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Epidemiological studies associate biomass smoke with an increased risk for respiratory infections in children and adults in the developing world, with 500,000 premature deaths each year attributed to biomass smoke-related acute respiratory infections including infections caused by respiratory viruses. Animal dung is a biomass fuel of particular concern because it generates more toxic compounds per amount burned than wood, and is a fuel of last resort for the poorest households. Currently, there is little biological evidence on the effects of dung biomass smoke exposure on immune responses to respiratory viral infections. Here, we investigated the impact of dung biomass exposure on respiratory infection using a mouse model of dung biomass smoke and cultured primary human small airway epithelial cells (SAECs). Mice infected with influenza A virus (IAV) after dung biomass smoke exposure had increased mortality, lung inflammation and virus mRNA levels, and suppressed expression of innate anti-viral mediators compared to air exposed mice. Importantly, there was still significant tissue inflammation 14 days after infection in dung biomass smoke-exposed mice even after inflammation had resolved in air-exposed mice. Dung biomass smoke exposure also suppressed the production of anti-viral cytokines and interferons in cultured SAECs treated with poly(I:C) or IAV. This study shows that dung biomass smoke exposure impairs the immune response to respiratory viruses and contributes to biomass smoke-related susceptibility to respiratory viral infections, likely due to a failure to resolve the inflammatory effects of biomass smoke exposure.

Introduction. - Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH), secondary to spinal hemangioblastoma (HBL), is extremely rare, with only a few case reports to date. We report the experience of our reference centre for spinal tumours and Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease in patients with spinal HBL presenting with SAH. We further performed a systematic review of the literature. Methods. - We report two cases. A systematic search was performed using the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases, with no limit for publication date. Inclusion criteria were: patients with HBL presenting with SAH, with or without VHL. The systematic review retrieved only 10 studies, including 16 patients. Results. - In our centre, the first case concerned radicular HBL at D12 level, presenting with spinal and brain SAH. The patient underwent uneventful microsurgical en bloc resection. Postoperative course was normal. The second case concerned HBL with SAH at the cervico-medullary junction, with rapidly fatalcourse. The systematic review revealed female predominance, at a median age of 40 years, with HBL predominantly located at cervical level, common preoperative symptoms being headache and signs of meningeal irritation. Conclusions. - In conclusion, spinal HBL is an extremely rare cause of SAH. The systematic review found putative risk factors: female gender, age 40-50 years, cervical location, and median size 2 cm. Diagnosis can be difficult when presentation mimics intracerebral SAH. We advocate early surgical removal. The risk of rapidly fatal course, in case of major haemorrhage, needs to be borne in mind. (C) 2020 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery (AKICS) is common. Previous studies examining the role that mean arterial pressure (MAP) during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) may have on AKICS have not taken into account how baseline central venous pressure (CVP) and mean perfusion pressure (MPP) (i.e. MAP - CVP) can influence its evolution. To assess whether the change in MPP to the kidneys (i.e. delta MPP or DMPP) during CPB compared to baseline is an independent predictor of AKICS. After ethical approval, a retrospective observational study was performed on all patients undergoing CPB between October 2013 and June 2015 at a university-affiliated hospital. Known risk factors for the development of AKICS were recorded, as were the MPP values at baseline and during CPB. From this, statistical modelling was performed to identify predictors of postoperative AKICS. 664 patients were identified. Analysis was performed on 513 patients after exclusion. On logistic regression, significant and independent predictors of AKICS included: d20DMPP (cumulative duration of MPP values during CPB that were 20% below baseline and exceeded three consecutive minutes) (P = 0.010); baseline CVP; age; pre-operative creatinine level; and left ventricular (LV) dysfunction (ejection fraction (EF) < 45%). On alternative modelling, the cumulative number of MPP values during CPB that were 10% below baseline was also independently associated with AKICS (P = 0.003). Modelling without taking into account CVP also supported this association. The duration of differences in perfusion pressure to the kidneys during CPB compared to baseline is an independent predictor of AKICS.

