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This doctoral thesis deals with the Swedish legal regulation of becoming a parent. It covers the regulation of legal parental status and of health care-provided assisted reproduction. The family law and medical law that in these regards can have an impact on individuals’ potential to become parents have both undergone many changes in the last few decades. The aim of the thesis is to make visible how becoming a parent is regulated on a formalized level, and how the regulation of parenthood has been constructed on a discursive level. The thesis’s critical approach thus includes understanding law as an arena for power exercised through legal provisions as well as knowledge production. In the first of the main chapters the current Swedish legislation on insemination, in-vitro fertilization, establishing legal parenthood, recognition of foreign decisions, and national and international adoption is described and analyzed. This is followed by chapters that deal with constructions of ideals, expectations, and other understandings of law and potential parents respectively. This serves the purpose, among others, of illuminating the interplay between diverse legal sources and areas of law. In preparatory works that record lawmakers’ reasoning on the regulation, assumptions that the thesis identifies involve the law’s consistency and at the same time inclusivity. These legal traits have proved to be contradictory, not least when uniform regulations shall apply to a plurality of family forms. In both the formalized- and discursive-level analyses, two parents that are a different-sex, cisgender couple with biological children conceived through sexual reproduction are observed to function as the natural or self-evident default. Drawing on the concept of the sexual family model, the thesis demonstrates ways in which the contours of that model are still operating within Swedish law. It concludes further that the coercive and discursive effects of the law can be said to altogether re

This doctoral thesis deals with the Swedish legal regulation of becoming a parent. It covers the regulation of legal parental status and of health care-provided assisted reproduction. The family law and medical law that in these regards can have an impact on individuals’ potential to become parents have both undergone many changes in the last few decades. The aim of the thesis is to make visible how becoming a parent is regulated on a formalized level, and how the regulation of parenthood has been constructed on a discursive level. The thesis’s critical approach thus includes understanding law as an arena for power exercised through legal provisions as well as knowledge production. In the first of the main chapters the current Swedish legislation on insemination, in-vitro fertilization, establishing legal parenthood, recognition of foreign decisions, and national and international adoption is described and analyzed. This is followed by chapters that deal with constructions of ideals, expectations, and other understandings of law and potential parents respectively. This serves the purpose, among others, of illuminating the interplay between diverse legal sources and areas of law. In preparatory works that record lawmakers’ reasoning on the regulation, assumptions that the thesis identifies involve the law’s consistency and at the same time inclusivity. These legal traits have proved to be contradictory, not least when uniform regulations shall apply to a plurality of family forms. In both the formalized- and discursive-level analyses, two parents that are a different-sex, cisgender couple with biological children conceived through sexual reproduction are observed to function as the natural or self-evident default. Drawing on the concept of the sexual family model, the thesis demonstrates ways in which the contours of that model are still operating within Swedish law. It concludes further that the coercive and discursive effects of the law can be said to altogether re

This doctoral thesis deals with the Swedish legal regulation of becoming a parent. It covers the regulation of legal parental status and of health care-provided assisted reproduction. The family law and medical law that in these regards can have an impact on individuals’ potential to become parents have both undergone many changes in the last few decades. The aim of the thesis is to make visible how becoming a parent is regulated on a formalized level, and how the regulation of parenthood has been constructed on a discursive level. The thesis’s critical approach thus includes understanding law as an arena for power exercised through legal provisions as well as knowledge production. In the first of the main chapters the current Swedish legislation on insemination, in-vitro fertilization, establishing legal parenthood, recognition of foreign decisions, and national and international adoption is described and analyzed. This is followed by chapters that deal with constructions of ideals, expectations, and other understandings of law and potential parents respectively. This serves the purpose, among others, of illuminating the interplay between diverse legal sources and areas of law. In preparatory works that record lawmakers’ reasoning on the regulation, assumptions that the thesis identifies involve the law’s consistency and at the same time inclusivity. These legal traits have proved to be contradictory, not least when uniform regulations shall apply to a plurality of family forms. In both the formalized- and discursive-level analyses, two parents that are a different-sex, cisgender couple with biological children conceived through sexual reproduction are observed to function as the natural or self-evident default. Drawing on the concept of the sexual family model, the thesis demonstrates ways in which the contours of that model are still operating within Swedish law. It concludes further that the coercive and discursive effects of the law can be said to altogether re

