Search

Background: In Southern countries, companies that employ a large number of workers are concerned with poverty reduction, which is the priority of their CSR policy. The banana sector has made great efforts to calculate a “living wage”, but this is not sufficient. How do we assess a decent living standard in Southern countries, where basic social needs are rarely covered by the public authorities? (2) Methods: the selection and analysis of the living standard assessment methods are based on a systematic review of the literature. (3) Results: We selected 427 references in total and classified them into 10 method families. Among them, we have not found a ready-to-use method. The paper therefore suggests an innovative methodology (CSDA) inspired by Townsend's non-monetary deprivation score and by the importance of social norms and ties. Instead of using a list of goods to define a decent living standard, the new method relies on access to services proven to be important for public health by covering social needs. Moreover, this method is easy to implement for the private sector, highlights the priority social needs for workers on which the company can act with its CSR policy, and allows for cross-country comparison. (4) Conclusions: This last point is crucial for the producers' commercial negotiations with large-scale distribution and also to prevent the flight of workers to other activities or competitors. With regard to poverty alleviation, it will depend on how the company uses the results of the CSDA assessment.

Les agricultures ultramarines se caractérisent par la permanence d'exploitations de petite dimension, souvent diversifiées et valorisant des savoirs traditionnels. Elles ont le plus souvent des activités informelles et non marchandes importantes, qui échappent pour partie aux dispositifs statistiques et à la comptabilité agricole, et restent mal connues alors qu'elles contribuent significativement à la production agricole et remplissent des fonctions essentielles aux territoires ruraux. Une recherche réalisée par le Cirad, INRAE et l'Institut agronomique néo-calédonien (IAC), et financée par le ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Alimentation, a permis de développer une méthode originale d'évaluation des revenus totaux des groupes domestiques. Appliquée en Nouvelle-Calédonie et en Guadeloupe, elle aide, en complément des dispositifs existants, à mieux rendre compte de ces structures et de leurs performances technico-économiques. Ces propositions méthodologiques pourraient être adaptées à d'autres économies ultramarines françaises.

Les agricultures ultramarines se caractérisent par la permanence d'exploitations de petite dimension, souvent diversifiées et valorisant des savoirs traditionnels. Elles ont le plus souvent des activités informelles et non marchandes importantes, qui échappent pour partie aux dispositifs statistiques et à la comptabilité agricole, et restent mal connues alors qu'elles contribuent significativement à la production agricole et remplissent des fonctions essentielles aux territoires ruraux. Une recherche réalisée par le Cirad, INRAE et l'Institut agronomique néo-calédonien (IAC), et financée par le ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Alimentation, a permis de développer une méthode originale d'évaluation des revenus totaux des groupes domestiques. Appliquée en Nouvelle-Calédonie et en Guadeloupe, elle aide, en complément des dispositifs existants, à mieux rendre compte de ces structures et de leurs performances technico-économiques. Ces propositions méthodologiques pourraient être adaptées à d'autres économies ultramarines françaises.

Food systems need to focus more on health, prosperity, and environmental sustainability. This requires changes in what, where, how and by whom food is produced, marketed, and consumed. Interdisciplinary research and trans-disciplinary collaboration are needed. Stakeholders need to agree on their respective roles, values, responsibilities and modus operandi so that research better responds to real-world challenges and opportunities. This viewpoint argues that this is especially the case in the Global South post Covid-19. Without these changes, there will continue to be unrealistic expectations of impact from agricultural research, and disappointment when these are not realised.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to characterise the local foods and beverages sold and advertised in three deprived urban African neighbourhoods. Design: Cross-sectional observational study. We undertook an audit of all food outlets (outlet type and food sold) and food advertisements. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise exposures. Latent class analysis was used to explore the interactions between food advertisements, food outlet types and food type availability. Setting: Three deprived neighbourhoods in African cities: Jamestown in Accra, Ho Dome in Ho (both Ghana) and Makadara in Nairobi (Kenya). Main outcome measure: Types of foods and beverages sold and/or advertised. Results Jamestown (80.5%) and Makadara (70.9%) were dominated by informal vendors. There was a wide diversity of foods, with high availability of healthy (eg, staples, vegetables) and unhealthy foods (eg, processed/fried foods, sugar-sweetened beverages). Almost half of all advertisements were for sugar-sweetened beverages (48.3%), with higher exposure to alcohol adverts compared with other items as well (28.5%). We identified five latent classes which demonstrated the clustering of healthier foods in informal outlets, and unhealthy foods in formal outlets. Conclusion: Our study presents one of the most detailed geospatial exploration of the urban food environment in Africa. The high exposure of sugar-sweetened beverages and alcohol both available and advertised represent changing urban food environments. The concentration of unhealthy foods and beverages in formal outlets and advertisements of unhealthy products may offer important policy opportunities for regulation and action.

Given the persistent poor livelihood of cocoa-farming households, future climate predictions and the worldwide demand pressure for higher cocoa quality and productivity, there is still a strong need to find new approaches that guarantee a sustainable cocoa future in cocoa-producing countries amongst which Cameroon is one of them. This exploratory research investigates potential future pathways for the cocoa sector in Cameroon by mapping the perceptions of actors involved in the socio-technical regime. Qualitative expert interviews, structured questionnaires and field observation, as well as a focus group discussion have been applied to understand how a sustainability transition can be triggered. The study shows that actors envisage a sustainability change which determines their actions; however, their perceptions towards future transitions are not actively coordinated. Actors are not finding a way of adopting new organizational structures and letting a transition occur effectively, like in the case of certification standards. An alignment of perceptions and activities, and a stronger cooperation between the private and public are strongly recommended. The study encourages to consider a coordination of actors' perceptions towards future scenarios as a starting point to study sustainability transitions.

Food systems need to focus more on health, prosperity, and environmental sustainability. This requires changes in what, where, how and by whom food is produced, marketed, and consumed. Interdisciplinary research and trans-disciplinary collaboration are needed. Stakeholders need to agree on their respective roles, values, responsibilities and modus operandi so that research better responds to real-world challenges and opportunities. This viewpoint argues that this is especially the case in the Global South post Covid-19. Without these changes, there will continue to be unrealistic expectations of impact from agricultural research, and disappointment when these are not realised.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to characterise the local foods and beverages sold and advertised in three deprived urban African neighbourhoods. Design: Cross-sectional observational study. We undertook an audit of all food outlets (outlet type and food sold) and food advertisements. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise exposures. Latent class analysis was used to explore the interactions between food advertisements, food outlet types and food type availability. Setting: Three deprived neighbourhoods in African cities: Jamestown in Accra, Ho Dome in Ho (both Ghana) and Makadara in Nairobi (Kenya). Main outcome measure: Types of foods and beverages sold and/or advertised. Results Jamestown (80.5%) and Makadara (70.9%) were dominated by informal vendors. There was a wide diversity of foods, with high availability of healthy (eg, staples, vegetables) and unhealthy foods (eg, processed/fried foods, sugar-sweetened beverages). Almost half of all advertisements were for sugar-sweetened beverages (48.3%), with higher exposure to alcohol adverts compared with other items as well (28.5%). We identified five latent classes which demonstrated the clustering of healthier foods in informal outlets, and unhealthy foods in formal outlets. Conclusion: Our study presents one of the most detailed geospatial exploration of the urban food environment in Africa. The high exposure of sugar-sweetened beverages and alcohol both available and advertised represent changing urban food environments. The concentration of unhealthy foods and beverages in formal outlets and advertisements of unhealthy products may offer important policy opportunities for regulation and action.

