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In white-throated sparrows, two alternative morphs differing in plumage and behavior segregate with a large chromosomal rearrangement. As with sex chromosomes such as the mammalian Y, the rearranged version of chromosome two (ZAL2m) is in a near-constant state of heterozygosity, offering opportunities to investigate both degenerative and selective processes during the early evolutionary stages of supergenes. Here, we generated, synthesized, and analyzed extensive genome-scale data to better understand the forces shaping the evolution of the ZAL2 and ZAL2m chromosomes in this species. We found that features of ZAL2m are consistent with substantially reduced recombination and low levels of degeneration. We also found evidence that selective sweeps took place both on ZAL2m and its standard counterpart, ZAL2, after the rearrangement event. Signatures of positive selection were associated with allelic bias in gene expression, suggesting that antagonistic selection has operated on gene regulation. Finally, we discovered a region exhibiting long-range haplotypes inside the rearrangement on ZAL2m. These haplotypes appear to have been maintained by balancing selection, retaining genetic diversity within the supergene. Together, our analyses illuminate mechanisms contributing to the evolution of a young chromosomal polymorphism, revealing complex selective processes acting concurrently with genetic degeneration to drive the evolution of supergenes.

When mimicry imposes costs on models, selection may drive the model's phenotype to evolve away from its mimic. For example, brood parasitism often drives hosts to diversify in egg appearance among females within a species, making mimetic parasitic eggs easier to detect. However, when a single parasite species exploits multiple host species, parasitism could also drive host egg evolution away from other co-occurring hosts, to escape susceptibility to their respective mimics. This hypothesis predicts that sympatric hosts of the same parasite should partition egg phenotypic space (defined by egg colour, luminance and pattern) among species to avoid one another. We show that eggs of warbler species parasitized by the cuckoo finch Anomalospiza imberbis in Zambia partition phenotypic space much more distinctly than do eggs of sympatric but unparasitized warblers. Correspondingly, cuckoo finch host-races better match their own specialist host than other local host species. In the weaver family, parasitized by the diederik cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius, by contrast, parasitized species were more closely related and overlapped extensively in phenotypic space; correspondingly, cuckoos did not match their own host better than others. These results suggest that coevolutionary arms races between hosts and parasites may be shaped by the wider community context in which they unfold.

