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Flooding has considerable detrimental economic, social and environmental impacts. These impacts are already being felt in England and the rest of the UK and will further increase in the future with the projected increase in flood risk attributable to climate change and socioeconomic growth. It is widely agreed that urgent steps are needed to more effectively manage flood risk, and these may include changes in the regulatory and planning policy frameworks currently applied to shape development in the built environment. Using a combination of doctrinal and empirical research, this thesis examines the role of the town and country planning system in the management of flood risk, focusing on local planning authorities (LPAs) and an examination of the extent to which they can - and do - manage flood risk effectively. The doctrinal research examines the obligations on LPAs to manage flood risk and the legal planning tools they have at their disposal to do so. The empirical research uses four case studies to collate and present quantitative and qualitative data that has been used to interrogate in each case the relevant LPAs' management of flood risk in practice. Based on the findings of the doctrinal and empirical research, the thesis makes a number of recommendations for reforms to the planning system and the legal planning tools available to LPAs that would enable them to more effectively manage flood risk.

In Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) has the potential to dramatically reduce the mass and cost of planetary science and exploration missions. The Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE) on the Mars 2020 rover will demonstrate ISRU on Mars by producing oxygen from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Mars’ dust aerosol presents a risk to MOXIE and any future full-scale atmospheric ISRU plant. To mitigate this risk, MOXIE will filter the atmosphere of another planet for the first time. Although filtration of Earth’s atmosphere is well understood, filtration of Mars’ atmosphere is not. Additionally, the most important property of the aerosol for filtration, its particle size distribution, is not well constrained. This thesis addresses these problems by determining the dust loading rate and resulting pressure drop of the MOXIE filter by analysis, numerical simulation, and experimental investigation in simulated Mars conditions. The effects of suspended dust, saltated particles, dust devils and local, regional and global dust storms are considered. Atmospheric ISRU offers a high, continuous, and known flow rate, which an integrated science instrument to measure the aerosol particle size distribution could benefit from. Existing instrumentation is surveyed, and the feasibility of cascade impaction and inertial focusing is investigated. Cascade impaction offers a low mass, passive method of particle size measurement. Work on this thesis was carried out alongside operational support of the InSight mission, the unprecedented continuous horizontal wind speed measurements of which were used to observe saltation on the surface of Mars. Additionally, it is demonstrated that InSight’s Short Period (SP) seismometers have the capability of detecting micrometeoroid impacts during cruise.

Cardiac screening of the paediatric athlete is now recommended by many international sporting governing bodies and aims to identify those at risk of sudden cardiac death/arrest (SCD/A) from an undiagnosed cardiac condition. Regular and sustained physical activity is associated with a number of electrophysiological, structural and functional cardiac adaptations, collectively referred to as the athlete's heart. In some cases, however, this may mimic the phenotypic expression of varying pathological conditions, often related to SCD/A. Clearly, this crossover complicates the differential diagnosis associated with cardiac screening. Ethnicity mediates cardiac adaptation within the adult athlete, yet little is known regarding the paediatric athlete, further complicating the distinction between physiological adaptation and cardiac pathology. The overarching aim of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the competitive Arab and black paediatric athlete, using 12-lead-electrocardiogram (ECG) and transthoracic echocardiography. Study 1 (Chapter 4), employed a systematic review with meta-analysis to describe the ECG and echocardiographic manifestations of the paediatric athlete's heart, and examine the impact of age, race, and sex on cardiac remodeling responses to competitive sport. Paediatric athletes demonstrated a greater prevalence of training-related and -unrelated ECG changes than non-athletes, with prevalence greater in black than white paediatric athletes. After accounting for chronological age, left ventricular (LV) structural parameters were larger among paediatric athletes than non-athletes, whilst posterior wall thickness during diastole was larger in black than white athletes. Paediatric athletes chronological age, and ethnicity are mediating factors on electrophysiological and LV structural remodelling. Study 2 (Chapter 5), new international recommendations, outperformed both the Seattle and 2010 ESC criteria, reducing false positive rates while yielding a 'fair' (0.77, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.93) diagnostic accuracy for cardiac pathology that may predispose to SCD/A in a paediatric athlete. In clinical context, the 'chance' of detecting cardiac pathology within a paediatric male athlete with a positive ECG (+ve Likelihood Ratio=9.0) was 8.3%, whereas a negative ECG (−ve Likelihood Ratio=0.4) was 0.4%. In extension to these investigations, Study 3 (Chapter 6), employed 'biological' age (by radiological X-ray) assessment to T-wave inversion (TWI) interpretation on the paediatric athletes ECG. TWI confined to V1-V3 was predicted by black ethnicity and biological age < 16 years, but not chronological age < 16 years. Secondly, biological age outperformed chronological age criterion in the categorisation of 'physiological' to 'pathological' TWI in V1-V4, offering potential refinement to new international recommendations for interpretation in the male paediatric athlete ECGs. Study 4 (Chapter 7), using allometric modelling we present measures of cardiac chamber and aortic root morphology independent of body surface area, ethnicity, chronological, and biological age. We also presented chronological age independent LV and RV measures of function in male Arab and black paediatric athletes. This data may prove useful to the differential diagnosis in the paediatric athlete, with upper limits of physiological remodelling and lower limits of function defined by Z-scores to ease clinical interpretation. Furthermore, these data will allow for serial assessment relative to allometric growth in the paediatric athlete necessitating annual follow-up. The empirical studies conducted within this thesis have furthered our understanding of the electrophysiological, structural and functional adaptations of the paediatric athlete's heart. It is hoped these works will aid cardiac screening within the paediatric athlete.

