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This paper examines how older individuals living in 9 European countries evaluate their chances of survival. We use survey data for the years 2004 and 2015 to construct population-level gender-specific subjective length of life (or subjective life expectancy) in people between 60 and 90 years of age. Using a specially designed statistical approach based on survival analysis, we compare people's estimated subjective life expectancies with those actually observed. We find subjective life expectancies to be lower than actual life expectancies for both genders in 2004. In 2015 men become more realistic in the sense that their subjective life expectancy is close to what was actually observed, while women retain their subjective expectations of a shorter than actual life expectancy. These results help to better understand how people might construct diverse decisions related to their remaining life course.

This paper examines how older individuals living in 9 European countries evaluate their chances of survival. We use survey data for the years 2004 and 2015 to construct population-level gender-specific subjective length of life (or subjective life expectancy) in people between 60 and 90 years of age. Using a specially designed statistical approach based on survival analysis, we compare people's estimated subjective life expectancies with those actually observed. We find subjective life expectancies to be lower than actual life expectancies for both genders in 2004. In 2015 men become more realistic in the sense that their subjective life expectancy is close to what was actually observed, while women retain their subjective expectations of a shorter than actual life expectancy. These results help to better understand how people might construct diverse decisions related to their remaining life course.

This paper examines how older individuals living in 9 European countries evaluate their chances of survival. We use survey data for the years 2004 and 2015 to construct population-level gender-specific subjective length of life (or subjective life expectancy) in people between 60 and 90 years of age. Using a specially designed statistical approach based on survival analysis, we compare people's estimated subjective life expectancies with those actually observed. We find subjective life expectancies to be lower than actual life expectancies for both genders in 2004. In 2015 men become more realistic in the sense that their subjective life expectancy is close to what was actually observed, while women retain their subjective expectations of a shorter than actual life expectancy. These results help to better understand how people might construct diverse decisions related to their remaining life course.

This paper examines how older individuals living in 9 European countries evaluate their chances of survival. We use survey data for the years 2004 and 2015 to construct population-level gender-specific subjective length of life (or subjective life expectancy) in people between 60 and 90 years of age. Using a specially designed statistical approach based on survival analysis, we compare people's estimated subjective life expectancies with those actually observed. We find subjective life expectancies to be lower than actual life expectancies for both genders in 2004. In 2015 men become more realistic in the sense that their subjective life expectancy is close to what was actually observed, while women retain their subjective expectations of a shorter than actual life expectancy. These results help to better understand how people might construct diverse decisions related to their remaining life course.

Building upon results of prior focus group research, the present study employs online surveys about possible future developments of the vulnerability of families with children in Europe. In addition, respondents assessed the relevance of societal factors influencing future family well-being and the effectiveness of ten selected policy measures in preventing the intergenerational transfer of vulnerability. One survey was directed at scientists and practitioners who are family experts (N=175). Another survey aimed at exploring the thoughts of parents themselves (N=1,343). Results show that experts are rather pessimistic and even expect vulnerability to increase in the future. In their opinion, the most relevant forces driving future vulnerability seem to be economic development—manifesting itself in unemployment and earnings inequality—and family policy. As for policy measures, childcare availability, early childhood education, assistance for children with special needs and raising awareness of employers for work–family reconciliation were ranked highly for mitigating the reproduction of vulnerability. While parents largely share the opinions of experts with regard to forces relevant for future family well-being, they evaluate some of the policy measures differently: the main disparities concern the assessment of support for stay-at-home mothers and the weight given to education for children after school and during holidays.

This paper examines the dispersion of fertility across age and time which has rarely been studied. Using data from the Human Fertility Database, we examine fertility age schedules by looking at standard deviations in age at first births in European countries at different stages of fertility postponement. The standard deviation at first birth remained overall constant during the start of fertility postponement in the early 1970s, then it increased during the second stage marking the progression of postponement. It remained again constant at a higher level during recent years. The paper discusses the structural changes that might have caused these changes.

This paper examines the dispersion of fertility across age and time which has rarely been studied. Using data from the Human Fertility Database, we examine fertility age schedules by looking at standard deviations in age at first births in European countries at different stages of fertility postponement. The standard deviation at first birth remained overall constant during the start of fertility postponement in the early 1970s, then it increased during the second stage marking the progression of postponement. It remained again constant at a higher level during recent years. The paper discusses the structural changes that might have caused these changes.