Individuals at the forefront of a range shift are likely to exhibit phenotypic traits that distinguish them from the population breeding within the historic range. Recent studies have examined morphological, physiological and behavioral phenotypes of individuals at the edge of their range. Several studies have found differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity in response to acute restraint stress in individuals at the range limits. HPA axis activation leads to elevations in glucocorticoids that regulate physiology and behavior. Here we compare the hormonal profiles and morphometrics from Gambel's white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii) breeding at the northern limit of the population's range to those birds breeding within the historic population range. Birds breeding at the northern limit experienced a harsher environment with colder temperatures; however, we found no differences in arthropod prey biomass between the northern limit and more southern (historic) sites. Males at the northern limit had higher body condition scores (mass corrected for body size) compared to individuals within the historic range, but no differences were found in beak and tarsus lengths, wing chord, muscle profile or fat stores. In males during the pre-parental stage, before breeding commenced, HPA axis activity was elevated in birds at the northern limit of the range, but no differences were found during the parental or molt stages. Females showed no differences in HPA axis activity during the parental stage. This study suggests that "pioneering" individuals at the limits of their breeding range exhibit physiology and morphology that are distinct from individuals within the historic range.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a testosterone/oestrogen precursor and known modulator of vertebrate aggression. Male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia morphna) show high aggression during breeding and nonbreeding life-history stages when circulating DHEA levels are high, and low aggression during molt when DHEA levels are low. We previously showed that androgen receptor and aromatase mRNA expression are higher during breeding and/or nonbreeding in brain regions associated with reproductive and aggressive behaviour, although the potential role of DHEA in mediating these seasonal changes remained unclear. In the present study, nonbreeding male song sparrows were captured and held in the laboratory under short days (8 : 16 h light/dark cycle) and implanted with s.c. DHEA-filled or empty (control) implants for 14 days. DHEA implants increased aggression in a laboratory-based simulated territorial intrusion. Brains of DHEA-implanted birds showed higher aromatase mRNA expression in the preoptic area (POA) and higher androgen receptor mRNA expression in the periventricular nucleus of the medial striatum (pvMSt) and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. The DHEA-induced increases in aromatase expression in the POA and androgen receptor expression in the pvMSt are consistent with previously reported seasonal increases in these markers associated with naturally elevated DHEA levels. This suggests that DHEA facilitates seasonal increases in aggression in nonbreeding male song sparrows by up-regulating steroid signalling/synthesis machinery in a brain region-specific fashion.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a testosterone/oestrogen precursor and known modulator of vertebrate aggression. Male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia morphna) show high aggression during breeding and nonbreeding life-history stages when circulating DHEA levels are high, and low aggression during molt when DHEA levels are low. We previously showed that androgen receptor and aromatase mRNA expression are higher during breeding and/or nonbreeding in brain regions associated with reproductive and aggressive behaviour, although the potential role of DHEA in mediating these seasonal changes remained unclear. In the present study, nonbreeding male song sparrows were captured and held in the laboratory under short days (8 : 16 h light/dark cycle) and implanted with s.c. DHEA-filled or empty (control) implants for 14 days. DHEA implants increased aggression in a laboratory-based simulated territorial intrusion. Brains of DHEA-implanted birds showed higher aromatase mRNA expression in the preoptic area (POA) and higher androgen receptor mRNA expression in the periventricular nucleus of the medial striatum (pvMSt) and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. The DHEA-induced increases in aromatase expression in the POA and androgen receptor expression in the pvMSt are consistent with previously reported seasonal increases in these markers associated with naturally elevated DHEA levels. This suggests that DHEA facilitates seasonal increases in aggression in nonbreeding male song sparrows by up-regulating steroid signalling/synthesis machinery in a brain region-specific fashion.

Individuals at the forefront of a range shift are likely to exhibit phenotypic traits that distinguish them from the population breeding within the historic range. Recent studies have examined morphological, physiological and behavioral phenotypes of individuals at the edge of their range. Several studies have found differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity in response to acute restraint stress in individuals at the range limits. HPA axis activation leads to elevations in glucocorticoids that regulate physiology and behavior. Here we compare the hormonal profiles and morphometrics from Gambel's white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii) breeding at the northern limit of the population's range to those birds breeding within the historic population range. Birds breeding at the northern limit experienced a harsher environment with colder temperatures; however, we found no differences in arthropod prey biomass between the northern limit and more southern (historic) sites. Males at the northern limit had higher body condition scores (mass corrected for body size) compared to individuals within the historic range, but no differences were found in beak and tarsus lengths, wing chord, muscle profile or fat stores. In males during the pre-parental stage, before breeding commenced, HPA axis activity was elevated in birds at the northern limit of the range, but no differences were found during the parental or molt stages. Females showed no differences in HPA axis activity during the parental stage. This study suggests that "pioneering" individuals at the limits of their breeding range exhibit physiology and morphology that are distinct from individuals within the historic range.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have spread in both poultry and wild birds. Determining transmission routes of these viruses during an outbreak is essential for the control of avian influenza. It has been widely postulated that migratory ducks play crucial roles in the widespread dissemination of HPAIVs in poultry by carrying viruses along with their migrations; however close contacts between wild migratory ducks and poultry are less likely in modern industrial poultry farming settings. Therefore, we conducted experimental infections of HPAIVs and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) to chickens, domestic ducks, tree sparrows, jungle crows, and black rats to evaluate their roles in virus transmission. The results showed that chickens, ducks, sparrows, and crows were highly susceptible to HPAIV infection. Significant titers of virus were recovered from the sparrows and crows infected with HPAIVs, which suggests that they potentially play roles of transmission of HPAIVs to poultry. In contrast, the growth of LPAIVs was limited in each of the animals tested compared with that of HPAIVs. The present results indicate that these common synanthropes play some roles in influenza virus transmission from wild birds to poultry. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have spread in both poultry and wild birds. Determining transmission routes of these viruses during an outbreak is essential for the control of avian influenza. It has been widely postulated that migratory ducks play crucial roles in the widespread dissemination of HPAIVs in poultry by carrying viruses along with their migrations; however close contacts between wild migratory ducks and poultry are less likely in modern industrial poultry farming settings. Therefore, we conducted experimental infections of HPAIVs and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) to chickens, domestic ducks, tree sparrows, jungle crows, and black rats to evaluate their roles in virus transmission. The results showed that chickens, ducks, sparrows, and crows were highly susceptible to HPAIV infection. Significant titers of virus were recovered from the sparrows and crows infected with HPAIVs, which suggests that they potentially play roles of transmission of HPAIVs to poultry. In contrast, the growth of LPAIVs was limited in each of the animals tested compared with that of HPAIVs. The present results indicate that these common synanthropes play some roles in influenza virus transmission from wild birds to poultry. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