Objective: To assess the severity and predictors of fatigue in ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), and the contribution of peripheral and central mechanisms. Methods: Fatigue, anxiety/depression, sleep quality and pain were measured in 152 patients with AAV, 68 patients with CKD, andTl healthy conffols. Muscle mass, strength and endurance, cardio-respiratory fitness, perception of exertion, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were measured in 48 patients with AAV and 4l healthy controls. Results: Fatigue in AAV was more severe than in CKD 1p:g.gl3) or controls (p<0.001), and correlated with anxiety/depression, sleep quality and pain (all p<0.001). There was no difference in muscle mass (p:0.979) or strength (p=0.315) between AAV and conhols, but muscle endurance time was shorter in AAV (p=0.006), with greater muscle reserve (p=0.038) indicating central activation failure. Perception of exertion (p=0.006) and cardio-respiratory fitness (p:0.029) were worse in AAV than controls. Only perception of exertion independently predicted AAV fatigue (p:0.01). Sleep disturbance predicted altered perception of exertion (p:0.017). hsCRP was higher (p0.01 1) and DHEAS levels were lower (p<0.001) in AAV than controls, but neither predicted fatigue. Conclusion: Fatigue in AAV is more severe than in CKD or health, is due to central mechanisms, and may be amenable to intervention.

The contribution of energy from biomass sources is projected to increase in Britain to assist in meeting renewable energy targets and reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions. With increasing concerns over the sustainability of food crop-based biofuels, purpose-grown lignocellulosic biomass crops such as Miscanthus and short rotation coppice (SRC) willow have been promoted as more sustainable feedstocks for the production of heat and electricity as well as for the future production of liquid biofuels. With the introduction of the Energy Crops Scheme, land-use change (LUC) for lignocellulosic biomass crop production has become increasingly common in Britain in recent decades. However, there is limited understanding of the impact this has on soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and limited predictability concerning the overall trajectory, magnitude and rate of SOC changes under a range of different conditions. Using a chronosequence of 93 biomass crop plantations in England and Wales, mainly of 1 to 14 years age, empirical models were developed to determine the short term trajectory of SOC stocks following LUC from arable and grassland to SRC willow and Miscanthus production. SOC stocks were calculated for each site using a fixed sampling depth of 30 cm and estimated changes were inferred by comparing with typical pre-change SOC stocks. These results indicate that only LUC from arable crops to SRC willow demonstrated an overall increase in SOC stocks, by an estimated 15.3 ± 2.2 t C ha-1 (± 95% confidence intervals) after 14 years and 68.8 ± 49.4 t C ha-1 after 22 years. LUC from arable crops to Miscanthus and from both arable crops and grassland to SRC willow and Miscanthus demonstrated no overall net effect on SOC stocks. Soil texture and climate data were measured for each site and multivariable models were created to assess the influence of different environmental conditions on SOC trajectory. In most cases the addition of these explanatory variables improved the model fit, and the models provide some preliminary estimates of more region-specific changes in SOC following LUC. Since LUC to biomass crops often causes a loss of SOC, at least in the short term, the potential for pyrogenic carbon (PyC) to ameliorate this effect was investigated. Studies indicate that PyC can interact with and stabilise native SOC, a process termed negative priming, although the potential for PyC to reduce LUC-induced losses of SOC by negative priming has not yet been assessed. Although negative priming has been observed in many studies, most of these are long term incubation experiments which do not account for the impact of environmental weathering of PyC on interactions with native SOC. Here the aim was to assess the impact of environmentally weathered PyC on native SOC mineralisation at different points in LUC from arable crops to SRC willow. Soil was sampled to a 5 cm depth from multiple recently established SRC willow plantations approximately 2 years after amendment with PyC. Cumulative CO2 flux was measured weekly from incubated soil and soil-surface CO2 flux was also measured in the field. The results demonstrate a PyC-induced increase in CO2 flux for the surface 5 cm of soil. However, no net effect on soil-surface CO2 flux was observed in the field. Although the mechanisms for these contrasting effects remain unclear, they do not suggest that PyC can reduce LUC-induced SOC losses through negative priming.