Given the persistent poor livelihood of cocoa-farming households, future climate predictions and the worldwide demand pressure for higher cocoa quality and productivity, there is still a strong need to find new approaches that guarantee a sustainable cocoa future in cocoa-producing countries amongst which Cameroon is one of them. This exploratory research investigates potential future pathways for the cocoa sector in Cameroon by mapping the perceptions of actors involved in the socio-technical regime. Qualitative expert interviews, structured questionnaires and field observation, as well as a focus group discussion have been applied to understand how a sustainability transition can be triggered. The study shows that actors envisage a sustainability change which determines their actions; however, their perceptions towards future transitions are not actively coordinated. Actors are not finding a way of adopting new organizational structures and letting a transition occur effectively, like in the case of certification standards. An alignment of perceptions and activities, and a stronger cooperation between the private and public are strongly recommended. The study encourages to consider a coordination of actors' perceptions towards future scenarios as a starting point to study sustainability transitions.

Coffee agroforestry systems deliver ecosystem services (ES) critical for rural livelihoods like food but also disservices that constrain livelihoods like fostering coffee-pests. Since such ES are tree-based, maximizing ES and limiting constraints requires knowledge on optimizing on-farm tree composition especially trees adapted to local conditions. The study was in three sites along a rainfall gradient in Central Uganda where we: assessed tree diversity in coffee agroforestry; ranked tree suitability for providing ES according to farmers' knowledge; and then proposed an approach for optimizing on-farm tree composition for delivery of ES. We collected data on tree diversity and, farmers' knowledge of tree species and the ES they provide. Farmers ranked ES in order of importance to their livelihoods ('Needs rank') and ranked trees according to suitability for providing ES. Using Bradley Terry modeling, we grouped trees into 'ES groups' according to suitability for providing different ES and ranked 'ES groups' according to tree diversity ('Diversity rank'). Tree-suitability for providing ES and importance of ES to farmers varied with rainfall regime but tree diversity did not match farmers' needs for ES. We propose the FaD–FaN (matching farm tree diversity to farmers' needs) approach for optimizing tree species composition with respect to tree-suitability for farmers' priority ES. Farmers locally prioritize ES needed and identify trees that best serve such ES. The approach then focuses on modifying on-farm tree diversity to match/suit farmers' priority ES. The FaD–FaN approach caters for varying socio-ecological conditions; it's adaptable for other coffee and cocoa-growing areas worldwide.

The very nature of family farming makes it a complex scientific subject, being at the same time a social form of production and an economic agent. Its nature challenges disciplines that most of the time overlook dimensions that do not fit in with their own framework leading to partial views in anthropology, sociology, political science or economics, just to mention the most common disciplinary focus on rural societies. We suggest exploring the well-known Sustainable Rural Livelihood framework as a comprehensive and open conceptual design to address the evolution of family farming. While the entry point concerns individuals, it also considers the social structures and institutions in which they are embedded. It also contemplates natural, social and human assets in addition to physical and financial ones. The activity system developed by each individual within its social setting goes beyond sectorial approaches; the strategies developed are contextualized and influenced by policies. To illustrate how this framework can be implemented, we developed a case study approach in contrasting rural contexts ranging from Argentina, Brazil or Nicaragua for Latin American situations, to Indonesia, China or India for Asia, or to Mali, Cameroon or Mozambique for African illustrations. The cases will not be extensively presented here as we choose to highlight some of the main findings and crosscutting themes as ways and means of adapting to changing contexts. We also discuss the challenges and perspectives faced by family farming from other forms of production and provide some insight into "blind" issues: the social drawbacks and political dimensions linked to agriculture related to broader territorial and national concerns.

Since the second half of the 2000s, several options for implementing community-based forest management in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), like the local community forest concession (LCFC), have been discussed in the country's technical and political circles. Proposals and pilot testing have increased in the last five years, but the funding of initiatives is often proposed for divergent purposes and taking different approaches. We reviewed current experiences in the Eastern province of the DRC and found that nobody has carried out an estimation of the financial returns of the business models they drew up for/with the communities involved. We therefore conducted a financial feasibility analysis for two case studies, estimating the costs of developing/implementing activities and the benefits expected for the communities within the next five years. Three main conclusions were drawn from the analysis: (1) most activities conducted under the LCFC model deal with rural development, and not with forestry operations per se; (2) several forestry activities such as biodiversity conservation or carbon sequestration are not detailed in the management documents and appear to have little legitimacy for local populations; (3) the two LCFCs show a negative financial performance because the inception and implementation costs are substantially higher than the medium-term profits. Community forestry is unlikely to develop in the DRC unless local people are guaranteed that it will contribute to improving their livelihoods, notably their financial and physical capital. This requires that LCFC initiatives focus on actual productive uses of forest resources, which financial performance is systematically assessed ex ante. A simplification of the legal constraints is also needed to reduce the cost of creating and managing a LCFC.

Coffee agroforestry systems deliver ecosystem services (ES) critical for rural livelihoods like food but also disservices that constrain livelihoods like fostering coffee-pests. Since such ES are tree-based, maximizing ES and limiting constraints requires knowledge on optimizing on-farm tree composition especially trees adapted to local conditions. The study was in three sites along a rainfall gradient in Central Uganda where we: assessed tree diversity in coffee agroforestry; ranked tree suitability for providing ES according to farmers' knowledge; and then proposed an approach for optimizing on-farm tree composition for delivery of ES. We collected data on tree diversity and, farmers' knowledge of tree species and the ES they provide. Farmers ranked ES in order of importance to their livelihoods ('Needs rank') and ranked trees according to suitability for providing ES. Using Bradley Terry modeling, we grouped trees into 'ES groups' according to suitability for providing different ES and ranked 'ES groups' according to tree diversity ('Diversity rank'). Tree-suitability for providing ES and importance of ES to farmers varied with rainfall regime but tree diversity did not match farmers' needs for ES. We propose the FaD–FaN (matching farm tree diversity to farmers' needs) approach for optimizing tree species composition with respect to tree-suitability for farmers' priority ES. Farmers locally prioritize ES needed and identify trees that best serve such ES. The approach then focuses on modifying on-farm tree diversity to match/suit farmers' priority ES. The FaD–FaN approach caters for varying socio-ecological conditions; it's adaptable for other coffee and cocoa-growing areas worldwide.