Building upon results of prior focus group research, the present study employs online surveys about possible future developments of the vulnerability of families with children in Europe. In addition, respondents assessed the relevance of societal factors influencing future family well-being and the effectiveness of ten selected policy measures in preventing the intergenerational transfer of vulnerability. One survey was directed at scientists and practitioners who are family experts (N=175). Another survey aimed at exploring the thoughts of parents themselves (N=1,343). Results show that experts are rather pessimistic and even expect vulnerability to increase in the future. In their opinion, the most relevant forces driving future vulnerability seem to be economic development—manifesting itself in unemployment and earnings inequality—and family policy. As for policy measures, childcare availability, early childhood education, assistance for children with special needs and raising awareness of employers for work–family reconciliation were ranked highly for mitigating the reproduction of vulnerability. While parents largely share the opinions of experts with regard to forces relevant for future family well-being, they evaluate some of the policy measures differently: the main disparities concern the assessment of support for stay-at-home mothers and the weight given to education for children after school and during holidays.

Building upon results of prior focus group research, the present study employs online surveys about possible future developments of the vulnerability of families with children in Europe. In addition, respondents assessed the relevance of societal factors influencing future family well-being and the effectiveness of ten selected policy measures in preventing the intergenerational transfer of vulnerability. One survey was directed at scientists and practitioners who are family experts (N=175). Another survey aimed at exploring the thoughts of parents themselves (N=1,343). Results show that experts are rather pessimistic and even expect vulnerability to increase in the future. In their opinion, the most relevant forces driving future vulnerability seem to be economic development—manifesting itself in unemployment and earnings inequality—and family policy. As for policy measures, childcare availability, early childhood education, assistance for children with special needs and raising awareness of employers for work–family reconciliation were ranked highly for mitigating the reproduction of vulnerability. While parents largely share the opinions of experts with regard to forces relevant for future family well-being, they evaluate some of the policy measures differently: the main disparities concern the assessment of support for stay-at-home mothers and the weight given to education for children after school and during holidays.

Building upon results of prior focus group research, the present study employs online surveys about possible future developments of the vulnerability of families with children in Europe. In addition, respondents assessed the relevance of societal factors influencing future family well-being and the effectiveness of ten selected policy measures in preventing the intergenerational transfer of vulnerability. One survey was directed at scientists and practitioners who are family experts (N=175). Another survey aimed at exploring the thoughts of parents themselves (N=1,343). Results show that experts are rather pessimistic and even expect vulnerability to increase in the future. In their opinion, the most relevant forces driving future vulnerability seem to be economic development—manifesting itself in unemployment and earnings inequality—and family policy. As for policy measures, childcare availability, early childhood education, assistance for children with special needs and raising awareness of employers for work–family reconciliation were ranked highly for mitigating the reproduction of vulnerability. While parents largely share the opinions of experts with regard to forces relevant for future family well-being, they evaluate some of the policy measures differently: the main disparities concern the assessment of support for stay-at-home mothers and the weight given to education for children after school and during holidays.

This paper examines the dispersion of fertility across age and time which has rarely been studied. Using data from the Human Fertility Database, we examine fertility age schedules by looking at standard deviations in age at first births in European countries at different stages of fertility postponement. The standard deviation at first birth remained overall constant during the start of fertility postponement in the early 1970s, then it increased during the second stage marking the progression of postponement. It remained again constant at a higher level during recent years. The paper discusses the structural changes that might have caused these changes.

Building upon results of prior focus group research, the present study employs online surveys about possible future developments of the vulnerability of families with children in Europe. In addition, respondents assessed the relevance of societal factors influencing future family well-being and the effectiveness of ten selected policy measures in preventing the intergenerational transfer of vulnerability. One survey was directed at scientists and practitioners who are family experts (N=175). Another survey aimed at exploring the thoughts of parents themselves (N=1,343). Results show that experts are rather pessimistic and even expect vulnerability to increase in the future. In their opinion, the most relevant forces driving future vulnerability seem to be economic development—manifesting itself in unemployment and earnings inequality—and family policy. As for policy measures, childcare availability, early childhood education, assistance for children with special needs and raising awareness of employers for work–family reconciliation were ranked highly for mitigating the reproduction of vulnerability. While parents largely share the opinions of experts with regard to forces relevant for future family well-being, they evaluate some of the policy measures differently: the main disparities concern the assessment of support for stay-at-home mothers and the weight given to education for children after school and during holidays.