Introduction. - Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH), secondary to spinal hemangioblastoma (HBL), is extremely rare, with only a few case reports to date. We report the experience of our reference centre for spinal tumours and Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease in patients with spinal HBL presenting with SAH. We further performed a systematic review of the literature. Methods. - We report two cases. A systematic search was performed using the PubMed, Embase and Cochrane databases, with no limit for publication date. Inclusion criteria were: patients with HBL presenting with SAH, with or without VHL. The systematic review retrieved only 10 studies, including 16 patients. Results. - In our centre, the first case concerned radicular HBL at D12 level, presenting with spinal and brain SAH. The patient underwent uneventful microsurgical en bloc resection. Postoperative course was normal. The second case concerned HBL with SAH at the cervico-medullary junction, with rapidly fatalcourse. The systematic review revealed female predominance, at a median age of 40 years, with HBL predominantly located at cervical level, common preoperative symptoms being headache and signs of meningeal irritation. Conclusions. - In conclusion, spinal HBL is an extremely rare cause of SAH. The systematic review found putative risk factors: female gender, age 40-50 years, cervical location, and median size 2 cm. Diagnosis can be difficult when presentation mimics intracerebral SAH. We advocate early surgical removal. The risk of rapidly fatal course, in case of major haemorrhage, needs to be borne in mind. (C) 2020 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Background. The impact of different blood pressure targets is unknown for post cardiac surgery patient in the intensive care unit. We, therefore, investigated the effects of a mean arterial pressure (MAP) target of 65 or 85 mmHg on splanchnic oxygenation, metabolic function, cytokine regulation and gastric tonometry after cardiopulmonary bypass. Methods. Sixteen patients were randomized to the HLH group (high-low-high) where MAP of 85-65-85 mmHg was targeted or the LHL group where MAP 65-85-65 mmHg was targeted with norepinephrine Results. MAP targets were achieved in all patients at all timepoints (64 +/- 3, 84 +/- 4; 65 +/- 5, LHL group; vs. 84 +/- 3; 66 +/- 2; 85 +/- 5 mmHg, HLH group). At corresponding timepoints, hepatic venous saturation was 41 +/- 15%; 58 +/- 24%; 56 +/- 21% in the LHL group vs. 50 +/- 19%; 43 +/- 20%; 41 +/- 18% in the HLH group (P<0.05). No changes were observed in cardiac output, global or trans-splanchnic lactate levels and cytokine levels or in gastric tonometry CO2. Conclusion. Achieving a MAP target of 85 mmHg by means of norepinephrine infusion after CPB appears safe for the splanchnic circulation.

Clival lesions still represent a challenge for neurosurgeons. A variety of expansive process, either benign or malignant, may be identified in the clival and paraclival region.

BACKGROUND: The arterial pressure target for optimal splanchnic function during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is uncertain. Thus, we aimed to compare the effects of two different arterial pressure targets during CPB on trans-splanchnic oxygenation, acid-base regulation, and splanchnic interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) flux. METHODS: Sixteen patients undergoing cardiac surgery with CPB in a university affiliated hospital were subjected to a prospective alternating treatment design interventional study. We measured arterial and hepatic vein blood gases, electrolytes, IL-6, and IL-10 while targeting a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of between 60 and 65 mm Hg for 30 min, a MAP of between 80 and 85 mm Hg for 30 min (using norepinephrine infusion), and finally 60-65 mm Hg MAP target for 30 min. RESULTS: The MAP targets were achieved in all patients [65 (4), 84 (4), and 64 (3) mm Hg, respectively; P<0.001] with a greater dose of norepinephrine infusion during the higher MAP target (P<0.001). With longer time on CPB, hepatic vein O2 saturation decreased, while magnesium, lactate, glucose, IL-6, and IL-10 increased independent of MAP target. The decrease in hepatic vein saturation was greater as the temperature increased (re-warming). Overall, there was trans-splanchnic oxygen, chloride, lactate, and IL-6 removal during CPB (P<0.001) and carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, glucose, and IL-10 release (P<0.001). Such removal or release was not affected by the MAP target. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting of a higher MAP during CPB by means of norepinephrine infusion did not affect splanchnic oxygenation, splanchnic acid-base regulation, or splanchnic IL-6 or IL-10 fluxes. Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry: ACTRN 12611001107910.

A probabilistic analysis of atmospheric transport and deposition patterns from two nuclear risk sites -- Kamchatka and Vladivostok -- situated in the Russian Far East to countries and geographical regions of interest (Japan, China, North and South Koreas, territories of the Russian Far East, State of Alaska, and Aleutian Chain Islands, US) was performed. The main questions addressed were the following: Which geographical territories are at the highest risk from hypothetical releases at these sites? What are the probabilities for radionuclide atmospheric transport and deposition on different neighboring countries in case of accidents at the sites? For analysis, several research tools developed within the Arctic Risk Project were applied: 1. isentropic trajectory model to calculate a multiyear dataset of 5-day forward trajectories that originated over the site locations at various altitudes; 2. DERMA long-range transport model to simulate 5-day atmospheric transport, dispersion, and deposition of ^137Cs for 1-day release (at the rate of 10^10 Bq/s); and 3. a set of statistical methods (including exploratory, cluster, and probability fields analyses) for evaluation of trajectory and dispersion modeling results. The possible impact (on annual, seasonal, and monthly basis) of selected risk sites on neighboring geographical regions is evaluated using a set of various indicators. For trajectory modeling, the indicators examined are: 1. atmospheric transport pathways, 2. airflow probability fields, 3. fast transport probability fields, 4. maximum possible impact zone, 5. maximum reaching distance, and 6. typical transport time fields. For dispersion modeling, the indicators examined are: 1. time integrated air concentration, 2. dry deposition, and 3. wet deposition. It was found for both sites that within the boundary layer the westerly flows are dominant throughout the year (more than 60% of the time), increasing with altitude of free troposphere up to 85% of the time. For