At high trophic levels, environmental contaminants have been found to affect endocrinological processes. Less attention has been paid to species at lower trophic levels. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) may be a useful model for investigating effects of POPs in mid-range trophic level species. In male house sparrows, ornamental traits involved in male quality signalling are important for female selection. These traits are governed by endocrinological systems, and POPs may therefore interfere with male quality signalling. The aim of the present study was to use the house sparrow as a mid-range trophic level model species to study the effects of environmental contaminants on endocrinology and male quality signalling. We analysed the levels of selected PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs and investigated the possible effects of these contaminants on circulating levels of steroid hormones (4 progestagens, 4 androgens and 3 estrogens) in male and female adult house sparrows from a population on the island Leka, Norway. Plasma samples were analysed for steroid hormones by GC–MS and liver samples were analysed for environmental contaminants by GC-ECD and GC-MS. In males, we also quantified ornament traits. It was hypothesised that POPs may have endocrine disrupting effects on the local house sparrow population and can thus interfere with the steroid hormone homeostasis. Among female house sparrows, bivariate correlations revealed negative relationships between POPs and estrogens. Among male sparrows, positive relationships between dihydrotestosterone levels and PCBs were observed. In males, positive relationships were also found between steroids and beak length, and between steroids and ornamental traits such as total badge size. This was confirmed by a significant OPLS model between beak length and steroids. Although sparrows are in the mid-range trophic levels, the present study indicates that POPs may affect steroid homeostasis in house sparrows, in particular for females. For ma, At high trophic levels, environmental contaminants have been found to affect endocrinological processes. Less attention has been paid to species at lower trophic levels. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) may be a useful model for investigating effects of POPs in mid-range trophic level species. In male house sparrows, ornamental traits involved in male quality signalling are important for female selection. These traits are governed by endocrinological systems, and POPs may therefore interfere with male quality signalling. The aim of the present study was to use the house sparrow as a mid-range trophic level model species to study the effects of environmental contaminants on endocrinology and male quality signalling. We analysed the levels of selected PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs and investigated the possible effects of these contaminants on circulating levels of steroid hormones (4 progestagens, 4 androgens and 3 estrogens) in male and female adult house sparrows from a population on the island Leka, Norway. Plasma samples were analysed for steroid hormones by GC-MS and liver samples were analysed for environmental contaminants by GC-ECD and GC-MS. In males, we also quantified ornament traits. It was hypothesised that POPs may have endocrine disrupting effects on the local house sparrow population and can thus interfere with the steroid hormone homeostasis. Among female house sparrows, bivariate correlations revealed negative relationships between POPs and estrogens. Among male sparrows, positive relationships between dihydrotestosterone levels and PCBs were observed. In males, positive relationships were also found between steroids and beak length, and between steroids and ornamental traits such as total badge size. This was confirmed by a significant OPLS model between beak length and steroids. Although sparrows are in the mid-range trophic levels, the present study indicates that POPs may affect steroid homeostasis in house sparrows, in particular for females. For