Background: Married people live longer than the unmarried; micro-level research indicates that they enjoy better health. Macro-level research does not combine mortality, marital status, and health. Objective: We provide international comparisons of healthy and unhealthy life years at ages 50 and higher combining mortality, marital status, and health. Methods: We examine differences in healthy and unhealthy life years for married and cohabiting (i.e., partnered) and for single men and women and break these down into mortality and disability. EU-SILC and Eurostat data for 2011 are used for 16 European countries. Results: Our analyses show that partnered people, both men and women, are healthier than singles. However, these differences in unhealthy life are varied. For the length of healthy life, the effect of disability dominates the effect of mortality for women strongly and for men weakly, while the effect of mortality is more important for the length of unhealthy life of women. Populations in Eastern Europe are more disadvantaged than those in Western Europe with respect to length of life and of healthy life; these differences are larger for singles and lower for the partnered. Contribution: We extend previous macro-level studies on healthy and unhealthy life at older ages by introducing the additional dimension of partner status. We provide rich information in terms of life expectancies for 16 countries in Europe, with special attention on Eastern European countries and specifically on singles in these countries.

Background: Married people live longer than the unmarried; micro-level research indicates that they enjoy better health. Macro-level research does not combine mortality, marital status, and health. Objective: We provide international comparisons of healthy and unhealthy life years at ages 50 and higher combining mortality, marital status, and health. Methods: We examine differences in healthy and unhealthy life years for married and cohabiting (i.e., partnered) and for single men and women and break these down into mortality and disability. EU-SILC and Eurostat data for 2011 are used for 16 European countries. Results: Our analyses show that partnered people, both men and women, are healthier than singles. However, these differences in unhealthy life are varied. For the length of healthy life, the effect of disability dominates the effect of mortality for women strongly and for men weakly, while the effect of mortality is more important for the length of unhealthy life of women. Populations in Eastern Europe are more disadvantaged than those in Western Europe with respect to length of life and of healthy life; these differences are larger for singles and lower for the partnered. Contribution: We extend previous macro-level studies on healthy and unhealthy life at older ages by introducing the additional dimension of partner status. We provide rich information in terms of life expectancies for 16 countries in Europe, with special attention on Eastern European countries and specifically on singles in these countries.

Background: Married people live longer than the unmarried; micro-level research indicates that they enjoy better health. Macro-level research does not combine mortality, marital status, and health. Objective: We provide international comparisons of healthy and unhealthy life years at ages 50 and higher combining mortality, marital status, and health. Methods: We examine differences in healthy and unhealthy life years for married and cohabiting (i.e., partnered) and for single men and women and break these down into mortality and disability. EU-SILC and Eurostat data for 2011 are used for 16 European countries. Results: Our analyses show that partnered people, both men and women, are healthier than singles. However, these differences in unhealthy life are varied. For the length of healthy life, the effect of disability dominates the effect of mortality for women strongly and for men weakly, while the effect of mortality is more important for the length of unhealthy life of women. Populations in Eastern Europe are more disadvantaged than those in Western Europe with respect to length of life and of healthy life; these differences are larger for singles and lower for the partnered. Contribution: We extend previous macro-level studies on healthy and unhealthy life at older ages by introducing the additional dimension of partner status. We provide rich information in terms of life expectancies for 16 countries in Europe, with special attention on Eastern European countries and specifically on singles in these countries.