In this paper, we propose to set a framework to analyse family farming with a specific focus on examples drawn from African situations. After some initial observations regarding African agriculture we then highlight a few points that justify the use of the sustainable livelihood framework to represent family farming. These reflexions are based on a Working Paper followed by a collective book that explore these conceptual and methodological dimensions. Two situations are presented to briefly illustrate the use of the framework: Mali and Madagascar. We conclude by some limits and suggestions to overcome them.

The very nature of family farming makes it a complex scientific subject, being at the same time a social form of production and an economic agent. Its nature challenges disciplines that most of the time overlook dimensions that do not fit in with their own framework leading to partial views in anthropology, sociology, political science or economics, just to mention the most common disciplinary focus on rural societies. We suggest exploring the well-known Sustainable Rural Livelihood framework as a comprehensive and open conceptual design to address the evolution of family farming. While the entry point concerns individuals, it also considers the social structures and institutions in which they are embedded. It also contemplates natural, social and human assets in addition to physical and financial ones. The activity system developed by each individual within its social setting goes beyond sectorial approaches; the strategies developed are contextualized and influenced by policies. To illustrate how this framework can be implemented, we developed a case study approach in contrasting rural contexts ranging from Argentina, Brazil or Nicaragua for Latin American situations, to Indonesia, China or India for Asia, or to Mali, Cameroon or Mozambique for African illustrations. The cases will not be extensively presented here as we choose to highlight some of the main findings and crosscutting themes as ways and means of adapting to changing contexts. We also discuss the challenges and perspectives faced by family farming from other forms of production and provide some insight into "blind" issues: the social drawbacks and political dimensions linked to agriculture related to broader territorial and national concerns.

Since the second half of the 2000s, several options for implementing community-based forest management in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), like the local community forest concession (LCFC), have been discussed in the country's technical and political circles. Proposals and pilot testing have increased in the last five years, but the funding of initiatives is often proposed for divergent purposes and taking different approaches. We reviewed current experiences in the Eastern province of the DRC and found that nobody has carried out an estimation of the financial returns of the business models they drew up for/with the communities involved. We therefore conducted a financial feasibility analysis for two case studies, estimating the costs of developing/implementing activities and the benefits expected for the communities within the next five years. Three main conclusions were drawn from the analysis: (1) most activities conducted under the LCFC model deal with rural development, and not with forestry operations per se; (2) several forestry activities such as biodiversity conservation or carbon sequestration are not detailed in the management documents and appear to have little legitimacy for local populations; (3) the two LCFCs show a negative financial performance because the inception and implementation costs are substantially higher than the medium-term profits. Community forestry is unlikely to develop in the DRC unless local people are guaranteed that it will contribute to improving their livelihoods, notably their financial and physical capital. This requires that LCFC initiatives focus on actual productive uses of forest resources, which financial performance is systematically assessed ex ante. A simplification of the legal constraints is also needed to reduce the cost of creating and managing a LCFC.

L'amélioration de l'alimentation des populations est au coeur des politiques de sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle au niveau global et des pays. Cette volonté est traduite dans l'objectif de développement durable visant à éradiquer la faim d'ici à 2030. Pour y arriver, deux prérequis sont nécessaires : estimer précisément ce que les gens mangent et identifier les personnes en difficulté. C'est dans cette optique que les enquêtes de conditions de vie des ménages (" Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) ") sont de plus en plus utilisées mais aussi questionnées quant à leur fiabilité et leur précision pour l'analyse de la consommation alimentaire. Les enquêtes LSMS ont un certain nombre d'avantages dont celui d'être représentatives au niveau national et régional. En théorie, elles permettent de désagréger l'information sur l'alimentation des ménages et d'identifier les caractéristiques de ceux en difficulté pour satisfaire leurs besoins alimentaires. En pratique, ces enquêtes étant réalisées avec une logique économique de mesure de la pauvreté monétaire et d'analyse du budget des ménages, elles recensent la valeur monétaire des consommations des ménages et non pas les quantités de produits consommés, nécessaires à une analyse nutritionnelle de la consommation alimentaire. Le passage des valeurs monétaires aux quantités pose un certain nombre de problèmes méthodologiques que nous avons traités sur deux enquêtes camerounaises (ECAM) en présentant des solutions innovantes dans les trois premiers chapitres. Nous testons et proposons une méthode basée sur les valeurs unitaires pour passer des unités de mesure locales aux unités standards (grammes). De même nous discutons et proposons une méthodologie pour identifier et traiter les valeurs aberrantes ou extrêmes. Le quatrième chapitre décrit la structure de la consommation et montre que les régimes alimentaires sont encore dominés par les produits amylacés, et que les produits animaux ou transformés y ont une faible

L'amélioration de l'alimentation des populations est au coeur des politiques de sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle au niveau global et des pays. Cette volonté est traduite dans l'objectif de développement durable visant à éradiquer la faim d'ici à 2030. Pour y arriver, deux prérequis sont nécessaires : estimer précisément ce que les gens mangent et identifier les personnes en difficulté. C'est dans cette optique que les enquêtes de conditions de vie des ménages (" Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) ") sont de plus en plus utilisées mais aussi questionnées quant à leur fiabilité et leur précision pour l'analyse de la consommation alimentaire. Les enquêtes LSMS ont un certain nombre d'avantages dont celui d'être représentatives au niveau national et régional. En théorie, elles permettent de désagréger l'information sur l'alimentation des ménages et d'identifier les caractéristiques de ceux en difficulté pour satisfaire leurs besoins alimentaires. En pratique, ces enquêtes étant réalisées avec une logique économique de mesure de la pauvreté monétaire et d'analyse du budget des ménages, elles recensent la valeur monétaire des consommations des ménages et non pas les quantités de produits consommés, nécessaires à une analyse nutritionnelle de la consommation alimentaire. Le passage des valeurs monétaires aux quantités pose un certain nombre de problèmes méthodologiques que nous avons traités sur deux enquêtes camerounaises (ECAM) en présentant des solutions innovantes dans les trois premiers chapitres. Nous testons et proposons une méthode basée sur les valeurs unitaires pour passer des unités de mesure locales aux unités standards (grammes). De même nous discutons et proposons une méthodologie pour identifier et traiter les valeurs aberrantes ou extrêmes. Le quatrième chapitre décrit la structure de la consommation et montre que les régimes alimentaires sont encore dominés par les produits amylacés, et que les produits animaux ou transformés y ont une faible