Migratory birds often form flocks on their wintering grounds, but important details of social structure such as the patterns of association between individuals are virtually unknown. We analysed networks of co-membership in short-term flocks for wintering golden-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia atricapilla) across three years and discovered social complexity unsuspected for migratory songbirds. The population was consistently clustered into distinct social communities within a relatively small area (~ 7 ha). Birds returned to the same community across years, with mortality and recruitment leading to some degree of turnover in membership. These spatiotemporal patterns were explained by the combination of space use and social preference - birds that flocked together in one year flocked together again in the subsequent year more often than were expected based on degrees of home range overlap. Our results suggest that a surprising level of social fidelity across years leads to repeatable patterns of social network structure in migratory populations.

Migratory birds often form flocks on their wintering grounds, but important details of social structure such as the patterns of association between individuals are virtually unknown. We analysed networks of co-membership in short-term flocks for wintering golden-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia atricapilla) across three years and discovered social complexity unsuspected for migratory songbirds. The population was consistently clustered into distinct social communities within a relatively small area (~ 7 ha). Birds returned to the same community across years, with mortality and recruitment leading to some degree of turnover in membership. These spatiotemporal patterns were explained by the combination of space use and social preference - birds that flocked together in one year flocked together again in the subsequent year more often than were expected based on degrees of home range overlap. Our results suggest that a surprising level of social fidelity across years leads to repeatable patterns of social network structure in migratory populations.

The ability of species to respond to novel future climates is determined in part by their physiological capacity to tolerate climate change and the degree to which they have reached and continue to maintain distributional equilibrium with the environment. While broad-scale correlative climatic measurements of a species' niche are often described as estimating the fundamental niche, it is unclear how well these occupied portions actually approximate the fundamental niche per se, versus the fundamental niche that exists in environmental space, and what fitness values bounding the niche are necessary to maintain distributional equilibrium. Here, we investigate these questions by comparing physiological and correlative estimates of the thermal niche in the introduced North American house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Our results indicate that occupied portions of the fundamental niche derived from temperature correlations closely approximate the centroid of the existing fundamental niche calculated on a fitness threshold of 50% population mortality. Using these niche measures, a 75-year time series analysis (1930-2004) further shows that: (i) existing fundamental and occupied niche centroids did not undergo directional change, (ii) interannual changes in the two niche centroids were correlated, (iii) temperatures in North America moved through niche space in a net centripetal fashion, and consequently, (iv) most areas throughout the range of the house sparrow tracked the existing fundamental niche centroid with respect to at least one temperature gradient. Following introduction to a new continent, the house sparrow rapidly tracked its thermal niche and established continent-wide distributional equilibrium with respect to major temperature gradients. These dynamics were mediated in large part by the species' broad thermal physiological tolerances, high dispersal potential, competitive advantage in human-dominated landscapes, and climatically induced changes to the realiz

The ability of species to respond to novel future climates is determined in part by their physiological capacity to tolerate climate change and the degree to which they have reached and continue to maintain distributional equilibrium with the environment. While broad-scale correlative climatic measurements of a species' niche are often described as estimating the fundamental niche, it is unclear how well these occupied portions actually approximate the fundamental niche per se, versus the fundamental niche that exists in environmental space, and what fitness values bounding the niche are necessary to maintain distributional equilibrium. Here, we investigate these questions by comparing physiological and correlative estimates of the thermal niche in the introduced North American house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Our results indicate that occupied portions of the fundamental niche derived from temperature correlations closely approximate the centroid of the existing fundamental niche calculated on a fitness threshold of 50% population mortality. Using these niche measures, a 75-year time series analysis (1930-2004) further shows that: (i) existing fundamental and occupied niche centroids did not undergo directional change, (ii) interannual changes in the two niche centroids were correlated, (iii) temperatures in North America moved through niche space in a net centripetal fashion, and consequently, (iv) most areas throughout the range of the house sparrow tracked the existing fundamental niche centroid with respect to at least one temperature gradient. Following introduction to a new continent, the house sparrow rapidly tracked its thermal niche and established continent-wide distributional equilibrium with respect to major temperature gradients. These dynamics were mediated in large part by the species' broad thermal physiological tolerances, high dispersal potential, competitive advantage in human-dominated landscapes, and climatically induced changes to the realiz