This doctoral thesis deals with the Swedish legal regulation of becoming a parent. It covers the regulation of legal parental status and of health care-provided assisted reproduction. The family law and medical law that in these regards can have an impact on individuals’ potential to become parents have both undergone many changes in the last few decades. The aim of the thesis is to make visible how becoming a parent is regulated on a formalized level, and how the regulation of parenthood has been constructed on a discursive level. The thesis’s critical approach thus includes understanding law as an arena for power exercised through legal provisions as well as knowledge production. In the first of the main chapters the current Swedish legislation on insemination, in-vitro fertilization, establishing legal parenthood, recognition of foreign decisions, and national and international adoption is described and analyzed. This is followed by chapters that deal with constructions of ideals, expectations, and other understandings of law and potential parents respectively. This serves the purpose, among others, of illuminating the interplay between diverse legal sources and areas of law. In preparatory works that record lawmakers’ reasoning on the regulation, assumptions that the thesis identifies involve the law’s consistency and at the same time inclusivity. These legal traits have proved to be contradictory, not least when uniform regulations shall apply to a plurality of family forms. In both the formalized- and discursive-level analyses, two parents that are a different-sex, cisgender couple with biological children conceived through sexual reproduction are observed to function as the natural or self-evident default. Drawing on the concept of the sexual family model, the thesis demonstrates ways in which the contours of that model are still operating within Swedish law. It concludes further that the coercive and discursive effects of the law can be said to altogether re

Flexible working arrangements have increased significantly, especially as a result of Covid-19. Previous research has described the deregulation of traditional work forms as an opportunity to increase control among employees. On the other hand, research also shows that more flexibility increases the individuals’ responsibility to set boundaries and make time for sufficient recovery. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in the need for recovery among workers with flextime and non-regulated work hours, while also comparing the employees based on parental status.The study also investigates whether the need for recovery differs among flexible workers parental status, while controlling for the perception of control. A registry study was conducted using a cross-sectional design and data from 830 flexible workers have been analyzed. Results show no significant difference in the need for recovery among employees with flextime compared to non-regulated work hours. Neither did the results show a significant difference among flexible workers based on their parental status. Lastly, results showed that the employees’ perception of control was associated with the need for recovery. In conclusion, no significant differences were found among the groups, but findings suggest that employees’ perception of control is associated with their need for recovery. Keywords: flexible work arrangements, need for recovery, control, parental status

Flexible working arrangements have increased significantly, especially as a result of Covid-19. Previous research has described the deregulation of traditional work forms as an opportunity to increase control among employees. On the other hand, research also shows that more flexibility increases the individuals’ responsibility to set boundaries and make time for sufficient recovery. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in the need for recovery among workers with flextime and non-regulated work hours, while also comparing the employees based on parental status.The study also investigates whether the need for recovery differs among flexible workers parental status, while controlling for the perception of control. A registry study was conducted using a cross-sectional design and data from 830 flexible workers have been analyzed. Results show no significant difference in the need for recovery among employees with flextime compared to non-regulated work hours. Neither did the results show a significant difference among flexible workers based on their parental status. Lastly, results showed that the employees’ perception of control was associated with the need for recovery. In conclusion, no significant differences were found among the groups, but findings suggest that employees’ perception of control is associated with their need for recovery. Keywords: flexible work arrangements, need for recovery, control, parental status

Background: Previous research has shown that individuals from high-status families enter marriage later than those from low-status families. However, in many Western societies, it has become common to cohabit prior to marriage. Does this change the link between parental socioeconomic status (SES) and marriage timing? Objective: This study examines to what extent the impact of parental SES on the timing of first marriage weakens after young adults start a cohabiting union. It also examines cross-national variation in the link between parental SES and marriage timing before and after young adults cohabit and whether this variation depends on countries’ position in the cohabitation transition. Methods: We apply discrete-time hazard models and meta-analytical tools using data from 20 Western countries. To examine whether the cohabitation stage of countries explains country differences, we construct a four-stage cohabitation typology. Results: In most countries, higher parental SES results in later entry into marriage. The impact of parental SES on marriage timing weakens considerably after young adults entered a cohabiting union. Substantial cross-national variation is found in the strength of the link between parental SES and marriage timing. However, this variation cannot be explained by the cohabitation stage countries are in. Contribution: First, this study provides fresh evidence of the influence of parental SES on family formation in Western countries. Second, it shows the importance of a life-course perspective, as parental SES matters less after young adults start a cohabiting union. Third, it presents a theory-based and empirically-tested typology of stages in the cohabitation transition.