A probabilistic analysis of atmospheric transport and deposition patterns from two nuclear risk sites -- Kamchatka and Vladivostok -- situated in the Russian Far East to countries and geographical regions of interest (Japan, China, North and South Koreas, territories of the Russian Far East, State of Alaska, and Aleutian Chain Islands, US) was performed. The main questions addressed were the following: Which geographical territories are at the highest risk from hypothetical releases at these sites? What are the probabilities for radionuclide atmospheric transport and deposition on different neighboring countries in case of accidents at the sites? For analysis, several research tools developed within the Arctic Risk Project were applied: 1. isentropic trajectory model to calculate a multiyear dataset of 5-day forward trajectories that originated over the site locations at various altitudes; 2. DERMA long-range transport model to simulate 5-day atmospheric transport, dispersion, and deposition of ^137Cs for 1-day release (at the rate of 10^10 Bq/s); and 3. a set of statistical methods (including exploratory, cluster, and probability fields analyses) for evaluation of trajectory and dispersion modeling results. The possible impact (on annual, seasonal, and monthly basis) of selected risk sites on neighboring geographical regions is evaluated using a set of various indicators. For trajectory modeling, the indicators examined are: 1. atmospheric transport pathways, 2. airflow probability fields, 3. fast transport probability fields, 4. maximum possible impact zone, 5. maximum reaching distance, and 6. typical transport time fields. For dispersion modeling, the indicators examined are: 1. time integrated air concentration, 2. dry deposition, and 3. wet deposition. It was found for both sites that within the boundary layer the westerly flows are dominant throughout the year (more than 60% of the time), increasing with altitude of free troposphere up to 85% of the time. For

Until now, assessment of the Global Nuclear Legacy has mostly focused on nuclear weapon production sites, as they contain the absolute majority of volume and activity of accumulated radioactive waste. These wastes have received detailed examination after the end of the Cold War. The production sites were generally built in unpopulated areas due to secrecy requirements and most of them remain in lightly populated areas. However, some of these sites are now in urban environments due to the growth in population and the industry attracted by such facilities. Much of the Nuclear Legacy in what are now urban environments and densely populated areas was created by nuclear research, testing and educational centers between the 1940s- 1970s. Initially located in the suburbs of cities, they became a part of downtown as a result of growing urbanization. This legacy is less than 1% of the total amount of the nuclear legacy in countries with nuclear power plants. However, other factors, such as urban population density and proximity to operational or obsolete nuclear facilities, increase the importance of this legacy and even give priority in social considerations. Such nuclear facilities are not only a source of radioactive wastes that are often stored under inadequate conditions at the facility site, but also create dangerous targets as they have little or no protection against airplane crashes or missiles. This legacy has only recently received the attention of environmental and anti-terrorist specialists and the local population. Obviously, there is not only a need to prevent direct impact on the population living in the vicinity of the waste disposal site and spent nuclear fuel storage, but also a need for rehabilitation and utilization of this valuable land for governmental and commercial purposes. The countries sharing similar problems of a nuclear legacy in an urban environment could benefit from sharing their experience and cooperating in this field. As a step in this di

Until now, assessment of the Global Nuclear Legacy has mostly focused on nuclear weapon production sites, as they contain the absolute majority of volume and activity of accumulated radioactive waste. These wastes have received detailed examination after the end of the Cold War. The production sites were generally built in unpopulated areas due to secrecy requirements and most of them remain in lightly populated areas. However, some of these sites are now in urban environments due to the growth in population and the industry attracted by such facilities. Much of the Nuclear Legacy in what are now urban environments and densely populated areas was created by nuclear research, testing and educational centers between the 1940s- 1970s. Initially located in the suburbs of cities, they became a part of downtown as a result of growing urbanization. This legacy is less than 1% of the total amount of the nuclear legacy in countries with nuclear power plants. However, other factors, such as urban population density and proximity to operational or obsolete nuclear facilities, increase the importance of this legacy and even give priority in social considerations. Such nuclear facilities are not only a source of radioactive wastes that are often stored under inadequate conditions at the facility site, but also create dangerous targets as they have little or no protection against airplane crashes or missiles. This legacy has only recently received the attention of environmental and anti-terrorist specialists and the local population. Obviously, there is not only a need to prevent direct impact on the population living in the vicinity of the waste disposal site and spent nuclear fuel storage, but also a need for rehabilitation and utilization of this valuable land for governmental and commercial purposes. The countries sharing similar problems of a nuclear legacy in an urban environment could benefit from sharing their experience and cooperating in this field. As a step in this di