The overall objective of this thesis is to understand the role of diversification at household level, its patterns, determinants and effects on rural smallholder farmers in SSA, as well as its implications for the process of structural transformation in SSA. In the thesis, I use a mixed methodology and combine different types of data on rural smallholders in SSA to answer the objectives a review of previous literature, empirical data from quantitative surveys and qualitative fieldwork. The findings are presented in three articles: In the first article, I undertake a comprehensive review of the literature on the nature and evolution of rural livelihood diversification in SSA among smallholder farmers. It reveals mixed findings about the causes and consequences of livelihood diversification on the rural smallholders adopting this strategy. It shows that because of asset constraints increase in incomes and wealth based on livelihood diversification has not yet benefitted the large majority of smallholders in SSA. On the other hand, there are a lot of evidence from the literature suggesting that it is relatively better-off smallholders with sufficient assets, who achieve successful livelihood diversification, mainly by exploiting opportunities and synergies between farm and nonfarm activities. In the second article, I investigate the spatial and geographical patterns and determinants of income diversification using cross-sectional data on rural farm households from six regions in Senegal and Kenya. In addition, I supplement the analysis of the quantitative data with information from qualitative fieldwork. The findings show that the specific patterns and determinants of diversification differ significantly between regions, with push and pull factors sometimes acting concurrently. Although geographical location matters for income diversification, the context of the region seems to matter even more, as it influences the type of diversification households may engage in. In

Background: WHO developed a global strategy to eliminate hepatitis B by 2030 and set target to treat 80% of people with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection eligible for antiviral treatment. As a first step to achieve this goal, it is essential to conduct a situation analysis that is fundamental to designing national hepatitis plans. We therefore estimated the prevalence of chronic HBV infection, and described the existing infrastructure for HBV diagnosis in Madagascar. Methods: We conducted a stratified multi-stage serosurvey of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in adults aged ≥18 years using 28 sentinel surveillance sites located throughout the country. We obtained the list of facilities performing HBV testing from the Ministry of Health, and contacted the person responsible at each facility. Results A total of 1778 adults were recruited from the 28 study areas. The overall weighted seroprevalence of HBsAg was 6.9% (95% CI: 5.6–8.6). Populations with a low socio-economic status and those living in rural areas had a significantly higher seroprevalence of HBsAg. The ratio of facilities equipped to perform HBsAg tests per 100,000 inhabitants was 1.02 in the capital city of Antananarivo and 0.21 outside the capital. There were no facilities with the capacity to perform HBV DNA testing or transient elastography to measure liver fibrosis. There are only five hepatologists in Madagascar. Conclusion: Madagascar has a high-intermediate level of endemicity for HBV infection with a severely limited capacity for its diagnosis and treatment. Higher HBsAg prevalence in rural or underprivileged populations underlines the importance of a public health approach to decentralize the management of chronic HBV carriers in Madagascar by using simple and low-cost diagnostic tools.

Inclusive business is hailed as a win-win scenario for the development of poor communities; yet there is little insight into how these inclusive businesses work and, more importantly, for whom. This book aims for a thorough understanding of the range of inclusive businesses in agriculture by examining: the structures they implement, the actors involved, and whether they are effectively inclusive of smallholders. It presents a range of case studies and is therefore empirically based and practically oriented. By offering a critical assessment of inclusive businesses overall, it allows for a better perception of what works where, and under which conditions. It provides useful insights that will benefit smallholders, agri-businesses, support groups, policy makers and investors who are willing to promote more inclusive businesses, that foster a better integration of smallholders into commercial value-chains and a more equitable and sustainable agricultural sector.

The overall objective of this thesis is to understand the role of diversification at household level, its patterns, determinants and effects on rural smallholder farmers in SSA, as well as its implications for the process of structural transformation in SSA. In the thesis, I use a mixed methodology and combine different types of data on rural smallholders in SSA to answer the objectives a review of previous literature, empirical data from quantitative surveys and qualitative fieldwork. The findings are presented in three articles: In the first article, I undertake a comprehensive review of the literature on the nature and evolution of rural livelihood diversification in SSA among smallholder farmers. It reveals mixed findings about the causes and consequences of livelihood diversification on the rural smallholders adopting this strategy. It shows that because of asset constraints increase in incomes and wealth based on livelihood diversification has not yet benefitted the large majority of smallholders in SSA. On the other hand, there are a lot of evidence from the literature suggesting that it is relatively better-off smallholders with sufficient assets, who achieve successful livelihood diversification, mainly by exploiting opportunities and synergies between farm and nonfarm activities. In the second article, I investigate the spatial and geographical patterns and determinants of income diversification using cross-sectional data on rural farm households from six regions in Senegal and Kenya. In addition, I supplement the analysis of the quantitative data with information from qualitative fieldwork. The findings show that the specific patterns and determinants of diversification differ significantly between regions, with push and pull factors sometimes acting concurrently. Although geographical location matters for income diversification, the context of the region seems to matter even more, as it influences the type of diversification households may engage in. In

Background: WHO developed a global strategy to eliminate hepatitis B by 2030 and set target to treat 80% of people with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection eligible for antiviral treatment. As a first step to achieve this goal, it is essential to conduct a situation analysis that is fundamental to designing national hepatitis plans. We therefore estimated the prevalence of chronic HBV infection, and described the existing infrastructure for HBV diagnosis in Madagascar. Methods: We conducted a stratified multi-stage serosurvey of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in adults aged ≥18 years using 28 sentinel surveillance sites located throughout the country. We obtained the list of facilities performing HBV testing from the Ministry of Health, and contacted the person responsible at each facility. Results A total of 1778 adults were recruited from the 28 study areas. The overall weighted seroprevalence of HBsAg was 6.9% (95% CI: 5.6–8.6). Populations with a low socio-economic status and those living in rural areas had a significantly higher seroprevalence of HBsAg. The ratio of facilities equipped to perform HBsAg tests per 100,000 inhabitants was 1.02 in the capital city of Antananarivo and 0.21 outside the capital. There were no facilities with the capacity to perform HBV DNA testing or transient elastography to measure liver fibrosis. There are only five hepatologists in Madagascar. Conclusion: Madagascar has a high-intermediate level of endemicity for HBV infection with a severely limited capacity for its diagnosis and treatment. Higher HBsAg prevalence in rural or underprivileged populations underlines the importance of a public health approach to decentralize the management of chronic HBV carriers in Madagascar by using simple and low-cost diagnostic tools.