Background: Having children is a major life course event yet some disabilities could make it biologically challenging and some others could limit access to necessary socioeconomic resources. To date, there is relatively little data on disability and parental status and our study aimed to investigate this relationship. Methods: This longitudinal cohort study was based on register data obtained from all people born in Sweden from 1968 to 1970 (n = 440220). We performed descriptive analyses, graphical plots, logistic regression, and Cox regression analyses. Results: Our findings from both logistic regression and Cox regression indicated that individuals that started to receive disability benefits at an early age had reduced chances of having children during the follow-up duration. Men with disabilities were less likely to have children when compared to women with disabilities and to men and women without disabilities. Conclusions: We found evidence that disability during early adulthood was associated with reduced chances of having children. Findings support policies and programmes aimed at promoting optimal health during early adulthood, as this would promote continued labour force participation, reduce early use of disability benefits, and possibly improve chances of becoming a parent., DISTIME

Background: Having children is a major life course event yet some disabilities could make it biologically challenging and some others could limit access to necessary socioeconomic resources. To date, there is relatively little data on disability and parental status and our study aimed to investigate this relationship. Methods: This longitudinal cohort study was based on register data obtained from all people born in Sweden from 1968 to 1970 (n = 440220). We performed descriptive analyses, graphical plots, logistic regression, and Cox regression analyses. Results: Our findings from both logistic regression and Cox regression indicated that individuals that started to receive disability benefits at an early age had reduced chances of having children during the follow-up duration. Men with disabilities were less likely to have children when compared to women with disabilities and to men and women without disabilities. Conclusions: We found evidence that disability during early adulthood was associated with reduced chances of having children. Findings support policies and programmes aimed at promoting optimal health during early adulthood, as this would promote continued labour force participation, reduce early use of disability benefits, and possibly improve chances of becoming a parent., DISTIME

Background: Having children is a major life course event yet some disabilities could make it biologically challenging and some others could limit access to necessary socioeconomic resources. To date, there is relatively little data on disability and parental status and our study aimed to investigate this relationship. Methods: This longitudinal cohort study was based on register data obtained from all people born in Sweden from 1968 to 1970 (n = 440220). We performed descriptive analyses, graphical plots, logistic regression, and Cox regression analyses. Results: Our findings from both logistic regression and Cox regression indicated that individuals that started to receive disability benefits at an early age had reduced chances of having children during the follow-up duration. Men with disabilities were less likely to have children when compared to women with disabilities and to men and women without disabilities. Conclusions: We found evidence that disability during early adulthood was associated with reduced chances of having children. Findings support policies and programmes aimed at promoting optimal health during early adulthood, as this would promote continued labour force participation, reduce early use of disability benefits, and possibly improve chances of becoming a parent., DISTIME

Background: Having children is a major life course event yet some disabilities could make it biologically challenging and some others could limit access to necessary socioeconomic resources. To date, there is relatively little data on disability and parental status and our study aimed to investigate this relationship. Methods: This longitudinal cohort study was based on register data obtained from all people born in Sweden from 1968 to 1970 (n = 440220). We performed descriptive analyses, graphical plots, logistic regression, and Cox regression analyses. Results: Our findings from both logistic regression and Cox regression indicated that individuals that started to receive disability benefits at an early age had reduced chances of having children during the follow-up duration. Men with disabilities were less likely to have children when compared to women with disabilities and to men and women without disabilities. Conclusions: We found evidence that disability during early adulthood was associated with reduced chances of having children. Findings support policies and programmes aimed at promoting optimal health during early adulthood, as this would promote continued labour force participation, reduce early use of disability benefits, and possibly improve chances of becoming a parent., DISTIME