Introduction: The recruitment and retention of Registered Nurses (RNs) in Guernsey and Alderney has been a continual challenge over the years. Whilst measures have been put in place to address the problem, these solutions have had little sustained impact on the problem. The current vacancy rate is double that being experienced by National Health Service (NHS) Trusts outside of the London area. This study proposed to explore the recruitment and retention problem in a more holistic way by capturing the experiences of RNs who are working within the Islands. Study aim: To explore the professional and personal challenges facing generalist RNs working and living in two small island communities. Methodology: An experience-centred narrative research methodology was used to explore the experiences of 20 newly appointed RNs and 15 long-serving RNs. The data consisted of 35 ‘stories’ which were captured through the use of semi-structured interviews, written accounts and visual media. The data was analysed using a critical hermeneutic approach. Results: Sixteen themes were identified and aligned with the conceptual framework underpinning the study. The stories of the participants were used to develop a model to demonstrate the acculturation process they were experiencing. Conclusions: It was recognised that all new recruits undergo a process of acculturation when they take up employment in the Islands. The study demonstrated that the process of acculturation was a continual journey and that the longer-serving participants were also undergoing a process of adjustment to the on-going cultural changes taking place in the organisation. The research highlighted that this acculturation process was influenced by multiple inter-connected factors which contributed to the challenges perceived by the participants. Whilst these factors had some commonality with those identified in the literature, the specific nature of the issues raised by the participants in this study were context dependent.

Introduction: Antimicrobial prescribing has been reported to be sub-optimal in care homes; however, prior to this research there was no information in relation to antimicrobial use in Northern Ireland's (NI's) care homes. Furthermore, the factors having an impact on infection control practices in NI's care homes had not been identified. Methods: Two point prevalence surveys (PPS) were conducted in 30 nursing homes and 30 residential homes, to determine the prevalence of antimicrobial prescribing and any associations with resident or institutional factors. Findings from the PPS in nursing homes informed the development of a pilot intervention study for the management of urinary tract infections (UTIs). Qualitative research was conducted to investigate the experience of nursing home staff who were involved in a previous infection control education and training intervention study and to explore the feasibility of introducing widespread Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) decolonisation to the nursing home setting. Appropriate quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed for all studies. Results: The PPS identified a high rate of antimicrobial prescribing in nursing (April 2009, l3%; November 2009, 11%) and residential homes (November 2010, 9%; April 2011, 9%) with variability evident both within and between homes. Antimicrobials were most frequently prescribed for UTIs. In the pilot UTI intervention study, fewer (-38%) antimicrobials were prescribed and fewer (-7%) residents were treated for suspected UTIs. However, the number of urine dipstick tests and urine samples which were sent to the laboratory remained high. The qualitative study found that the factors influencing infection control and MRSA decolonisation in nursing homes were organisational (e.g. time, financial resources, environmental, management and culture); external (e.g. hospitals and general practitioners); and residents and families. Conclusion: The four studies have shown that care homes require further support to optimise antimicrobial prescribing, the management of UTIs and infection control