We measured basal (BMR) and peak metabolic rates (PMR) in juvenile and adult House Sparrows. Juvenile birds had significantly higher BMR, but lower PMR than adult birds, despite having statistically indistinguishable body masses. We then evaluated the relation between PMR and masses of central and peripheral organs and found that pectoral muscle mass best correlated with PMR in both groups, accounting for about 35% of the variation in PMR. Because citrate synthase (CS) has such major importance in affecting the first committed step in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, we characterized CS activity levels In extracted muscles to see if this better explained age-related differences in peak aerobic performance. Surprisingly, juvenile sparrows had significantly higher CS activity levels than adults (197.8 vs. 179.0 μM g-1 min -1, respectively).This higher enzyme activity in juveniles was completely offset by their significantly smaller proportion of flight musculature relative to body mass (17.7 % in adults vs. 15.3% in juveniles). Consequently, ontogenetic changes in relative sizes of organs best accounts for agerelated differences in peak metabolic rate.

Bird songs may vary in amplitude for several reasons. Variations due to differences in environmental conditions are well known but whether signal information varies with song amplitude is less well known. In some species quiet songs are heard as a soft twitter. These twitter songs are common in Turdus species and may be used during escalated close range encounters when a quiet song will attract less attention from others. Male redwings (T. iliacus) sing a terminating twitter part that is quieter and highly variable both between and within males compared with the introductory motif part. The twitter song of redwings, however, is often louder than the twitter in other Turdus species, especially during escalated song encounters. The seasonal variation in twitter duration also suggests that the twitter may signal increased aggression. We tested how male redwings responded to an assumed escalation in signalling. In an interactive playback experiment we increased the amplitude of the twitter songs we played back in response to an increase in twitter duration by the subject. Males gave stronger responses to louder twitter. This suggests that twitter amplitude may signal arousal in male redwings

Bird songs may vary in amplitude for several reasons. Variations due to differences in environmental conditions are well known but whether signal information varies with song amplitude is less well known. In some species quiet songs are heard as a soft twitter. These twitter songs are common in Turdus species and may be used during escalated close range encounters when a quiet song will attract less attention from others. Male redwings (T. iliacus) sing a terminating twitter part that is quieter and highly variable both between and within males compared with the introductory motif part. The twitter song of redwings, however, is often louder than the twitter in other Turdus species, especially during escalated song encounters. The seasonal variation in twitter duration also suggests that the twitter may signal increased aggression. We tested how male redwings responded to an assumed escalation in signalling. In an interactive playback experiment we increased the amplitude of the twitter songs we played back in response to an increase in twitter duration by the subject. Males gave stronger responses to louder twitter. This suggests that twitter amplitude may signal arousal in male redwings

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources photo of a white-crowned sparrow.

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources photo of a white-crowned sparrow.

The National Sunflower Association has identified blackbird damage as a key reason for growers to abandon sunflower. In the 1980s, National Wildlife Research Center scientists showed that “decoy” plantings of sunflower can significantly reduce bird damage to nearby commercial sunflower fields. For a variety of reasons, largely logistical and economic in nature, decoy sunflower fields did not become wide-spread. Over the last decade, new federal farm programs have placed more emphasis on wildlife conservation. Thus, decoy sunflower fields planted to ameliorate blackbird damage and establish habitat for wildlife might garner broad support from both agricultural and conservation groups. We present preliminary data on avian use of ripening sunflower fields that support the notion of “Wildlife Conservation Sunflower Plots” (WCSP) as a broad-based dual-purpose wildlife management strategy. We also outline research plans designed to refine the concept of WCSP.