Background: Having children is a major life course event yet some disabilities could make it biologically challenging and some others could limit access to necessary socioeconomic resources. To date, there is relatively little data on disability and parental status and our study aimed to investigate this relationship. Methods: This longitudinal cohort study was based on register data obtained from all people born in Sweden from 1968 to 1970 (n = 440220). We performed descriptive analyses, graphical plots, logistic regression, and Cox regression analyses. Results: Our findings from both logistic regression and Cox regression indicated that individuals that started to receive disability benefits at an early age had reduced chances of having children during the follow-up duration. Men with disabilities were less likely to have children when compared to women with disabilities and to men and women without disabilities. Conclusions: We found evidence that disability during early adulthood was associated with reduced chances of having children. Findings support policies and programmes aimed at promoting optimal health during early adulthood, as this would promote continued labour force participation, reduce early use of disability benefits, and possibly improve chances of becoming a parent., DISTIME

In fathers testosterone levels are suggested to decrease in the context of caregiving, but results seem inconsistent. In a meta-analysis including 50 study outcomes with N = 7,080 male participants we distinguished three domains of research, relating testosterone levels to parental status (Hedges’ g = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.09 to 0.35; N = 4,150), parenting quality (Hedges’ g = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.03 to 0.24; N = 2,164), and reactivity after exposure to child stimuli (Hedges’ g = 0.19, 95% CI: -0.03 to 0.42; N = 766). The sets of study outcomes on reactivity and on parenting quality were both homogeneous. Parental status and (higher) parenting quality were related to lower levels of testosterone, but according to conventional criteria combined effect sizes were small. Moderators did not significantly modify combined effect sizes. Results suggest that publication bias might have inflated the meta-analytic results, and the large effects of pioneering but small and underpowered studies in the domains of males’ parental status and parenting quality have not been consistently replicated. Large studies with sufficient statistical power to detect small testosterone effects and, in particular, the moderating effects of the interplay with other endocrine systems and with contextual determinants are required.

The aim of this study was to clarify the associations of family members living together with health-related behaviors in Japanese young workers. The participants were 300 men and women aged 20-39 years in 2015 who had a job. A web-based self-administered questionnaire on status of partnering and parenting, number of family members living together, dietary habits, drinking habit, smoking habit, self-rated health, employment status, working time and commuting time was conducted through Internet. Multiple logistic regression analysis and general linear models were used to assess the association of family members living together with health-related behaviors. The multivariate-adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval, p-value) for current drinking in unmarried participants living with their parents compared to unmarried participants living alone was 0.35 (0.13-0.93, p=0.036). The adjusted means of frequency of breakfast skipping and frequency of eating out showed a trend for inverse associations with the presence of a partner and children. However, those associations disappeared after adjustment for age of youngest child. The findings suggest that the presence of parents might affect drinking behavior and that age of youngest child living together might affect the frequency of breakfast skipping in young Japanese workers.

This quantitative non-experimental correlational study involved the investigation of the relationships between job satisfaction, gender, marital status, and parental status among educational leaders who identify as being Christian. A multiple regression analysis was utilized to determine how accurately job satisfaction, as measured by the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), can be predicted from a linear combination of gender, marital status, and parental status for Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth-grade school administrators identifying as Christian. A sample size of 573 educational leaders in Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth-grade schools who identified as being Christian participated in this study. The gender distribution in this study was relatively balanced, with 43.82% of participants being male, and 56.18% of participants being female. Multiple regression analysis revealed that gender, marital status, and parental status have no significant relationship with job satisfaction. The significance of this study lies in the need for increased gender awareness among school administrators, and the impact that gender roles play in job satisfaction related to work-life balance. Recommendations for further research include developing a spiritually focused job satisfaction survey due to the feedback from participants regarding their job satisfaction coming from a sense of calling rather than from external sources.