SUMMARY (To be printed on this form) Phosphoramidite derivatives of a nucleoside analogue bearing photoswitchable ortho, meta and para-azobenzene moieties were synthesized and used to incorporate the photoswitchable azobenzene group proximal to the 5' and 3' ends of deoxyoligonucIeotide primers (12mers) of the glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene. The photochemical E~Z isomerisation of azobenzene appended primers was investigated by UV/vis spectroscopy and RP-HPLC. Melting studies were also performed to determine the Tm of the primers. Isothermal primer extension reactions were performed with Klenow fragment at the dark- adapted and irradiated photo stationary states. This revealed that only the para-azobenzene perturbed the extension by the enzyme. Further investigation with time course experiments to determine a yield using fluorescent fluorescein label and explore the possibility of photoswitchable DNA amplification using the para-azobenzene primers. OligonucIeotides bearing a novel photoswitchable moiety, phenylazopyridine, have been prepared. Directed Michaelis-Arbuzov reactions of support-bound internucleotide phosphite triesters with alkane-diamines were effected in the presence of iodine. The primary amine functionalised oligonucleotides were subsequently purified trityl on. This enabled resolution offast- and slow-isomers of oligomers.

This thesis is about the origins and development of freedom of information laws. The number of countries with these laws has risen dramatically in recent decades, and now stands at around ninety. This is widely taken as evidence that governments across the world are converging in their institutional arrangements because they face similar challenges and demands. Access to information is increasingly claimed to be a human right, essential to the effective functioning of democracy and fundamental to legitimate public administration in the information age. This thesis seeks to challenge this assumed causal homogeneity by explaining why countries in which these principles were well-entrenched legislated at different times. The explanation offered here emphasises institutions: the manner in which important political actors are organised, and the structure of authority and accountability relations between them. It shows that differences in these institutional arrangements meant access laws were introduced at different times in different countries because they were introduced for different reasons and in response to different pressures. It supports these claims by conducting a comparative historical study of freedom of information in Sweden, the USA, France, the UK and Germany. This thesis contributes to empirically-oriented scholarship on a prominent aspect of contemporary government. It provides a framework for further rigorous comparative scholarship. It also provides detailed accounts of how access developed in two countries which have not received much attention in English-language scholarship, France and Germany, and original insights into three others about which more has been written. Whether one is interested in improving actually-existing laws or understanding democratic government in the information age, this study is valuable because it complements visions of why transparency laws are desirable with historically-informed comparative knowledge about why they are introduced at all.

Background: Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality and therefore variables which accelerate or slow FEV1 decline are of great potential importance to public health. Methods: From 1991 to 1994, 2745 men aged 50 to 59 years were recruited into the Belfast cohort of the Prospective Epidemiological Study of Myocardial Infarction (PRIME). 2010 of these men were rescreened at 10 years. At both time points, the men were assessed at a clinic appointment which involved blood sampling, questionnaires, anthropometric measurements and lung function by spirometry. Each individual spirometry trace (baseline and 10 year follow-up) was reviewed for validity using ATS/ERS criteria. Plasma levels of C-Reactive Protein (CRP), antioxidant vitamins (A and E) and carotenoids were measured in the stored blood samples. All statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 15. Results: The 2745 men in the baseline cohort had a mean age of 54.8 years (SD 2.9) and 32.9% had never smoked. They were on average overweight with a mean body mass index of 26.3kg/m2 and a mean waist-hip ratio of 0.94. 1779 men had valid baseline lung function measurements by spirometry. Mean percent predicted FEV1 was 92% and mean percent predicted FVC was 96.9%. The baseline current smokers had the greatest decline in FEV1 over 10 years of 560 ml (SD 339 ml). Waist-hip ratio, body mass index and waist circumference were inversely associated with pulmonary function. FEV1 decline was related to the change in distribution of weight as well as to weight gain. Lung function and plasma C-Reactive Protein (CRP) concentrations were inversely related in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. The presence of systemic inflammation was demonstrated, even in subjects with mildly reduced pulmonary function. There was also an association between annual change in CRP and annual decline in FEV1 and forced expiratory volume in one second (FVC) in the adjusted model in this population. Plasma levels of retinol, lutein, zeaxanthin, ß-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene and ß-carotene were positively correlated with lung function in the cross-sectional analysis. There were also some longitudinal associations between baseline retinol, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and 10 year lung function. Self-reported fruit and vegetable intake was positively correlated with both lung function and plasma levels of antioxidants. Conclusion: In this population of middle-aged men from Northern Ireland, lung function and lung function decline as measured by FEV1 and FVC are related to body mass index, body weight distribution, lifestyle habits (smoking and alcohol intake), social status, subclinical inflammation and diet. This data supports the current public health advice regarding healthy eating, weight control and smoking cessation.