An ''Assessment of the Impact of Russian Nuclear Fleet Operations on Far Eastern Coastal Regions'' is being performed as part of the Radiation Safety of the Biosphere Project (RAD) of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) of Laxenburg, Austria. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive unclassified analysis of the potential impact of accidents at the Russian Far East nuclear submarine sites near Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk. We have defined the situation there based upon available information and studies commissioned by RAD in collaboration with Russian research institutes including Russian Research Center-''Kurchatov Institute'', Institute of Northern Environmental Problems and Lazurit Central Design Bureau. Further, in our original work, some in collaboration with the staff of the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) and members of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, we have calculated the nuclide trajectories from these sites in the atmospheric boundary layer, less than 1.5 kilometers high, and determined their probability of crossing any of the nearby countries as well as Asiatic Russia. We have further determined the concentrations in each of these crossings as well as the total, dry and wet depositions of nuclides on these areas. Finally, we have calculated the doses to the Japanese Island population from typical winter airflow patterns (those most likely to cross the Islands in the minimum times), strong north winds, weak north winds and cyclonic winds for conditions similar to the Chazhma Bay criticality accident (fresh fuel) and for a criticality accident for the same type of reactor with fuel being withdrawn (spent fuel). The maximum individual committed dosages were less than 2 x 10-7 and 2 x 10-3 mSv, respectively. The long-term external doses by radionuclides deposited on the ground and the internal doses by consumption of foods were not evaluated as it is believed that such doses can be avoided b

Many studies aimed at evaluation of sustainability of energy development in the 21st century showed that nuclear option might be among the identified sustainable energy options. Nevertheless, attempts to create an international political consensus on the nuclear power's role in sustainable development failed. The question arises: What is behind these controversies? Why do technical views and public perception, that greatly influences the political debate, so diverge? The evaluation of the Global Nuclear Legacy that was performed within the IIASA "Radiation Safety of the Biosphere" (RAD) project definitely shows that the Global Nuclear Legacy has emerged as one of the most important environmental, social, and political problems today. The largest fraction of the radioactive waste is currently being stored at the sites where it was generated, in facilities that were not built for long-term storage. Recent terrorist attacks highlight the risk posed by radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel storage sites that may be targets or used for dirty bombs. Additional threats of environmental degradation are associated with decommissioning of aged nuclear facilities and with carrying out nuclear disarmament at the places where the lack of sufficient infrastructure made it extremely difficult. Thus, the actual and potential implications of the Global Nuclear Legacy will put a huge burden on the future generations and therefore contradict the definition of sustainability given in the Brundtland Report. It seems that the nuclear legacy of the 20th century will stigmatize attempts in the 21st century to utilize advanced techniques if they are characterized as "nuclear". We call this phenomenon "the Stigma of the Global Nuclear Legacy", meaning the inevitable association (conscious or unconscious) of the global nuclear legacy left by intensive development of the nuclear industry, civilian and military, during the second half of the 20th century with nuclear power in general. Is it

The purpose of this study was to estimate the worst-case case dose commitments and potential consequences of accidental releases at nuclear risk sites in the Russian Far East. The nuclear risk sites of concern are near Petropavlovsk (52055'N & 158030'E) and Vladivostok (42055'N & 132025'E). The region of interest includes the territories of the Russian Far East, China, Japan, North and South Korea, State of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Mongolia, Burma, Hong Kong, Laos, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. The transboundary region (i.e., that outside of Russia) is of primary interest because the largest doses resulting from hypothetical releases from these sites would reside in Russia and would be examined using site specific information and detailed models that were unavailable for this study. However, the transboundary region can be examined, in general, using existing information and models. The The methodology from the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 1993 Report was used in this study to estimate effective dose commitments. It is recognized that this methodology is not the only acceptable manner to estimate such doses; the methodology was selected because it is independent, defensible, and, because it is based upon a multiplicative model, lends itself to a facile examination of parameter variation. The research tool used to generate the deposition data used as the basis of this study was a long-range transport model - the Danish Emergency Response Model of the Atmosphere (DERMA) which was used to simulate the 5-d atmospheric transport, dispersion and deposition of Cs-137 for a one-day release at a rate of 10Bq s-1 for a total "unit hypothetical release" of 8.64x10 14 Bq. The meteorological data from the European Center for Medium- Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF, Reading, UK) based on the ECMWF global model forecast and analysis were used as input data for the model simulation. Using the DERMA model, the total Cs-137 dep