The National Sunflower Association has identified blackbird damage as a key reason for growers to abandon sunflower. In the 1980s, National Wildlife Research Center scientists showed that “decoy” plantings of sunflower can significantly reduce bird damage to nearby commercial sunflower fields. For a variety of reasons, largely logistical and economic in nature, decoy sunflower fields did not become wide-spread. Over the last decade, new federal farm programs have placed more emphasis on wildlife conservation. Thus, decoy sunflower fields planted to ameliorate blackbird damage and establish habitat for wildlife might garner broad support from both agricultural and conservation groups. We present preliminary data on avian use of ripening sunflower fields that support the notion of “Wildlife Conservation Sunflower Plots” (WCSP) as a broad-based dual-purpose wildlife management strategy. We also outline research plans designed to refine the concept of WCSP.

This assessment is one of many being produced to support the Species Conservation Project for the Rocky Mountain Region (Region 2), USDA Forest Service (USFS). The grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum) is the focus of an assessment because it has been identified as a sensitive species in Region 2 (Figure 1). Within the National Forest System, a sensitive species is a plant or animal whose population viability has been identified as a concern by a regional forester because of significant current or predicted downward trends in abundance or habitat capability that would reduce its distribution (FSM 2670.5 (19)). Because a sensitive species may require special management, knowledge of its biology and ecology is critical. This assessment addresses the biology, ecology and conservation of the grasshopper sparrow throughout its range in Region 2. This introduction defines the goal of the assessment, outlines its scope, and describes the process used in its production.

This assessment is one of many being produced to support the Species Conservation Project for the Rocky Mountain Region (Region 2), USDA Forest Service (USFS). The grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum) is the focus of an assessment because it has been identified as a sensitive species in Region 2 (Figure 1). Within the National Forest System, a sensitive species is a plant or animal whose population viability has been identified as a concern by a regional forester because of significant current or predicted downward trends in abundance or habitat capability that would reduce its distribution (FSM 2670.5 (19)). Because a sensitive species may require special management, knowledge of its biology and ecology is critical. This assessment addresses the biology, ecology and conservation of the grasshopper sparrow throughout its range in Region 2. This introduction defines the goal of the assessment, outlines its scope, and describes the process used in its production.

In 1998 The Nature Conservancy (TNC) made the Rochester regional office of the New York State Department of Transportation aware of the need for improved habitat for birds along Lake Ontario. The lake shore is internationally recognized as an important migratory route, nesting and wintering area for many bird species, both songbirds and birds of prey. The Lake Ontario State Parkway, with more than 30 miles of expansive right-of-way along the shoreline, presented an ideal opportunity for the department to respond, while enhancing the aesthetics of the corridor for the traveling public and adjacent land owners. Planning and design began in 1999 with construction in the spring of 2000. The project included restoring and enhancing native vegetation (meadow, shrub and trees) for habitat and food, and adding nest boxes for wood ducks, kestrels and other native cavity dwellers. Nest boxes are monitored through the creation of an ‘adopt a nest box’ volunteer program which has successfully kept European Starling activity to a minimum. Boxes have been used by six different native bird species. Seven hundred native shrubs and 236 fruit or mast bearing trees were planted. Forty-four acres of non-native scrub shrub was removed, with three acres replanted with native woody plants and the rest left open as meadow. Since 2001, the 41-acre R.O.W. area is being managed so that mowing occurs once after September 1, which has improved nesting success for Savannah and Grasshopper Sparrows, Bobolink and Meadowlark. Upland Sandpiper nested there until 1999, and it is hoped they will return. The department is currently revising mowing management practices statewide, in part based on the success of this project. The NYSDOT partnered with TNC, NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation, Cornell University, Braddock’s Bay Raptor Research Center, Braddock’s Bay Bird Observatory, Genesee Ornithological Society, Town of Greece, Otetia