Inclusive business is hailed as a win-win scenario for the development of poor communities; yet there is little insight into how these inclusive businesses work and, more importantly, for whom. This book aims for a thorough understanding of the range of inclusive businesses in agriculture by examining: the structures they implement, the actors involved, and whether they are effectively inclusive of smallholders. It presents a range of case studies and is therefore empirically based and practically oriented. By offering a critical assessment of inclusive businesses overall, it allows for a better perception of what works where, and under which conditions. It provides useful insights that will benefit smallholders, agri-businesses, support groups, policy makers and investors who are willing to promote more inclusive businesses, that foster a better integration of smallholders into commercial value-chains and a more equitable and sustainable agricultural sector.

Cet article propose un modèle visant à expliquer la diversité et l'évolution des principes qui structurent la gestion des services d'eau potable et d'assainissement à travers le monde. Il questionne un modèle purement évolutionniste, reconstitué à partir de travaux existants. Ce dernier suggère un sens dans l'évolution des modèles structurant la gestion sur les plans technique, financier et de gouvernance. L'analyse de trajectoires française, colombienne, sud-africaine et ougandaise montre l'intérêt de compléter ce modèle par les travaux de Kingdon (1984) et Jabko (2009). Sans contester " le sens de l'histoire ", le cadre proposé explique la persistance de combinaisons de principes de gestion diverses et parfois sous-optimales. En outre, ce travail met en évidence des mécanismes de changement fondés sur l'émergence de crises et le jeu de coalitions d'acteurs, au sein desquels l'ambiguïté joue un rôle fonda- mental. Ce cadre d'analyse explique enfin les limites de la transposition transnationale de modèles de gestion et peut donc être applicable à d'autres secteurs de l'action publique.

Le présent document est le résultat de l'étude sur les marchés alimentaires intérieurs en Afrique de l'Ouest, au Cameroun et au Tchad. Elle a été menée à l'initiative de l'AFD, par le Centre de coopérration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), l'Observatoire économique et statistique d'Afrique subsaharienne (AFRISTAT) et les instituts nationaux de statistique de neuf de ces pays. L'étude est une première synthèse des données sur la consommation alimentaire issues de vingt-huit enquêtes nationales sur les conditions de vie des ménages, menées entre 2001 et 2011 sur un échantillon cumulé de 224 000 ménages. Bien que ces enquêtes aient été menées avec des méthodologies différentes et des nomenclatures de produits plus ou moins détaillées, l'ensemble de leurs résultats fournit une image de l'alimentation de la région étudiée qui va parfois à l'encontre des idées reçues. Ces résultats révèlent d'abord l'importance considérable du marché intérieur comparé à celui destiné à l'exportation. Ce marché est nettement dominé par les produits locaux et régionaux et est devenu un véritable moteur du développement agricole. Il se partage environ à parts égales entre le marché urbain et le marché rural. La consommation alimentaire des ruraux est désormais largement dépendante du marché, même si l'autoconsommation subsiste de façon significative. La consommation alimentaire des villes se caractérise par une forte dépendance vis-à-vis du riz et du blé importés, avec des situations contrastées selon les pays. Ces produits de base représentent cependant moins du tiers du budget alimentaire des ménages urbains. Les produits animaux, les autres produits de sauce, et les produits sucrés totalisent les deux tiers des dépenses et sont largement dominés par les produits locaux et régionaux. Un tel résultat nuance la vision d'une Afrique dépendante de l'extérieur pour se nourrir. L'analyse de l'origine des aliments consommés révèle l'importance du secteur agro

Traditional wildlife hunting has been described mainly from studies of local practices and from the monitoring of urban bushmeat markets. However, the overall value chain connecting hunters to end consumers remains largely unknown, thus preventing any estimate of the actual socio-economic importance of the bushmeat sector. On the basis of existing literature, this paper provides an order of magnitude for the financial and economic benefits of the bushmeat commodity chain in Cameroon. The following conservative conclusions were arrived at: (1) The annual turnover of the bushmeat sector in the country is likely to be close to €97 million, i.e. 36% more than the official assessment derived from public accounts. (2) The bushmeat sector may contribute 0.17% to Cameroon's GDP (non-oil), as much as the mining sector. (3) Self-consumption of bushmeat in rural areas may amount to gross annual economic benefit of more than €142 million. However, bushmeat in a country like Cameroon needs to be managed so as to guarantee the food security of urban and rural populations, as well as maintain a substantial source of revenue for communities, all of this without depleting the resource. Achieving this goal requires policy makers to disassociate wildlife harvesting from 'poaching' and the extirpation of species. It is crucial to go beyond the dominant narrative of a (real but over simplified) notion of a conservation crisis, to address its important livelihood and welfare dimensions.

Le présent document est le résultat de l'étude sur les marchés alimentaires intérieurs en Afrique de l'Ouest, au Cameroun et au Tchad. Elle a été menée à l'initiative de l'AFD, par le Centre de coopérration internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), l'Observatoire économique et statistique d'Afrique subsaharienne (AFRISTAT) et les instituts nationaux de statistique de neuf de ces pays. L'étude est une première synthèse des données sur la consommation alimentaire issues de vingt-huit enquêtes nationales sur les conditions de vie des ménages, menées entre 2001 et 2011 sur un échantillon cumulé de 224 000 ménages. Bien que ces enquêtes aient été menées avec des méthodologies différentes et des nomenclatures de produits plus ou moins détaillées, l'ensemble de leurs résultats fournit une image de l'alimentation de la région étudiée qui va parfois à l'encontre des idées reçues. Ces résultats révèlent d'abord l'importance considérable du marché intérieur comparé à celui destiné à l'exportation. Ce marché est nettement dominé par les produits locaux et régionaux et est devenu un véritable moteur du développement agricole. Il se partage environ à parts égales entre le marché urbain et le marché rural. La consommation alimentaire des ruraux est désormais largement dépendante du marché, même si l'autoconsommation subsiste de façon significative. La consommation alimentaire des villes se caractérise par une forte dépendance vis-à-vis du riz et du blé importés, avec des situations contrastées selon les pays. Ces produits de base représentent cependant moins du tiers du budget alimentaire des ménages urbains. Les produits animaux, les autres produits de sauce, et les produits sucrés totalisent les deux tiers des dépenses et sont largement dominés par les produits locaux et régionaux. Un tel résultat nuance la vision d'une Afrique dépendante de l'extérieur pour se nourrir. L'analyse de l'origine des aliments consommés révèle l'importance du secteur agro

Cet article propose un modèle visant à expliquer la diversité et l'évolution des principes qui structurent la gestion des services d'eau potable et d'assainissement à travers le monde. Il questionne un modèle purement évolutionniste, reconstitué à partir de travaux existants. Ce dernier suggère un sens dans l'évolution des modèles structurant la gestion sur les plans technique, financier et de gouvernance. L'analyse de trajectoires française, colombienne, sud-africaine et ougandaise montre l'intérêt de compléter ce modèle par les travaux de Kingdon (1984) et Jabko (2009). Sans contester " le sens de l'histoire ", le cadre proposé explique la persistance de combinaisons de principes de gestion diverses et parfois sous-optimales. En outre, ce travail met en évidence des mécanismes de changement fondés sur l'émergence de crises et le jeu de coalitions d'acteurs, au sein desquels l'ambiguïté joue un rôle fonda- mental. Ce cadre d'analyse explique enfin les limites de la transposition transnationale de modèles de gestion et peut donc être applicable à d'autres secteurs de l'action publique.