Background: Married people live longer than the unmarried; micro-level research indicates that they enjoy better health. Macro-level research does not combine mortality, marital status, and health. Objective: We provide international comparisons of healthy and unhealthy life years at ages 50 and higher combining mortality, marital status, and health. Methods: We examine differences in healthy and unhealthy life years for married and cohabiting (i.e., partnered) and for single men and women and break these down into mortality and disability. EU-SILC and Eurostat data for 2011 are used for 16 European countries. Results: Our analyses show that partnered people, both men and women, are healthier than singles. However, these differences in unhealthy life are varied. For the length of healthy life, the effect of disability dominates the effect of mortality for women strongly and for men weakly, while the effect of mortality is more important for the length of unhealthy life of women. Populations in Eastern Europe are more disadvantaged than those in Western Europe with respect to length of life and of healthy life; these differences are larger for singles and lower for the partnered. Contribution: We extend previous macro-level studies on healthy and unhealthy life at older ages by introducing the additional dimension of partner status. We provide rich information in terms of life expectancies for 16 countries in Europe, with special attention on Eastern European countries and specifically on singles in these countries.

Background: Married people live longer than the unmarried; micro-level research indicates that they enjoy better health. Macro-level research does not combine mortality, marital status, and health. Objective: We provide international comparisons of healthy and unhealthy life years at ages 50 and higher combining mortality, marital status, and health. Methods: We examine differences in healthy and unhealthy life years for married and cohabiting (i.e., partnered) and for single men and women and break these down into mortality and disability. EU-SILC and Eurostat data for 2011 are used for 16 European countries. Results: Our analyses show that partnered people, both men and women, are healthier than singles. However, these differences in unhealthy life are varied. For the length of healthy life, the effect of disability dominates the effect of mortality for women strongly and for men weakly, while the effect of mortality is more important for the length of unhealthy life of women. Populations in Eastern Europe are more disadvantaged than those in Western Europe with respect to length of life and of healthy life; these differences are larger for singles and lower for the partnered. Contribution: We extend previous macro-level studies on healthy and unhealthy life at older ages by introducing the additional dimension of partner status. We provide rich information in terms of life expectancies for 16 countries in Europe, with special attention on Eastern European countries and specifically on singles in these countries.

Takes a new approach to understanding Europe’s fertility gap - Demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making - Provides new insights into how people make decisions about having children as well as how policies affect fertility This book provides new insights into the significant gap that currently exists between desired and actual fertility in Europe. It examines how people make decisions about having children and demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making. Written by an international team of leading demographers and psychologists, the book presents the theoretical and methodological developments of a three-year, European Commission-funded project named REPRO (Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective). It also provides an overview of the research conducted by REPRO researchers both during and after the project. The book examines fertility intentions from quantitative and qualitative perspectives, demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making, and offers a multi-level analysis of fertility-related norms across Europe. Overall, this book offers insight into how people make decisions to have children, when they are most likely to act on their decisions, and how different social and policy settings affect their decisions and actions. It will appeal to researchers, graduate students, and policy advisors with an interest in fertility, demography, and life-course decision making.

This chapter lays the theoretical and methodological foundation for the book, fertility gap) is provided. The theoretical argument which follows is that, to understand macro-level trends in fertility, a thorough knowledge of micro-processes and how the macro- and micro-levels are interrelated, is necessary. A model of relationships between macro- and micro-levels is presented before a brief discussion of macro-level modelling which, in addition to its benefits, is at risk of errors arising from compositional effects and the ecological fallacy. The social psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the framework adapted for micro-level modelling in this book, is presented here in a form specific to reproductive decision making. The chapter also includes discussion of issues associated with satisfactory integration of macro- and micro-level information, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of comparative micro-studies and multi-level modelling.

This chapter provides an overview of the main achievements of the REPRO project as reported in this volume and in other related publications by members of the REPRO team. It also considers limitations and discusses opportunities for future research that arise and are still to be addressed. Last but not least the chapter discusses the relevance of the REPRO approach for drawing policy implications.

This chapter lays the theoretical and methodological foundation for the book, fertility gap) is provided. The theoretical argument which follows is that, to understand macro-level trends in fertility, a thorough knowledge of micro-processes and how the macro- and micro-levels are interrelated, is necessary. A model of relationships between macro- and micro-levels is presented before a brief discussion of macro-level modelling which, in addition to its benefits, is at risk of errors arising from compositional effects and the ecological fallacy. The social psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the framework adapted for micro-level modelling in this book, is presented here in a form specific to reproductive decision making. The chapter also includes discussion of issues associated with satisfactory integration of macro- and micro-level information, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of comparative micro-studies and multi-level modelling.