The purpose of this study was to estimate the worst-case case dose commitments and potential consequences of accidental releases at nuclear risk sites in the Russian Far East. The nuclear risk sites of concern are near Petropavlovsk (52055'N & 158030'E) and Vladivostok (42055'N & 132025'E). The region of interest includes the territories of the Russian Far East, China, Japan, North and South Korea, State of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Mongolia, Burma, Hong Kong, Laos, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. The transboundary region (i.e., that outside of Russia) is of primary interest because the largest doses resulting from hypothetical releases from these sites would reside in Russia and would be examined using site specific information and detailed models that were unavailable for this study. However, the transboundary region can be examined, in general, using existing information and models. The The methodology from the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 1993 Report was used in this study to estimate effective dose commitments. It is recognized that this methodology is not the only acceptable manner to estimate such doses; the methodology was selected because it is independent, defensible, and, because it is based upon a multiplicative model, lends itself to a facile examination of parameter variation. The research tool used to generate the deposition data used as the basis of this study was a long-range transport model - the Danish Emergency Response Model of the Atmosphere (DERMA) which was used to simulate the 5-d atmospheric transport, dispersion and deposition of Cs-137 for a one-day release at a rate of 10Bq s-1 for a total "unit hypothetical release" of 8.64x10 14 Bq. The meteorological data from the European Center for Medium- Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF, Reading, UK) based on the ECMWF global model forecast and analysis were used as input data for the model simulation. Using the DERMA model, the total Cs-137 dep

The purpose of this study was to estimate the worst-case case dose commitments and potential consequences of accidental releases at nuclear risk sites in the Russian Far East. The nuclear risk sites of concern are near Petropavlovsk (52055'N & 158030'E) and Vladivostok (42055'N & 132025'E). The region of interest includes the territories of the Russian Far East, China, Japan, North and South Korea, State of Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Mongolia, Burma, Hong Kong, Laos, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. The transboundary region (i.e., that outside of Russia) is of primary interest because the largest doses resulting from hypothetical releases from these sites would reside in Russia and would be examined using site specific information and detailed models that were unavailable for this study. However, the transboundary region can be examined, in general, using existing information and models. The The methodology from the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 1993 Report was used in this study to estimate effective dose commitments. It is recognized that this methodology is not the only acceptable manner to estimate such doses; the methodology was selected because it is independent, defensible, and, because it is based upon a multiplicative model, lends itself to a facile examination of parameter variation. The research tool used to generate the deposition data used as the basis of this study was a long-range transport model - the Danish Emergency Response Model of the Atmosphere (DERMA) which was used to simulate the 5-d atmospheric transport, dispersion and deposition of Cs-137 for a one-day release at a rate of 10Bq s-1 for a total "unit hypothetical release" of 8.64x10 14 Bq. The meteorological data from the European Center for Medium- Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF, Reading, UK) based on the ECMWF global model forecast and analysis were used as input data for the model simulation. Using the DERMA model, the total Cs-137 dep

An ''Assessment of the Impact of Russian Nuclear Fleet Operations on Far Eastern Coastal Regions'' is being performed as part of the Radiation Safety of the Biosphere Project (RAD) of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) of Laxenburg, Austria. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive unclassified analysis of the potential impact of accidents at the Russian Far East nuclear submarine sites near Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk. We have defined the situation there based upon available information and studies commissioned by RAD in collaboration with Russian research institutes including Russian Research Center-''Kurchatov Institute'', Institute of Northern Environmental Problems and Lazurit Central Design Bureau. Further, in our original work, some in collaboration with the staff of the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) and members of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, we have calculated the nuclide trajectories from these sites in the atmospheric boundary layer, less than 1.5 kilometers high, and determined their probability of crossing any of the nearby countries as well as Asiatic Russia. We have further determined the concentrations in each of these crossings as well as the total, dry and wet depositions of nuclides on these areas. Finally, we have calculated the doses to the Japanese Island population from typical winter airflow patterns (those most likely to cross the Islands in the minimum times), strong north winds, weak north winds and cyclonic winds for conditions similar to the Chazhma Bay criticality accident (fresh fuel) and for a criticality accident for the same type of reactor with fuel being withdrawn (spent fuel). The maximum individual committed dosages were less than 2 x 10-7 and 2 x 10-3 mSv, respectively. The long-term external doses by radionuclides deposited on the ground and the internal doses by consumption of foods were not evaluated as it is believed that such doses can be avoided b

An ''Assessment of the Impact of Russian Nuclear Fleet Operations on Far Eastern Coastal Regions'' is being performed as part of the Radiation Safety of the Biosphere Project (RAD) of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) of Laxenburg, Austria. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive unclassified analysis of the potential impact of accidents at the Russian Far East nuclear submarine sites near Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk. We have defined the situation there based upon available information and studies commissioned by RAD in collaboration with Russian research institutes including Russian Research Center-''Kurchatov Institute'', Institute of Northern Environmental Problems and Lazurit Central Design Bureau. Further, in our original work, some in collaboration with the staff of the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) and members of the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, we have calculated the nuclide trajectories from these sites in the atmospheric boundary layer, less than 1.5 kilometers high, and determined their probability of crossing any of the nearby countries as well as Asiatic Russia. We have further determined the concentrations in each of these crossings as well as the total, dry and wet depositions of nuclides on these areas. Finally, we have calculated the doses to the Japanese Island population from typical winter airflow patterns (those most likely to cross the Islands in the minimum times), strong north winds, weak north winds and cyclonic winds for conditions similar to the Chazhma Bay criticality accident (fresh fuel) and for a criticality accident for the same type of reactor with fuel being withdrawn (spent fuel). The maximum individual committed dosages were less than 2 x 10-7 and 2 x 10-3 mSv, respectively. The long-term external doses by radionuclides deposited on the ground and the internal doses by consumption of foods were not evaluated as it is believed that such doses can be avoided b