Traditional wildlife hunting has been described mainly from studies of local practices and from the monitoring of urban bushmeat markets. However, the overall value chain connecting hunters to end consumers remains largely unknown, thus preventing any estimate of the actual socio-economic importance of the bushmeat sector. On the basis of existing literature, this paper provides an order of magnitude for the financial and economic benefits of the bushmeat commodity chain in Cameroon. The following conservative conclusions were arrived at: (1) The annual turnover of the bushmeat sector in the country is likely to be close to €97 million, i.e. 36% more than the official assessment derived from public accounts. (2) The bushmeat sector may contribute 0.17% to Cameroon's GDP (non-oil), as much as the mining sector. (3) Self-consumption of bushmeat in rural areas may amount to gross annual economic benefit of more than €142 million. However, bushmeat in a country like Cameroon needs to be managed so as to guarantee the food security of urban and rural populations, as well as maintain a substantial source of revenue for communities, all of this without depleting the resource. Achieving this goal requires policy makers to disassociate wildlife harvesting from 'poaching' and the extirpation of species. It is crucial to go beyond the dominant narrative of a (real but over simplified) notion of a conservation crisis, to address its important livelihood and welfare dimensions.

The study focuses on the assessment of the contribution of sheep and goats to reduce poverty and vulnerability in rural farming systems of three agroecologi¬cal areas in Egypt: the pastoral area of the Northwestern coast (Matruh governo¬rate), the irrigated areas of the Nile Valley (Sohag governorate) and the oasis area of the West Desert (New Valley governorate). An empirical study on 90 farms in the three agroecological areas on different social and economic indicators related to poverty gave indicators on the roles of sheep and goats in different farm types according to resource endowment (e.g. land, livestock, capital) and human resources. The results showed that sheep and goats provided the main source of income to landless and very small land owners to escape the poverty trap. Moreover, the livestock asset generated other sources of wealth that were not taken into account in the monetary poverty approach.

Urban research often considers densification from the perspective of sustainable development and social mix. This essay focuses instead on the social and political stakes involved in densification through the example of a large French metropolitan area. It shows that the densification policies put in place in the Lyon agglomeration cannot be said to succeed in breaking down the historical segregation between its residential and affluent western suburbs (banlieues) and its industrial and working-class eastern ones. The political manoeuvres executed by the institutions implementing densification, and the search for consensus characterizing France's intercommunalities, block any possibility of redistributing functions and social classes at the metropolitan scale, and hence of ending the social specialization of Lyon's suburbs. Moreover, municipalities subjected to pressure from suburban areas carefully assess the profile of residents selected to occupy new housing units—i.e. individuals already residing in the commune in the case of western suburbs, and middle-class individuals hailing from the eastern part of the agglomeration in the case of eastern suburbs. Densification does not foster social mix at the metropolitan scale, neither does it improve the housing conditions of disadvantaged populations.

Cet article analyse les raisons des faibles performances dans la lutte contre l'insécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté au Burkina Faso malgré les performances macroéconomiques enregistrées par le pays au cours des dernières décennies. Il analyse ensuite, à l'aide d'un modèle d'Équilibre Général Calculable, la capacité d'un investissement public dans l'agriculture à améliorer la situation actuelle des pauvres. Plusieurs éléments se conjuguent pour expliquer la persistance de la pauvreté et de l'insécurité alimentaire : la forte croissance démographique qui implique une faible croissance du PIB (Produit Intérieur Brut) par tête ; la faible contribution de l'agriculture à la croissance globale ; la persistance d'un chômage urbain ; et une répartition des fruits de la croissance peu favorable aux pauvres. L'investissement public dans l'agriculture, en augmentant la productivité dans les activités agricoles, permet des progrès en milieu rural et surtout en milieu urbain.

Entre 1930 et 2020, la population de l'Afrique de l'Ouest aura été multipliée par 10 et vivra en majorité en ville. Nous étudions les enjeux que rencontrera l'agriculture familiale dans ce contexte et plus particulièrement dans les zones de croissance côtières de l'Afrique de l'Ouest, surtout dans les " petites " villes. Les données portent sur l'analyse à 10 ans d'intervalle d'une petite ville en zone périurbaine, située à une soixantaine de kilomètres de la ville de Douala, au Cameroun. Les résultats indiquent que si les revenus de l'agriculture ont considérablement diminué, les conditions de vie générales de la population se sont améliorées grâce aux activités urbaines. Cependant, en termes d'emploi, nous observons le maintien d'une agriculture de subsistance ou de précaution auprès du tiers des actifs. L'horticulture est le seul segment en croissance. Dans un contexte de précarité, l'agriculture familiale persistera et s'adaptera à ces nouvelles contraintes, mais aussi à de nouvelles opportunités. Un regard sur les petites villes permet de nuancer les impacts globaux de l'urbanisation et laisse envisager le maintien d'une agriculture de subsistance, et en parallèle l'émergence d'une agriculture plus capitaliste.

This chapter reviews some of the key issues that relate to the social impacts of bioenergy supply chains at local, national and international levels, with a particular focus on food production and the implications for natural resources management. The review shows that data is available only for some topics and on some regions, and how, although some point to negative aspects in this relatively new sector, there also is positive data that demonstrates that bioenergy can contribute to social and economic improvements at local and national levels, given appropriate considerations and measures. The chapter introduces some of the main social issues discussed in the literature as well as providing background information on global policy framework. This is followed by a consideration of social benefits of bioenergy production, such as job creation, provision of training and skills development. Additional social and environmental impacts that result from the use of land, water and other natural resources for bioenergy production are then examined in relation to gender, food production, poverty reduction and land tenure. The final section discusses public perception of bioenergy production and the usefulness of public reporting of corporate sustainability.