The landscape of UK Higher Education has witnessed significant change in recent years, characterised by rapidly increasing numbers, widening participation, and a diminished per capita resource base. Developmental and enhancement agenda have placed greater emphasis on skills for lifelong learning, and the independent learner has thus become a prominent theme. In architecture education these factors are imposing pressures on the traditional studio-based teaching model, one that forms a universal cornerstone of architecture schools. Coincidentally, the same period has seen this model, endorsed by Schon in the 1980s, increasingly challenged. It is argued that the confluence of these factors, presents an opportunity to develop studio-based pedagogy around the notion of the independent learner, renewing studio's relevance and currency. The aim of this thesis was developed from a literature review that was divided into four sections. The first summarised developments within UK higher education, including research into the First Year Experience, and placed architecture education within this context. The second examined the origins of contemporary studio-based teaching, whilst the third discussed the theoretical roots of its pedagogy. The final chapter critiqued teaching and learning practices through comparison with the theoretical intent, revealing a number of contradictory and counter-productive aspects. From this, the position that the development of the truly independent learner in the discipline of architecture requires the formulation of new inclusive pedagogic strategies that explicitly accommodate the individual in the studio-based learning process, and address identified shortcomings in existing studio-based teaching practices, was developed. The methodology adopted an ethnographic approach that gathered data through a longitudinal study of student perceptions, together with interviews with selected academics. Analysis of the findings, whilst replicating many phenomena raised by the literature, also revealed in detail a range of perceptions of learning, and wider student life, giving insight into key challenges. In considering these against the agendum of creating the independent learner, the importance of the peer group as a vehicle for studio-based learning and pastoral support, emerged strongly. A number of recommendations were thus made aimed at reconstructing the role of the tutor in the development of future strategies, as well as harnessing the unrealised potential of the peer group as an agent in embedding independent learning in design studio. The originality of this thesis resides in the fact that it constitutes a holistic study of teaching and learning practices in first year design studio. This is viewed against the background of rapid change in UK Higher Education. Pivotal to the study was the undertaking of a longitudinal survey of student perceptions, presenting a vitally different perspective from, say, that of Schon. From a holistic standpoint, the study creates the theoretical and evidential basis for the future development of key pedagogic strategies relating to design studio. This lays the foundation for the development of learning practices that foster learner independence within the context of design studio.

This paper reviews existing literature on the homeless population worldwide, with a particular focus on research conducted in the UK, in order to identify who the homeless are in the UK and what provisions exist for them in current government policies and initiatives. It begins by reviewing studies that attempt to identify risk factors for homelessness. Risk factors are discussed through macro (economic) and micro (individual) level concepts and the role they have in both causing and maintaining homelessness. Current estimates of mental illness among the homeless are reviewed as well as the effect of resettlement on mental illness. The paper then focuses on pathways into homelessness, paying particular attention to the relationship between trauma, personality disorder and coping styles within the homeless population and the specific role that some coping behaviours have in chronic homelessness. Literature is examined from the fields of mental health, personality disorder and coping conducted with general, psychiatric, and homeless populations and explores the complex relationship between individual risk factors, personality disorders and subsequent coping behaviours, in an attempt to understand the contribution they have to the process of becoming and remaining homeless. Finally, the paper examines existing models that have attempted to incorporate risk factors in explaining pathways to homelessness and concludes by hypothesising a model that includes both personality disorder characteristics and coping behaviours in perpetuating homelessness. The paper concludes by discussing future directions for research among this vulnerable population.