Takes a new approach to understanding Europe’s fertility gap - Demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making - Provides new insights into how people make decisions about having children as well as how policies affect fertility This book provides new insights into the significant gap that currently exists between desired and actual fertility in Europe. It examines how people make decisions about having children and demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making. Written by an international team of leading demographers and psychologists, the book presents the theoretical and methodological developments of a three-year, European Commission-funded project named REPRO (Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective). It also provides an overview of the research conducted by REPRO researchers both during and after the project. The book examines fertility intentions from quantitative and qualitative perspectives, demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making, and offers a multi-level analysis of fertility-related norms across Europe. Overall, this book offers insight into how people make decisions to have children, when they are most likely to act on their decisions, and how different social and policy settings affect their decisions and actions. It will appeal to researchers, graduate students, and policy advisors with an interest in fertility, demography, and life-course decision making.

This chapter provides an overview of the main achievements of the REPRO project as reported in this volume and in other related publications by members of the REPRO team. It also considers limitations and discusses opportunities for future research that arise and are still to be addressed. Last but not least the chapter discusses the relevance of the REPRO approach for drawing policy implications.

This chapter lays the theoretical and methodological foundation for the book, "Reproductive Decision-making in a Macro-Micro Perspective". It introduces the issues addressed in the book and the European Commission Seventh Framework funded collaborative research project, REPRO, on which it is based. A brief overview of the recent trend toward low fertility in Europe and the gap between desired and achieved family size at national levels (known as the fertility gap) is provided. The theoretical argument which follows is that, to understand macro-level trends in fertility, a thorough knowledge of micro-processes and how the macro- and micro-levels are interrelated, is necessary. A model of relationships between macro- and micro-levels is presented before a brief discussion of macro-level modelling which, in addition to its benefits, is at risk of errors arising from compositional effects and the ecological fallacy. The social psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the framework adapted for micro-level modelling in this book, is presented here in a form specific to reproductive decision making. The chapter also includes discussion of issues associated with satisfactory integration of macro- and micro-level information, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of comparative micro-studies and multi-level modelling.

This book provides new insights into the significant gap that currently exists between desired and actual fertility in Europe. It examines how people make decisions about having children and demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making. Written by an international team of leading demographers and psychologists, the book presents the theoretical and methodological developments of a three-year, European Commission-funded project named REPRO (Reproductive Decision- Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective). It also provides an overview of the research conducted by REPRO researchers both during and after the project. The book examines fertility intentions from quantitative and qualitative perspectives, demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making, and offers a multi-level analysis of fertility-related norms across Europe. Overall, this book offers insight into how people make decisions to have children, when they are most likely to act on their decisions, and how different social and policy settings affect their decisions and actions. It will appeal to researchers, graduate students, and policy advisors with an interest in fertility, demography, and life-course decision making.

This chapter lays the theoretical and methodological foundation for the book, "Reproductive Decision-making in a Macro-Micro Perspective". It introduces the issues addressed in the book and the European Commission Seventh Framework funded collaborative research project, REPRO, on which it is based. A brief overview of the recent trend toward low fertility in Europe and the gap between desired and achieved family size at national levels (known as the fertility gap) is provided. The theoretical argument which follows is that, to understand macro-level trends in fertility, a thorough knowledge of micro-processes and how the macro- and micro-levels are interrelated, is necessary. A model of relationships between macro- and micro-levels is presented before a brief discussion of macro-level modelling which, in addition to its benefits, is at risk of errors arising from compositional effects and the ecological fallacy. The social psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the framework adapted for micro-level modelling in this book, is presented here in a form specific to reproductive decision making. The chapter also includes discussion of issues associated with satisfactory integration of macro- and micro-level information, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of comparative micro-studies and multi-level modelling.

This book provides new insights into the significant gap that currently exists between desired and actual fertility in Europe. It examines how people make decisions about having children and demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making. Written by an international team of leading demographers and psychologists, the book presents the theoretical and methodological developments of a three-year, European Commission-funded project named REPRO (Reproductive Decision- Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective). It also provides an overview of the research conducted by REPRO researchers both during and after the project. The book examines fertility intentions from quantitative and qualitative perspectives, demonstrates how the macro-level environment affects micro-level decision-making, and offers a multi-level analysis of fertility-related norms across Europe. Overall, this book offers insight into how people make decisions to have children, when they are most likely to act on their decisions, and how different social and policy settings affect their decisions and actions. It will appeal to researchers, graduate students, and policy advisors with an interest in fertility, demography, and life-course decision making.