The study focuses on the assessment of the contribution of sheep and goats to reduce poverty and vulnerability in rural farming systems of three agroecologi¬cal areas in Egypt: the pastoral area of the Northwestern coast (Matruh governo¬rate), the irrigated areas of the Nile Valley (Sohag governorate) and the oasis area of the West Desert (New Valley governorate). An empirical study on 90 farms in the three agroecological areas on different social and economic indicators related to poverty gave indicators on the roles of sheep and goats in different farm types according to resource endowment (e.g. land, livestock, capital) and human resources. The results showed that sheep and goats provided the main source of income to landless and very small land owners to escape the poverty trap. Moreover, the livestock asset generated other sources of wealth that were not taken into account in the monetary poverty approach.

Urban research often considers densification from the perspective of sustainable development and social mix. This essay focuses instead on the social and political stakes involved in densification through the example of a large French metropolitan area. It shows that the densification policies put in place in the Lyon agglomeration cannot be said to succeed in breaking down the historical segregation between its residential and affluent western suburbs (banlieues) and its industrial and working-class eastern ones. The political manoeuvres executed by the institutions implementing densification, and the search for consensus characterizing France's intercommunalities, block any possibility of redistributing functions and social classes at the metropolitan scale, and hence of ending the social specialization of Lyon's suburbs. Moreover, municipalities subjected to pressure from suburban areas carefully assess the profile of residents selected to occupy new housing units—i.e. individuals already residing in the commune in the case of western suburbs, and middle-class individuals hailing from the eastern part of the agglomeration in the case of eastern suburbs. Densification does not foster social mix at the metropolitan scale, neither does it improve the housing conditions of disadvantaged populations.

Cet article analyse les raisons des faibles performances dans la lutte contre l'insécurité alimentaire et la pauvreté au Burkina Faso malgré les performances macroéconomiques enregistrées par le pays au cours des dernières décennies. Il analyse ensuite, à l'aide d'un modèle d'Équilibre Général Calculable, la capacité d'un investissement public dans l'agriculture à améliorer la situation actuelle des pauvres. Plusieurs éléments se conjuguent pour expliquer la persistance de la pauvreté et de l'insécurité alimentaire : la forte croissance démographique qui implique une faible croissance du PIB (Produit Intérieur Brut) par tête ; la faible contribution de l'agriculture à la croissance globale ; la persistance d'un chômage urbain ; et une répartition des fruits de la croissance peu favorable aux pauvres. L'investissement public dans l'agriculture, en augmentant la productivité dans les activités agricoles, permet des progrès en milieu rural et surtout en milieu urbain.

This chapter reviews some of the key issues that relate to the social impacts of bioenergy supply chains at local, national and international levels, with a particular focus on food production and the implications for natural resources management. The review shows that data is available only for some topics and on some regions, and how, although some point to negative aspects in this relatively new sector, there also is positive data that demonstrates that bioenergy can contribute to social and economic improvements at local and national levels, given appropriate considerations and measures. The chapter introduces some of the main social issues discussed in the literature as well as providing background information on global policy framework. This is followed by a consideration of social benefits of bioenergy production, such as job creation, provision of training and skills development. Additional social and environmental impacts that result from the use of land, water and other natural resources for bioenergy production are then examined in relation to gender, food production, poverty reduction and land tenure. The final section discusses public perception of bioenergy production and the usefulness of public reporting of corporate sustainability.

Entre 1930 et 2020, la population de l'Afrique de l'Ouest aura été multipliée par 10 et vivra en majorité en ville. Nous étudions les enjeux que rencontrera l'agriculture familiale dans ce contexte et plus particulièrement dans les zones de croissance côtières de l'Afrique de l'Ouest, surtout dans les " petites " villes. Les données portent sur l'analyse à 10 ans d'intervalle d'une petite ville en zone périurbaine, située à une soixantaine de kilomètres de la ville de Douala, au Cameroun. Les résultats indiquent que si les revenus de l'agriculture ont considérablement diminué, les conditions de vie générales de la population se sont améliorées grâce aux activités urbaines. Cependant, en termes d'emploi, nous observons le maintien d'une agriculture de subsistance ou de précaution auprès du tiers des actifs. L'horticulture est le seul segment en croissance. Dans un contexte de précarité, l'agriculture familiale persistera et s'adaptera à ces nouvelles contraintes, mais aussi à de nouvelles opportunités. Un regard sur les petites villes permet de nuancer les impacts globaux de l'urbanisation et laisse envisager le maintien d'une agriculture de subsistance, et en parallèle l'émergence d'une agriculture plus capitaliste.

The focus of this dissertation is to understand the process and implications of capitalist incorporation and agrarian change in the frontier region of Northern Costa Rica within the San Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor. Within this larger narrative the analysis focuses on three major themes: agricultural intensification, migration dynamics and family farmers. Data utilized in this analysis includes: community workshops, 35 interviews with government officials, agribusinesses, producer organizations and large landholders, a randomized household survey of 139 households, grey literature, census data and extended participant observation. Key findings are as follows: Structural adjustment reforms have driven a trend of agricultural intensification through the expansion of pineapple, which has led to homogenization of the agricultural matrix's land cover. Pineapple expansion has also increased regional economic dependency on large agribusinesses, created incentives for land turnover, and has drawn labor migrants. These parallel social-ecological changes caused by the expansion of pineapple, undermine the biodiversity of the agricultural matrix and do not facilitate development of the agricultural sector in a way that is inclusive of the diversity of farmers present in the study region. Migrants to this region are largely marginalized populations with low socio-economic indicators of wealth and quality of life. International and internal migrants have come in two general waves; early migrants were seeking land and later migrants were seeking labor opportunities. The earliest migrants in the eldest life stage are faring the worst on the frontier and have not been able to capitalize on their land resources to tangibly improve their quality of life. The family farmer is in peril in this landscape and is primarily participating in traditional domestic markets. Collective organization and state help are critical factors that allow family farmers to persist and prosper in the

Reducing vulnerability to hazards is a major challenge for pastoral settlements in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa. Accumulation of a stock of living animals is a major means of livelihood security that pastoralists use to cope with their constraints, amongst which is high environmental variability. Diversification and long-distance mobility are other means of livelihood security, implying specific family organization. We analysed the combination of these means in ensuring the livelihood security of 508 familial settlements in the rural community of Ferlo, Tessekre (Senegal). At least 40% of the settlements surveyed were small pastoral families, composed of one or two households with small herds (less than 50 cows and 50 sheep). Herds were the major means of livelihood security, but due to lack of a sufficient labour and other assets, the situation of these impoverished families was very precarious. In 28% of the settlements, families combined livestock, crops and non-farming activities as livelihood means. The remaining 32% of the settlements were pastoral settlements supported by large cattle herds and, in many cases, the production of Aïd el Kebir rams (for the major Muslim religious event). Non-farming activities were also present in these settlements with large herds, especially activities in the livestock trade. Diversification can reinforce the function of herds as savings accounts and might also enable the pastoralists to invest in livestock activities. There were three groups of settlements based on the characterization of livelihood security strategies used by pastoral herders. Over time, pastoralists have to utilize several means of security to cope with climatic shocks such as droughts, and familial events such as the death of the familial chief. Family organization (dispersal or grouping), diversification and mobility are important means used to recover after major losses of animals.