Many studies aimed at evaluation of sustainability of energy development in the 21st century showed that nuclear option might be among the identified sustainable energy options. Nevertheless, attempts to create an international political consensus on the nuclear power's role in sustainable development failed. The question arises: What is behind these controversies? Why do technical views and public perception, that greatly influences the political debate, so diverge? The evaluation of the Global Nuclear Legacy that was performed within the IIASA "Radiation Safety of the Biosphere" (RAD) project definitely shows that the Global Nuclear Legacy has emerged as one of the most important environmental, social, and political problems today. The largest fraction of the radioactive waste is currently being stored at the sites where it was generated, in facilities that were not built for long-term storage. Recent terrorist attacks highlight the risk posed by radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel storage sites that may be targets or used for dirty bombs. Additional threats of environmental degradation are associated with decommissioning of aged nuclear facilities and with carrying out nuclear disarmament at the places where the lack of sufficient infrastructure made it extremely difficult. Thus, the actual and potential implications of the Global Nuclear Legacy will put a huge burden on the future generations and therefore contradict the definition of sustainability given in the Brundtland Report. It seems that the nuclear legacy of the 20th century will stigmatize attempts in the 21st century to utilize advanced techniques if they are characterized as "nuclear". We call this phenomenon "the Stigma of the Global Nuclear Legacy", meaning the inevitable association (conscious or unconscious) of the global nuclear legacy left by intensive development of the nuclear industry, civilian and military, during the second half of the 20th century with nuclear power in general. Is it

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and consequently the termination of the Cold War and the disarmament agreements, many nuclear warheads are in a queue for dismantling. As a result, substantial number of nuclear submarines equipped with ballistic missiles will be also withdrawn from service. However, Russian nuclear submarines have suffered from reactivity accidents five times. In the paper, a reactivity accident on a nuclear submarine that happened at Chazhma Bay located between Vladivostok and Nakhodka on August 10, 1985, has been described. In addition, the characteristics of submarine nuclear reactors, procedures of refueling, and the possibility of a similar accident are given. Further, the radiological risk to Japan and neighboring countries has been assessed by using an atmospheric pollutant transport code, WSPEEDI, developed by Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute. The radiological risk has been evaluated for the Chazhma Bay accident and for a hypothetical reactivity accident of a retired submarine during defueling, assuming winter meteorological conditions. The analyses have shown that the radioactive material might be transported in the atmosphere to Japan in one to several days and might contaminate wide areas of Japan. Under the assumptions taken in the paper, however, the radiological dose to population in the area might be not significant.

The Mining and Chemical Combine (MCC), located approximately 60 km north of the city of Krasnoyarsk,is one of two major sites in the Russian Federation where liquid radioactive wastes (LRW) are disposed of by deep well injection. Disposal of LRW at the MCC through the use of deep well injectio started in 1967. The Severny ("Northern") site, approximately 15 km north of the MCC, was launched after the completion of special geological surveys and explorations performed by istitutions of the Ministry of Geology and Russian Academy of Sciences. The site was designed by Mintom institutions. As of 1995, 5 million cubic meters (m3) of LRW had been injected into two deep aquifers at the site. The waste includes both radioactive fission products and nonradioactive chemicas used in reprocessing of spent fuel. The total activity, decay corrected to 1995, is approximately 250 million Curies (Ci). Detailed information about radioactive waste disposal at the Severny site is presented in Volume I of this report (Compton et al., 2000), which includes an evaluation of the safety of the site under normal post-operational conditions. For further information on the background data contained in Chapter 2 of that report, see Appendix I. The subject of the current report is the likelihood and consequence of hypothetical accidents and extreme natural events after site decommissioning, including a brief overview of the factors involved in the development of decommissioning plans at the site.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and consequently the termination of the Cold War and the disarmament agreements, many nuclear warheads are in a queue for dismantling. As a result, substantial number of nuclear submarines equipped with ballistic missiles will be also withdrawn from service. However, Russian nuclear submarines have suffered from reactivity accidents five times. In the paper, a reactivity accident on a nuclear submarine that happened at Chazhma Bay located between Vladivostok and Nakhodka on August 10, 1985, has been described. In addition, the characteristics of submarine nuclear reactors, procedures of refueling, and the possibility of a similar accident are given. Further, the radiological risk to Japan and neighboring countries has been assessed by using an atmospheric pollutant transport code, WSPEEDI, developed by Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute. The radiological risk has been evaluated for the Chazhma Bay accident and for a hypothetical reactivity accident of a retired submarine during defueling, assuming winter meteorological conditions. The analyses have shown that the radioactive material might be transported in the atmosphere to Japan in one to several days and might contaminate wide areas of Japan. Under the assumptions taken in the paper, however, the radiological dose to population in the area might be not significant.