This chapter provides an overview of the main achievements of the REPRO project as reported in this volume and in other related publications by members of the REPRO team. It also considers limitations and discusses opportunities for future research that arise and are still to be addressed. Last but not least the chapter discusses the relevance of the REPRO approach for drawing policy implications.

This chapter lays the theoretical and methodological foundation for the book, Reproductive decision-making in a macro-micro perspective. It introduces the issues addressed in the book and the European Commission Seventh Framework funded collaborative research project, REPRO, on which it is based. A brief overview of the recent trend toward low fertility in Europe and the gap between desired and achieved family size at national levels (known as the fertility gap) is provided. The theoretical argument which follows is that, to understand macro-level trends in fertility, a thorough knowledge of micro-processes and how the macro- and micro-levels are interrelated, is necessary. A model of relationships between macro- and micro-levels is presented before a brief discussion of macro-level modelling which, in addition to its benefits, is at risk of errors arising from compositional effects and the ecological fallacy. The social psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the framework adapted for micro-level modelling in this book, is presented here in a form specific to reproductive decision making. The chapter also includes discussion of issues associated with satisfactory integration of macro- and micro-level information, focusing on the strengths and weaknesses of comparative micro-studies and multi-level modelling.

BACKGROUND: Research on how rising human capital affects the consequences of population ageing rarely considers the fact that the human capital of the elderly population is composed in a specific way that is shaped by their earlier schooling and work experience. For an elderly population of a fixed size and age-sex composition, this entails that the higher its human capital, the greater the total amount of public pensions to be paid. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the link between human capital and retiree benefits and its effect on population ageing from a demographic viewpoint. METHODS: We construct an old age dependency ratio (OADR), in which each person, whether in the numerator or the denominator, is assigned the number of units corresponding to his/her level of human capital. Based on data for Italy, we study the dynamics of this human-capital-specific OADR with the help of multistate population projections to 2107. RESULTS: Our results show that under specific conditions a constant or moderately growing human capital may aggravate the consequences of population ageing rather than alleviate them. CONCLUSIONS: With those findings, the authors would like to stimulate the debate on the search for demographic and/or socio-economic solutions to the challenges posed by population ageing.

BACKGROUND: Research on how rising human capital affects the consequences of population ageing rarely considers the fact that the human capital of the elderly population is composed in a specific way that is shaped by their earlier schooling and work experience. For an elderly population of a fixed size and age-sex composition, this entails that the higher its human capital, the greater the total amount of public pensions to be paid. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the link between human capital and retiree benefits and its effect on population ageing from a demographic viewpoint. METHODS: We construct an old age dependency ratio (OADR), in which each person, whether in the numerator or the denominator, is assigned the number of units corresponding to his/her level of human capital. Based on data for Italy, we study the dynamics of this human-capital-specific OADR with the help of multistate population projections to 2107. RESULTS: Our results show that under specific conditions a constant or moderately growing human capital may aggravate the consequences of population ageing rather than alleviate them. CONCLUSIONS: With those findings, the authors would like to stimulate the debate on the search for demographic and/or socio-economic solutions to the challenges posed by population ageing.

BACKGROUND: Research on how rising human capital affects the consequences of population ageing rarely considers the fact that the human capital of the elderly population is composed in a specific way that is shaped by their earlier schooling and work experience. For an elderly population of a fixed size and age-sex composition, this entails that the higher its human capital, the greater the total amount of public pensions to be paid. OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the link between human capital and retiree benefits and its effect on population ageing from a demographic viewpoint. METHODS: We construct an old age dependency ratio (OADR), in which each person, whether in the numerator or the denominator, is assigned the number of units corresponding to his/her level of human capital. Based on data for Italy, we study the dynamics of this human-capital-specific OADR with the help of multistate population projections to 2107. RESULTS: Our results show that under specific conditions a constant or moderately growing human capital may aggravate the consequences of population ageing rather than alleviate them. CONCLUSIONS: With those findings, the authors would like to stimulate the debate on the search for demographic and/or socio-economic solutions to the challenges posed by population ageing.