Ce document occasionnel a évalué la performance sociale de neuf unités forestières d'aménagement (UFA)certifiées par le Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) et l'a comparée à la performance de neuf autres UFA similaires mais non certifiées au Cameroun, en République du Congo et au Gabon. Les résultats montrent que plus une société reste longtemps dans un lieu, plus les liens sociaux avec la population sont solides, ce qui favoris eun environnement dans lequel il y a moins de conflits entre ces deux acteurs. Cependant, ce n'est en général qu'après la décision des entreprises d'obtenir la certification que l'on a constaté de réelles améliorations sociales.Cette étude a notamment constaté dans les UFA certifiées de meilleures conditions de vie et de travail pour les travailleurs et leurs familles ; des institutions plus inclusives et mieux gouvernées pour les négociations entre la population locale et les entreprises forestières, sauf en ce qui concerne les mécanismes de résolution de conflits; des mécanismes de partage des bénéfices mieux gérés et plus efficaces ; et des manières innovantes de régler les problèmes liés à l'exercice souvent illégal de certains droits coutumiers.La réalité historique, politique et économique complexe dans laquelle s'est développée la certification dans le bassin du Congo pourrait bien être à l'origine de la difficulté à expliquer les problèmes d'attribution et de causalité.Pourtant, les résultats aident à tracer la frontière claire qui existe actuellement entre le bois d'oeuvre certifié et non certifié : le premier provient des UFA qui appliquent non seulement des normes sociales légalement autorisées, mais également celles adoptées volontairement qui sont supérieures et plus efficaces.Il ne faut pas que le FSC et les sociétés certifiées soient complaisantes en se comparant à des UFA non certifiées,qui à l'heure actuelle sont moins bien gérées. En effet, toute la logique de la certification FSC est d'évaluer les gestionnaires forestiers plu

The focus of this dissertation is to understand the process and implications of capitalist incorporation and agrarian change in the frontier region of Northern Costa Rica within the San Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor. Within this larger narrative the analysis focuses on three major themes: agricultural intensification, migration dynamics and family farmers. Data utilized in this analysis includes: community workshops, 35 interviews with government officials, agribusinesses, producer organizations and large landholders, a randomized household survey of 139 households, grey literature, census data and extended participant observation. Key findings are as follows: Structural adjustment reforms have driven a trend of agricultural intensification through the expansion of pineapple, which has led to homogenization of the agricultural matrix's land cover. Pineapple expansion has also increased regional economic dependency on large agribusinesses, created incentives for land turnover, and has drawn labor migrants. These parallel social-ecological changes caused by the expansion of pineapple, undermine the biodiversity of the agricultural matrix and do not facilitate development of the agricultural sector in a way that is inclusive of the diversity of farmers present in the study region. Migrants to this region are largely marginalized populations with low socio-economic indicators of wealth and quality of life. International and internal migrants have come in two general waves; early migrants were seeking land and later migrants were seeking labor opportunities. The earliest migrants in the eldest life stage are faring the worst on the frontier and have not been able to capitalize on their land resources to tangibly improve their quality of life. The family farmer is in peril in this landscape and is primarily participating in traditional domestic markets. Collective organization and state help are critical factors that allow family farmers to persist and prosper in the

Reducing vulnerability to hazards is a major challenge for pastoral settlements in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa. Accumulation of a stock of living animals is a major means of livelihood security that pastoralists use to cope with their constraints, amongst which is high environmental variability. Diversification and long-distance mobility are other means of livelihood security, implying specific family organization. We analysed the combination of these means in ensuring the livelihood security of 508 familial settlements in the rural community of Ferlo, Tessekre (Senegal). At least 40% of the settlements surveyed were small pastoral families, composed of one or two households with small herds (less than 50 cows and 50 sheep). Herds were the major means of livelihood security, but due to lack of a sufficient labour and other assets, the situation of these impoverished families was very precarious. In 28% of the settlements, families combined livestock, crops and non-farming activities as livelihood means. The remaining 32% of the settlements were pastoral settlements supported by large cattle herds and, in many cases, the production of Aïd el Kebir rams (for the major Muslim religious event). Non-farming activities were also present in these settlements with large herds, especially activities in the livestock trade. Diversification can reinforce the function of herds as savings accounts and might also enable the pastoralists to invest in livestock activities. There were three groups of settlements based on the characterization of livelihood security strategies used by pastoral herders. Over time, pastoralists have to utilize several means of security to cope with climatic shocks such as droughts, and familial events such as the death of the familial chief. Family organization (dispersal or grouping), diversification and mobility are important means used to recover after major losses of animals.

Ce document occasionnel a évalué la performance sociale de neuf unités forestières d'aménagement (UFA)certifiées par le Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) et l'a comparée à la performance de neuf autres UFA similaires mais non certifiées au Cameroun, en République du Congo et au Gabon. Les résultats montrent que plus une société reste longtemps dans un lieu, plus les liens sociaux avec la population sont solides, ce qui favoris eun environnement dans lequel il y a moins de conflits entre ces deux acteurs. Cependant, ce n'est en général qu'après la décision des entreprises d'obtenir la certification que l'on a constaté de réelles améliorations sociales.Cette étude a notamment constaté dans les UFA certifiées de meilleures conditions de vie et de travail pour les travailleurs et leurs familles ; des institutions plus inclusives et mieux gouvernées pour les négociations entre la population locale et les entreprises forestières, sauf en ce qui concerne les mécanismes de résolution de conflits; des mécanismes de partage des bénéfices mieux gérés et plus efficaces ; et des manières innovantes de régler les problèmes liés à l'exercice souvent illégal de certains droits coutumiers.La réalité historique, politique et économique complexe dans laquelle s'est développée la certification dans le bassin du Congo pourrait bien être à l'origine de la difficulté à expliquer les problèmes d'attribution et de causalité.Pourtant, les résultats aident à tracer la frontière claire qui existe actuellement entre le bois d'oeuvre certifié et non certifié : le premier provient des UFA qui appliquent non seulement des normes sociales légalement autorisées, mais également celles adoptées volontairement qui sont supérieures et plus efficaces.Il ne faut pas que le FSC et les sociétés certifiées soient complaisantes en se comparant à des UFA non certifiées,qui à l'heure actuelle sont moins bien gérées. En effet, toute la logique de la certification FSC est d'évaluer les gestionnaires forestiers plu

Pas de résumé