety of bats and location, the small island of Trinidad is a natural laboratory to study bat ecology and evaluate control measures. A list of pertinent references is provided.

The mission of the Branch of Animal Control, Division of Wildlife Services, Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife, U.S. Department of the Interior, is discussed. While there is an ever-increasing need to protect agricultural products both at home and abroad, as well as to protect human health and safety, there is also a real concern to reduce impacts of animal control on the environment and on nontarget wildlife, in particular. We need techniques and materials that are more selective, and control needs to be based on demonstrated need. Compound 1339 is in the last stages of registration and promises appreciable relief from starling problems, particularly in feedlot situations. Compound 714, “Gophacide,” has been registered and will serve as a replacement for Compound 1080 in the control of certain burrowing rodents, as it substantially reduced secondary hazards. Compound 1080 remains the most effective and selective tool for controlling coyotes., with significant advantages over strychnine or trapping. Aerial hunting is now used more than ever and is a selective method. The agency’s new responsibilities in the areas of pesticide surveillance and in wildlife enhancement are discussed.

Research efforts to combat the problem of European starling damage in livestock feeding areas (feedlots) by developing appropriate toxicants and stupefacients are described. Of about 500 chemicals screened for possible utility, 4 compounds showed promise at potential toxicants for further development and testing: TEPP (tetraethyl pyrophosphate), DRC-632 (0-[4-(methylthio-m-tolyl] phosphorothioate)), DRC-1327 (4-aminopyridine), and DRC-1339 (3-chloro-p-toluidine hydrochloride). TEPP was found to be too toxic to mammals to further develop its potential use against starlings. However, because it causes rapid death, it was useful in subsequent tests of bait acceptance by various avian species. DRC-632 was the first material noted to be far more toxic to birds than to mammals. Dermal toxicity proved more important than oral toxicity, but its extreme secondary hazard, especially to avian predators and scavengers, made it generally unsuitable for use. DRC-1327 was found to cause birds to emit distress cries and violent reactions in birds ingesting the materials, which often died, but also causing flocks to abandon the treated area. Field trials showed promise, and when bait acceptance by starlings is poor or fair, it is more effective than other known toxicants in reducing damage. DRCC-1339 (Starlicide) is the most selective bird toxicant presently known, providing starling control that is virtually nonhazardous to other animals. Discussions of bait materials and formulation, active ingredient dilutions, and baiting methods are provided.