This article reviews research on the effects of economic recessions on fertility in the developed word. We study how economic downturns, as measured by various indicators, especially by declining GDP levels, falling consumer confidence, and rising unemployment, were found to affect fertility. We also discuss particular mechanisms through which the recession may have influenced fertility behavior, including the effects of economic uncertainty, falling income, changes in the housing market, and rising enrollment in higher education, and also factors that influence fertility indirectly such as declining marriage rates. Most studies find that fertility tends to be pro-cyclical and often rises and declines with the ups and downs of the business cycle. Usually, these aggregate effects are relatively small (typically, a few percentage points) and of short durations; in addition they often influence especially the timing of childbearing and in most cases do not leave an imprint on cohort fertility levels. Therefore, major long-term fertility shifts often continue seemingly uninterrupted during the recession-including the fertility declines before and during the Great Depression of the 1930s and before and during the oil shock crises of the 1970s. Changes in the opportunity costs of childbearing and fertility behavior during economic downturn vary by sex, age, social status, and number of children; childless young adults are usually most affected. Furthermore, various policies and institutions may modify or even reverse the relationship between recessions and fertility. The first evidence pertaining to the recent recession falls in line with these findings. In most countries, the recession has brought a decline in the number of births and fertility rates, often marking a sharp halt to the previous decade of rising fertility rates.

This article reviews research on the effects of economic recessions on fertility in the developed word. We study how economic downturns, as measured by various indicators, especially by declining GDP levels, falling consumer confidence, and rising unemployment, were found to affect fertility. We also discuss particular mechanisms through which the recession may have influenced fertility behavior, including the effects of economic uncertainty, falling income, changes in the housing market, and rising enrollment in higher education, and also factors that influence fertility indirectly such as declining marriage rates. Most studies find that fertility tends to be pro-cyclical and often rises and declines with the ups and downs of the business cycle. Usually, these aggregate effects are relatively small (typically, a few percentage points) and of short durations; in addition they often influence especially the timing of childbearing and in most cases do not leave an imprint on cohort fertility levels. Therefore, major long-term fertility shifts often continue seemingly uninterrupted during the recession-including the fertility declines before and during the Great Depression of the 1930s and before and during the oil shock crises of the 1970s. Changes in the opportunity costs of childbearing and fertility behavior during economic downturn vary by sex, age, social status, and number of children; childless young adults are usually most affected. Furthermore, various policies and institutions may modify or even reverse the relationship between recessions and fertility. The first evidence pertaining to the recent recession falls in line with these findings. In most countries, the recession has brought a decline in the number of births and fertility rates, often marking a sharp halt to the previous decade of rising fertility rates.

While most research on fertility planning is conducted at the individual level, this paper focuses on the couple, the unit into which most children are born in Europe. We focus on the decision to have a second child, the critical decision if fertility rates are to rise to replacement or near-replacement levels, and seek to extend modelling of couples’ fertility intentions by including partners’ social psychological cognitions as well as directly measurable economic and demographic characteristics. The social psychological model used in these studies is the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The countries under study are Bulgaria and Italy.

REPRO is an acronym for "Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective", a project funded by the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme. The project unites the efforts of nine research institutes of Europe. This state-of-the-art report is structured along the work packages of the project and written by the work-package leaders. Key words: reproductive decision-making; fertility intentions; theory of planned behaviour; realisation of fertility intentions, REPRO is an acronym for "Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective", a project funded by the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme. The project unites the efforts of nine research institutes of Europe. This state-of-the-art report is structured along the work packages of the project and written by the work-package leaders. Key words: reproductive decision-making; fertility intentions; theory of planned behaviour; realisation of fertility intentions

REPRO is an acronym for "Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective", a project funded by the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme. The project unites the efforts of nine research institutes of Europe. This state-of-the-art report is structured along the work packages of the project and written by the work-package leaders. Key words: reproductive decision-making; fertility intentions; theory of planned behaviour; realisation of fertility intentions, REPRO is an acronym for "Reproductive Decision-Making in a Macro-Micro Perspective", a project funded by the European Commission's Seventh Framework Programme. The project unites the efforts of nine research institutes of Europe. This state-of-the-art report is structured along the work packages of the project and written by the work-package leaders. Key words: reproductive decision-making; fertility intentions; theory of planned behaviour; realisation of fertility intentions