In 1998 The Nature Conservancy (TNC) made the Rochester regional office of the New York State Department of Transportation aware of the need for improved habitat for birds along Lake Ontario. The lake shore is internationally recognized as an important migratory route, nesting and wintering area for many bird species, both songbirds and birds of prey. The Lake Ontario State Parkway, with more than 30 miles of expansive right-of-way along the shoreline, presented an ideal opportunity for the department to respond, while enhancing the aesthetics of the corridor for the traveling public and adjacent land owners. Planning and design began in 1999 with construction in the spring of 2000. The project included restoring and enhancing native vegetation (meadow, shrub and trees) for habitat and food, and adding nest boxes for wood ducks, kestrels and other native cavity dwellers. Nest boxes are monitored through the creation of an ‘adopt a nest box’ volunteer program which has successfully kept European Starling activity to a minimum. Boxes have been used by six different native bird species. Seven hundred native shrubs and 236 fruit or mast bearing trees were planted. Forty-four acres of non-native scrub shrub was removed, with three acres replanted with native woody plants and the rest left open as meadow. Since 2001, the 41-acre R.O.W. area is being managed so that mowing occurs once after September 1, which has improved nesting success for Savannah and Grasshopper Sparrows, Bobolink and Meadowlark. Upland Sandpiper nested there until 1999, and it is hoped they will return. The department is currently revising mowing management practices statewide, in part based on the success of this project. The NYSDOT partnered with TNC, NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation, Cornell University, Braddock’s Bay Raptor Research Center, Braddock’s Bay Bird Observatory, Genesee Ornithological Society, Town of Greece, Otetia

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We studied patterns of prey size and abundance among 60 lakes that differed with respect to occupancy by mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and teal (A. crecca crecca). Size distributions of prey in lakes with and without mallards did not differ in the way they deviated from the prey size distribution found in the average diet of the species; the same was true also for teal. However, in lakes with abundant food, average teal diet differed more from what was found in the environment than in lakes with less prey; in the mallard there were no differences in this respect. The densities of mallard and teal correlated positively rather than negatively with each other irrespective of food abundance, suggesting that interspecific competition, at least in ecological time, between the species may not be important in determing their abundance and distribution.

We addressed how species number and pair density in guilds of co-existing species is related to habitat structure, and to the abundance and diversity of food resources. using the assemblage of seven species of dabbling ducks (genus Anas) breeding in 60 lakes distributed over six regions in temperate north Europe. Partial correlation and multiple regression revealed that species richness was best predicted by habitat structural diversity as indexed by a principal component analysis based on 18 vegetation and lake characteristics, and by the abundance of aquatic and emergent prey. We found no effect of lake size or prey size diversity on species richness. Pair density was correlated with the percentage of shoreline with horsetails (Equisetum), by habitat structural diversity and by the abundance of emergent invertebrate prey. Neither prey size diversity nor abundance of aquatic prey correlated with pair density. Species richness and pair density in North European duck guilds vary both with habitat structure and prey availability.

Paul Russell Cutright examines the thirteen natural history notebooks that Theodore Roosevelt kept during his childhood and young adult years. He notes the dates, the subjects, and the locations of the observations kept in each notebook. Cutright focuses on Roosevelt's love of birding and most of the notebook excerpts deal with this subject. He highlights Roosevelt's skill at identifying birds by their calls and songs, notes his considerable observation skills, and credits various naturalists and friends who influenced Roosevelt. Two photographs of Roosevelt as a child and young man and a full-page picture of a mounted snowy owl that Roosevelt prepared accompany the article. A listing of the officers of the Theodore Roosevelt Association along with the members of the executive, finance, and Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace committees is on page two of the article.