The Mining and Chemical Combine (MCC), located approximately 60 km north of the city of Krasnoyarsk,is one of two major sites in the Russian Federation where liquid radioactive wastes (LRW) are disposed of by deep well injection. Disposal of LRW at the MCC through the use of deep well injectio started in 1967. The Severny ("Northern") site, approximately 15 km north of the MCC, was launched after the completion of special geological surveys and explorations performed by istitutions of the Ministry of Geology and Russian Academy of Sciences. The site was designed by Mintom institutions. As of 1995, 5 million cubic meters (m3) of LRW had been injected into two deep aquifers at the site. The waste includes both radioactive fission products and nonradioactive chemicas used in reprocessing of spent fuel. The total activity, decay corrected to 1995, is approximately 250 million Curies (Ci). Detailed information about radioactive waste disposal at the Severny site is presented in Volume I of this report (Compton et al., 2000), which includes an evaluation of the safety of the site under normal post-operational conditions. For further information on the background data contained in Chapter 2 of that report, see Appendix I. The subject of the current report is the likelihood and consequence of hypothetical accidents and extreme natural events after site decommissioning, including a brief overview of the factors involved in the development of decommissioning plans at the site.

The Mining and Chemical Combine (MCC), located approximately 60 km north of the city of Krasnoyarsk,is one of two major sites in the Russian Federation where liquid radioactive wastes (LRW) are disposed of by deep well injection. Disposal of LRW at the MCC through the use of deep well injectio started in 1967. The Severny ("Northern") site, approximately 15 km north of the MCC, was launched after the completion of special geological surveys and explorations performed by istitutions of the Ministry of Geology and Russian Academy of Sciences. The site was designed by Mintom institutions. As of 1995, 5 million cubic meters (m3) of LRW had been injected into two deep aquifers at the site. The waste includes both radioactive fission products and nonradioactive chemicas used in reprocessing of spent fuel. The total activity, decay corrected to 1995, is approximately 250 million Curies (Ci). Detailed information about radioactive waste disposal at the Severny site is presented in Volume I of this report (Compton et al., 2000), which includes an evaluation of the safety of the site under normal post-operational conditions. For further information on the background data contained in Chapter 2 of that report, see Appendix I. The subject of the current report is the likelihood and consequence of hypothetical accidents and extreme natural events after site decommissioning, including a brief overview of the factors involved in the development of decommissioning plans at the site.

Early methods of radioactive waste (RW) management in the former Soviet Union (FSU) were plagued with serious problems, which eventually prompted investigations into RW disposal methods that could provide a more reliable isolation of wastes from humans and the accessible environment. Deep well injection was chosen as a potential method of RW disposal, and, after extensive testing of the concept and numerous calculations of the likely consequences, discharges into deep geological formations at Krasnoyarsk-26 began between 1967 and 1969. This study was initiated because there were no published, independent assessments of the deep well injection systems at Krasnoyarsk-26 that used site-specific geology and data. The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), in cooperation with Russian experts, undertook independent analyses of waste migration at the site, using data gathered by official Russian organizations over a 40-year period of exploration and exploitation of the repositories. The results of the modeling efforts carried out by IIASA and the Russian organizations -- VNIPIPT and IGEM -- indicate that the existing system of deep well injection at Krasnoyarsk is functioning as designed. Under the current best understanding of site conditions, there is very little likelihood that the injected wastes would reach the earth's surface prior to the time that the radioactive materials had been absorbed, decayed, or dispersed to concentrations far below standards set for drinking water.

Early methods of radioactive waste (RW) management in the former Soviet Union (FSU) were plagued with serious problems, which eventually prompted investigations into RW disposal methods that could provide a more reliable isolation of wastes from humans and the accessible environment. Deep well injection was chosen as a potential method of RW disposal, and, after extensive testing of the concept and numerous calculations of the likely consequences, discharges into deep geological formations at Krasnoyarsk-26 began between 1967 and 1969. This study was initiated because there were no published, independent assessments of the deep well injection systems at Krasnoyarsk-26 that used site-specific geology and data. The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), in cooperation with Russian experts, undertook independent analyses of waste migration at the site, using data gathered by official Russian organizations over a 40-year period of exploration and exploitation of the repositories. The results of the modeling efforts carried out by IIASA and the Russian organizations -- VNIPIPT and IGEM -- indicate that the existing system of deep well injection at Krasnoyarsk is functioning as designed. Under the current best understanding of site conditions, there is very little likelihood that the injected wastes would reach the earth's surface prior to the time that the radioactive materials had been absorbed, decayed, or dispersed to concentrations far below standards set for drinking water.