The research is a study of the place of human security in international law and the roles of the UN in the quest for human security.

Vascular dysfunction is a pivotal step in the aetiology of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of global mortality. Certain metabolic disturbances (postprandial hypertriglyceridemia - PHTG, and impaired glucose tolerance - IGT) have been identified as risk factors for vascular dysfunction, via an oxidative stress mechanism. Exercise has long been regarded as beneficial in tackling CVD but its role on oxidative stress and su~sequent vascular function is less well defined. The principal . . aim of this thesis is to examine the effects of exercise intervention on oxidative stress generation and vascular function in conditions of metabolic disturbance. The findings of Study 1 demonstrate that an acute bout of moderate intensity aerobic exercise did not change arterial function (as measured by pulse wave velocity - PWV) when compared to rest alone. However, a 1 hour bout of moderate exercise did increase the levels of the antioxidants lycopene and retinol suggesting a decrease in oxidative stress. Studies 2 and 3 illustrates that acute moderate intensity exercise can ameliorate the. postprandial vascular dysfunction induced by the ingestion of a highfat meal via a reduction in oxidative stress (LOOH) and an increase in antioxidant activity (Study 2; SOD, Study 3; retinol and lycopene). Study 3 demonstrated that an acute bout ofpre meal exercise had no effect on measures ofgastrointestinal transit. Study 4 illustrates that acute aerobic exercise can improve arterial function in obese individuals with IGT, a group who are known to be more susceptible to vascular disease. These changes were directly correlated with reductions in glucose concentrations but were not associated with changes in lipid metabolism and oxidative stress biomarkers. An exercise training regime (Study 5) was shown to improve arterial function in the same group of obese subjects with IGT. This was in combination to reductions in body mass, glucose and TG concentrations, and oxidative stress. The improvements in arterial function are perhaps due to the effects of exercise on glucose and lipid metabolism and the subsequent effect on free radical generation. The results of the studies described within this thesis provide evidence for acute and chronic exercise as key interventions to modulate the vascular dysfunction associated with PHTG and IGT. However, further research is required to define the precise biochemical mechanisms that perpetuate such adaptations.

This thesis explores the use and practice of crystal and spiritual healing - therapies located on the fringe of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) - and what these 'represent' in the context of a profound socio-cultural transformation, characterised by the shift in Western societies from modernity to postmodernity. I explore this theme in relation to the empirical example of a healing centre in the North of England. The methodological stance I took was that of ethnography; data was largely gathered using participant observation. A central theme is that healing practice and ideas which emerge at the Centre reflect individual concerns and therefore healing practices themselves are often highly personalised. In addition, I explore how, from a Centre that celebrates highly personalised practices, healing knowledge becomes institutionalised and consensuses emerge. Furthermore, I explain that the Centre collectively sanctions this personal expression. This tension between individual expression and the formalisation of group practice is, I argue, indicative of our times. Therefore. what emerges from this study is that the Centre fosters an ethos of the individual, but it is a collective ethos. In addition, crystal and spiritual healing usage and practice reflects levels of dissatisfaction with biomedicine. the medicine of modernity. Though challenged by these healing practices, biomedicine has not been significantly weakened by this emergence. Even within the more esoteric healing practices, I point to the continuing influence of materiality, science and biomedicine. The appropriation of biomedicine can be witnessed in the Centre's attempts to professionalise and systematise practices, but it can also be seen in less obvious ways, in that healers seemingly infuse their practice with some of the language and science of biomedicine. This throws into question the conventional biomedicine/alternative medicine interface and offers some insight both into the common metaphorical basis of healing and medicine. and biomedicine's continued hegemony.

Analogue assessment is an experimental methodology for identifying functions of challenging behaviour. It has had a pervasive impact on the field of behavioural intervention for people with challenging behaviours. The procedure is examined in terms of three types of validity: ecological validity, convergent validity and empirical validity. The utility of analogue assessment in clinical settings is also explored. The primary advantage of analogue assessment is experimental demonstration of relationship between variables. An impressive range of advances have improved the ecological validity of the procedure. However, evidence for convergent validity is lacking. The advantage of analogue assessment over alternative forms of functional assessment has yet to be adequately demonstrated. And the use of analogue assessment in routine clinical practice remains dubious.