Damage to orchard crops and field crops in California by several species of native birds is described, covering biology, behavior, and typical damage caused by linnets (house finches), horned larks, crowned sparrows, and woodpeckers. The legal status of this birds is unique in California, as these migratory birds may be controlled under the authority of the California Department of Agriculture and their associated County Agricultural Commissioners. Bird exclusion, frightening, or other deterrent techniques should be tried first, and only when these are ineffective or impractical should lethal methods be used. Specific bait formulas and toxicants for bird control are under the authority of the state and are not provided here. Control of house finches in agricultural crops typically involved use of prebait followed by toxic bait exposed in orchards in bait troughs; trough design, placement, and use are discussed. For horned larks, lethal control is best accomplished by closely observing feeding behavior, and then exposing prebait followed by toxic bait in furrows, trails, or other similar depressions in the soil within crop fields. Frightening has also worked well, using carbide exploders, the “stake and flag” method, or “continuous string flagging,” especially when these scare tactics are installed in advance of or at the first sign of horned lark damage. Crowned sparrows prefer dense vegetation, so habitat management to remove such cover (including weedy borders along fields or fence rows) near crops or orchards can entirely prevent damage. In smaller plantings, wire frames to exclude crowned sparrows or dense flagging can prevent damage. Where lethal control is needed, prebait and then toxic bait is exposed in shallow v-shaped troughs 2 to 3 feet above ground level, alternately throughout the period of crop damage. Woodpecker damage can be a serious problem in walnut and almond orchards, or they can damage wooden structures. Selective shooting can be effective, as

Theodore Roosevelt writes John Burroughs about the practical application of the term "species" to different animals. Roosevelt is also interested in Burroughs' account of the woodchucks and thistle-finches, and updates Burroughs on the birds he has seen throughout the season. Roosevelt hopes that "the spirit" will move Burroughs to write about his visit to Pine Knot.

Theodore Roosevelt asks C. Hart Merriam about a kind of airgun that could be used for killing English sparrows. He would like to do as little damage as possible to other birds.

John Lewis Childs sends President Roosevelt details regarding various species of birds and their behaviors. Childs admits he was wrong, and the president right, about the nesting habits of the Long-eared vs. Short-eared owl. Childs describes a trip wherein he showed John Burroughs the nesting sites of a Brown Thrasher, and a Spotted Sandpiper, both incubating eggs. Childs compliments Roosevelt on the accuracy of his observations and description of a flock of passenger pigeons at Pine Knot, especially considering how busy he must be.

President Roosevelt's mind was relieved by the information John Childs Lewis provided about long-eared owls. Roosevelt discusses the breeding and nesting habits of sandpipers and brown thrashers. Roosevelt is disappointed he found a song sparrow rather than a grasshopper sparrow near his home, Sagamore Hill, but pleased a black-throated green warbler showed up in time for him to show it to Childs and John Burroughs.

Damage to orchard crops and field crops in California by several species of native birds is described, covering biology, behavior, and typical damage caused by linnets (house finches), horned larks, crowned sparrows, and woodpeckers. The legal status of this birds is unique in California, as these migratory birds may be controlled under the authority of the California Department of Agriculture and their associated County Agricultural Commissioners. Bird exclusion, frightening, or other deterrent techniques should be tried first, and only when these are ineffective or impractical should lethal methods be used. Specific bait formulas and toxicants for bird control are under the authority of the state and are not provided here. Control of house finches in agricultural crops typically involved use of prebait followed by toxic bait exposed in orchards in bait troughs; trough design, placement, and use are discussed. For horned larks, lethal control is best accomplished by closely observing feeding behavior, and then exposing prebait followed by toxic bait in furrows, trails, or other similar depressions in the soil within crop fields. Frightening has also worked well, using carbide exploders, the “stake and flag” method, or “continuous string flagging,” especially when these scare tactics are installed in advance of or at the first sign of horned lark damage. Crowned sparrows prefer dense vegetation, so habitat management to remove such cover (including weedy borders along fields or fence rows) near crops or orchards can entirely prevent damage. In smaller plantings, wire frames to exclude crowned sparrows or dense flagging can prevent damage. Where lethal control is needed, prebait and then toxic bait is exposed in shallow v-shaped troughs 2 to 3 feet above ground level, alternately throughout the period of crop damage. Woodpecker damage can be a serious problem in walnut and almond orchards, or they can damage wooden structures. Selective shooting can be effective, as

Kappeller is pictured feeding her pet bird, Lindy, bits of bread. She found Lindy a year ago and has since taught how the bird to fly.

Kappeller is pictured feeding her pet bird, Lindy, a slice of fruit. She found Lindy a year ago and has since taught how the bird to fly.