Major releases of radioactive materials to the environment occurred in the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War due to the production and testing of nuclear weapons. Understanding of the significance of these releases to the environment in the Soviet Union, with the information that has become available since the end of the Cold War, is only beginning. This volume represents the first authoritative and detailed information available outside of the Soviet nuclear complex, allowing comparisons to be made of the quantities of radioactive materials produced in the West with those produced in the East. This unique study gives the location and characteristics of the accumulated radioactive material and wastes by each sector, from ore and mining to use and disposal. Through the use of clear maps and precise tables and figures, comprehensive data is presented on volume and activity, nuclide composition, state and concentration, and discharges into the environment. It describes type of storage, capacity and utilization, age and location. It gives information on the territories and locations that have been contaminated, by normal operations and by accidents, from which strategic plans for remediation can be formulated. The sectors considered in the study include uranium raw materials mining and processing, nuclear fuel fabrication, nuclear power plants, the nuclear navy, plutonium production and radiochamical reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, manufacturing and utilization of nuclear warheads, and nuclear weapons tests. This volume provides a unique resource for policy makers, analysts, and professionals in the relevant industries; it will be the starting point for all those concerned with and responsible for addressing the legacy of the Soviet nuclear complex and its implications.

Early methods of radioactive waste (RW) management in the former Soviet Union (FSU) were plagued with serious problems, which eventually prompted investigations into RW disposal methods that could provide a more reliable isolation of wastes from humans and the accessible environment. Deep well injection was chosen as a potential method of RW disposal, and, after extensive testing of the concept and numerous calculations of the likely consequences, discharges into deep geological formations at Krasnoyarsk-26 began between 1967 and 1969. This study was initiated because there were no published, independent assessments of the deep well injection systems at Krasnoyarsk-26 that used site-specific geology and data. The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), in cooperation with Russian experts, undertook independent analyses of waste migration at the site, using data gathered by official Russian organizations over a 40-year period of exploration and exploitation of the repositories. The results of the modeling efforts carried out by IIASA and the Russian organizations -- VNIPIPT and IGEM -- indicate that the existing system of deep well injection at Krasnoyarsk is functioning as designed. Under the current best understanding of site conditions, there is very little likelihood that the injected wastes would reach the earth's surface prior to the time that the radioactive materials had been absorbed, decayed, or dispersed to concentrations far below standards set for drinking water.

Major releases of radioactive materials to the environment occurred in the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War due to the production and testing of nuclear weapons. Understanding of the significance of these releases to the environment in the Soviet Union, with the information that has become available since the end of the Cold War, is only beginning. This volume represents the first authoritative and detailed information available outside of the Soviet nuclear complex, allowing comparisons to be made of the quantities of radioactive materials produced in the West with those produced in the East. This unique study gives the location and characteristics of the accumulated radioactive material and wastes by each sector, from ore and mining to use and disposal. Through the use of clear maps and precise tables and figures, comprehensive data is presented on volume and activity, nuclide composition, state and concentration, and discharges into the environment. It describes type of storage, capacity and utilization, age and location. It gives information on the territories and locations that have been contaminated, by normal operations and by accidents, from which strategic plans for remediation can be formulated. The sectors considered in the study include uranium raw materials mining and processing, nuclear fuel fabrication, nuclear power plants, the nuclear navy, plutonium production and radiochamical reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, manufacturing and utilization of nuclear warheads, and nuclear weapons tests. This volume provides a unique resource for policy makers, analysts, and professionals in the relevant industries; it will be the starting point for all those concerned with and responsible for addressing the legacy of the Soviet nuclear complex and its implications.

During the Cold War, production and testing of nuclear weapons in the United States and the Soviet Union led to major releases of radioactive materials into the environment. Although large studies have begun to clarify the magnitude and impact of releases in the United States, only since Perestroika has information become available to begin an evaluation of the significance of releases into the environment in the former Soviet Union (FSU). The Radiation Safety of the Biosphere (RAD) Project at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), begun in 1995, is currently evaluating the radiation legacy of the nuclear weapons complex in the FSU. Because the three sites of Chelyabinsk-65 (Mayak Production Association - MPA), Tomsk-7 (Siberian Chemical Combine - SCC), and Krasnoyarsk-26 (Mining and Chemical Combine - MCC) account for the vast majority of the radioactive materials released into the environment in the FSU, these sites are the focus of RAD's studies. Contamination of such sites has resulted from normal and emergency atmospheric releases (such as the 1993 tank explosion at Tomsk-7), discharge of radioactively contaminated waste and cooling waters into rivers, spills and leaks, and deep-well injection disposal of liquid radioactive waste. This study is limited to the impact of past discharges of radioactive materials to the Yanisei River at the MCC and the Tom River at the SCC. Future studies are planned to assess the significance of deep-well injection of wastes at the MCC.