Background: This study examines the association between marital and parental status and their individual and combined effect on risk of dementia diseases in a population-based longitudinal study while controlling for a range of potential confounders, including social networks and exposure to stressful negative life events. Methods: A total of 1,609 participants without dementia, aged 65 years and over, were followed for an average period of 8.6 years (SD = 4.8). During follow-up, 354 participants were diagnosed with dementia. Cox regression was used to investigate the effect of marital and parental status on risk of dementia. Results: In univariate Cox regression models (adjusted for age as time scale), widowed (hazard ratio (HR) 1.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.13-1.78), and not having children (HR 1.54, 95% CI = 1.15-2.06) were significantly associated with incident dementia. In multivariate analyses that included simultaneously marital and parental status and covariates that were found to be significant in univariate models (p < 0.10), the HR was 1.30 (95% CI = 1.01-1.66) for widowed, and 1.51 (95% CI = 1.08-2.10) for those not having children. Finally, a group of four combined factors was constructed: married parents (reference), married without children, widowed parents, and widowed without children. The combined effect revealed a 1.3 times higher risk (95% CI = 1.03-1.76) of dementia in widow parents, and a 2.2 times higher risk (95% CI = 1.36-3.60) in widowed persons without children, in relation to married parents. No significant difference was observed for those being married and without children. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that marital- and parental status are important risk factors for developing dementia, with especially increased risk in those being both widowed and without children.

Background: This study examines the association between marital and parental status and their individual and combined effect on risk of dementia diseases in a population-based longitudinal study while controlling for a range of potential confounders, including social networks and exposure to stressful negative life events. Methods: A total of 1,609 participants without dementia, aged 65 years and over, were followed for an average period of 8.6 years (SD = 4.8). During follow-up, 354 participants were diagnosed with dementia. Cox regression was used to investigate the effect of marital and parental status on risk of dementia. Results: In univariate Cox regression models (adjusted for age as time scale), widowed (hazard ratio (HR) 1.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.13-1.78), and not having children (HR 1.54, 95% CI = 1.15-2.06) were significantly associated with incident dementia. In multivariate analyses that included simultaneously marital and parental status and covariates that were found to be significant in univariate models (p < 0.10), the HR was 1.30 (95% CI = 1.01-1.66) for widowed, and 1.51 (95% CI = 1.08-2.10) for those not having children. Finally, a group of four combined factors was constructed: married parents (reference), married without children, widowed parents, and widowed without children. The combined effect revealed a 1.3 times higher risk (95% CI = 1.03-1.76) of dementia in widow parents, and a 2.2 times higher risk (95% CI = 1.36-3.60) in widowed persons without children, in relation to married parents. No significant difference was observed for those being married and without children. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that marital- and parental status are important risk factors for developing dementia, with especially increased risk in those being both widowed and without children., AuthorCount:5

The Adult Polls are designed to help the Department of Defense understand the role that adults play in influencing youth's consideration of and enlistment into the U.S. military. This report details the findings from the September 2003 Adult Poll 5, focusing on adults' likelihood to recommend the military, their level of knowledge of the military, their overall impressions of the military, and their perceptions of current events and economic conditions. Overall, results of the September 2003 Adult Poll 5 are very similar to those of the 2002 Adult Poll 4. However, the proportion of adults who were likely to recommend the military continued its gradual decline since October 2001 (66%), and is now down to 52% - the lowest level since the Adult Polls began in May 2001. Nonparents remain more likely than parents to recommend the military (57% and 39%, respectively). Favorability towards the military is approximately the same as it was a year ago. This survey revealed that there are significant differences in favorability across the major racial/ethnic groups. Hispanics are the most favorable toward the military and each of the Services and Components, with the exception of the Coast Guard. Blacks are the least favorable toward the military. Self-reported knowledge of the military remains low (6.1 on a scale of 1-low to 10-high), and has not changed significantly since October 2001. Currently, it appears that adults and youth alike are uninformed when it comes to the reality of military service. In this environment, associations become even more important because people rely on these associations to draw inferences to fill gaps in their knowledge. Experts in branding suggest that to create the most conducive environment, marketing managers and advertisers must focus on one kind of position for their brand. Within the general adult segment, this research suggests that focusing on Personal Development may be the best approach. (14 tables, 54 figures), Prepared in collaboration with Aon Consulting's Loyalty Institute, Fors Marsh Group, and Wirthlin Worldwide. The original document contains color images.