The period 1840 to 1880 is important for the demographic history of both Scotland and New Zealand. During the second half of the nineteenth century Scotland had the second or third highest rate in Europe of emigration to destinations overseas. New Zealand became a British territory in 1840 and in the four following decades immigration, not natural increase, was the main source of New Zealand's population growth. Most of the immigrants who entered New Zealand during these years were born in the UK, and of these about one quarter were Scots. Between 1853 (when estimates can first be made) and 1880 Scottish emigrants who went to New Zealand account for 12 per cent of the gross total of Scots emigrating overseas. This was a significant minority of all Scots who left the land of their birth in this period, and for a time emigration to New Zealand was a highly visible movement which captured the popular imagination in Scotland. The thesis asks 'who' were the emigrants who left Scotland for New Zealand, 'why' did they travel 15 000 miles to Britain's farthest colony when other 'established' destinations were closer and cheaper to reach, and 'how' were they enabled to go. As a preliminary to answering these questions, the geographic and social background of the emigrants is explored. The thesis takes a 'longitudinal' approach: nominal data derived from New Zealand ships' lists are traced back to a variety of Scottish sources including vital registers and unpublished records of the census enumerators. Wherever possible the thesis compares these data with similar evidence from other studies and finds that emigration from Scotland to New Zealand was not aberrant from the general experience of Scottish emigration, although Scots who went to New Zealand had a number of distinctive characteristics which set them apart from, say, Scottish emigrants who went to the USA or to Canada. The thesis finds that these characteristics were not the resultant of selective criteria such as the regulations which governed eligibility for an assisted passage on an emigrant ship. However, Scots who went to New Zealand took advantage of cost-cutting facilities whenever they could. This thesis aims to provide a quantitative contribution to both Scottish and New Zealand history. In addition, the thesis treats this particular exodus of people as a case-study to explore a number of themes current in the literature of nineteenth century European emigration. These themes include: the relationship between emigration and the social and economic origins of the emigrants; the relationship between emigration and internal mobility; the role of interventionist forces, such as recruiting agencies, in effecting the process of emigration; and the extent to which emigration can be explained by the self-generating effect of emigration 'chains'. The thesis contributes new data and ideas with relevance to each of these themes. Patterns of emigration from Scotland, and indeed from all of Britain, are found to diverge significantly from common trends detected in the emigration flow from other European countries.

The scale-bound view of landsurfaces, being an assemblage of certain landforms, occurring within limited scale ranges, has been challenged by the scale-free characteristics of fractal geometry. This thesis assesses the fractal model by examining the irregularity of landsurface form, for the self-affine behaviour present in fractional Brownian surfaces. Different methods for detecting self-affine behaviour in surfaces are considered and of these the variogram technique is shown to be the most effective. It produces the best results of two methods tested on simulated surfaces, with known fractal properties. The algorithm used has been adapted to consider log (altitude variance) over a sample of log (distances) for: complete surfaces; subareas within surfaces; separate directions within surfaces. Twenty seven digital elevation models of landsurfaces arc re-examined for self- affine behaviour. The variogram results for complete surfaces show that none of these are self-affine over the scale range considered. This is because of dominant slope lengths and regular valley, spacing within areas. For similar reasons subarea analysis produces the non-fractal behaviour of markedly different variograms for separate subareas. The linearity of landforms in many areas, is detected by the variograms for separate directions. This indicates that the roughness of landsurfaces is anisotropic, unlike that of fractal surfaces. Because of difficulties in extracting particular landforms from their landsurfaces, no clear links between fractal behaviour, and landform size distribution could be established. A comparative study shows the geomorphometric parameters of fractal surfaces to vary with fractal dimension, while the geomorphometry of landsurfaces varies with the landforms present. Fractal dimensions estimated from landsurfaces do not correlate with geomorphometric parameters. From the results of this study, real landsurfaces would not appear to be scale- free. Therefore, a scale-bound approach towards landsurfaces would seem to be more appropriate to geomorphology than the fractal alternative.