We analyse Swedish survey data on attitudes about parenthood among young adults aged 22-30 in 1999, and examine who became parents over the next four years. Our results show that while both men and women perceive more benefits to parenthood than costs, men are more likely than women to perceive both negative and positive consequences of parenthood. Further, gender role attitudes shape parental attitudes differentially for men and women. More egalitarian men perceive fewer costs and more egalitarian women perceive fewer benefits than those with more traditional gender role attitudes. Our analyses of the transition to parenthood indicate that, even controlling assessments of the costs and benefits of children, men with more traditional attitudes were more likely to become fathers at an early age, while gender role attitudes had no effect on women’s transition to parenthood. In contrast, there were no gender differentials in the effects of costs and benefits, each of which strongly affected the transition to parenthood, but, of course, in opposite directions. We interpret these findings to indicate that even in a country as far into the Second Demographic Transition as Sweden, negotiating shared parenthood is still sufficiently difficult that it depresses fertility, but now because of its impact on men., We analyse Swedish survey data on attitudes about parenthood among young adults aged 22-30 in 1999, and examine who became parents over the next four years. Our results show that while both men and women perceive more benefits to parenthood than costs, men are more likely than women to perceive both negative and positive consequences of parenthood. Further, gender role attitudes shape parental attitudes differentially for men and women. More egalitarian men perceive fewer costs and more egalitarian women perceive fewer benefits than those with more traditional gender role attitudes. Our analyses of the transition to parenthood indicate that, even controlling assessments of the costs and benefits of children, men with more traditional attitudes were more likely to become fathers at an early age, while gender role attitudes had no effect on women’s transition to parenthood. In contrast, there were no gender differentials in the effects of costs and benefits, each of which strongly affected the transition to parenthood, but, of course, in opposite directions. We interpret these findings to indicate that even in a country as far into the Second Demographic Transition as Sweden, negotiating shared parenthood is still sufficiently difficult that it depresses fertility, but now because of its impact on men.

We analyse Swedish survey data on attitudes about parenthood among young adults aged 22-30 in 1999, and examine who became parents over the next four years. Our results show that while both men and women perceive more benefits to parenthood than costs, men are more likely than women to perceive both negative and positive consequences of parenthood. Further, gender role attitudes shape parental attitudes differentially for men and women. More egalitarian men perceive fewer costs and more egalitarian women perceive fewer benefits than those with more traditional gender role attitudes. Our analyses of the transition to parenthood indicate that, even controlling assessments of the costs and benefits of children, men with more traditional attitudes were more likely to become fathers at an early age, while gender role attitudes had no effect on women’s transition to parenthood. In contrast, there were no gender differentials in the effects of costs and benefits, each of which strongly affected the transition to parenthood, but, of course, in opposite directions. We interpret these findings to indicate that even in a country as far into the Second Demographic Transition as Sweden, negotiating shared parenthood is still sufficiently difficult that it depresses fertility, but now because of its impact on men., We analyse Swedish survey data on attitudes about parenthood among young adults aged 22-30 in 1999, and examine who became parents over the next four years. Our results show that while both men and women perceive more benefits to parenthood than costs, men are more likely than women to perceive both negative and positive consequences of parenthood. Further, gender role attitudes shape parental attitudes differentially for men and women. More egalitarian men perceive fewer costs and more egalitarian women perceive fewer benefits than those with more traditional gender role attitudes. Our analyses of the transition to parenthood indicate that, even controlling assessments of the costs and benefits of children, men with more traditional attitudes were more likely to become fathers at an early age, while gender role attitudes had no effect on women’s transition to parenthood. In contrast, there were no gender differentials in the effects of costs and benefits, each of which strongly affected the transition to parenthood, but, of course, in opposite directions. We interpret these findings to indicate that even in a country as far into the Second Demographic Transition as Sweden, negotiating shared parenthood is still sufficiently difficult that it depresses fertility, but now because of its impact on men.