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Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP® DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP (R) DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP (R) DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP (R) DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP (R) DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP® DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP (R) DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

Considering the growing importance of microbiome analyses in forensics for identifying individuals, this study explores the transfer of the skin microbiome onto clothing, its persistence on fabrics over time, and its transferability from the environment and between different garments. Furthermore, this project compares three specific QIAGEN microbiome extraction kits to test their extraction efficiency on fabric samples. Additionally, this study aims to check if these extracts contain human DNA, providing a chance to obtain more information from the same evidence for personal identification. The results obtained show: (1) variations in the skin microbiome between the volunteers, potentially due to their different sex; (2) differences in microbial composition between worn and unworn clothing; (3) the influence of the environment on the microbial signature of unworn clothing; (4) the potential use of certain phyla as biomarkers to differentiate between worn and unworn garments, even over extended periods; (5) a tendency towards extraction biases in the QIAampMP® DNA microbiome kit among the three tested ones; and (6) none of the extraction kits allow for the typing of human genetic profiles suitable for comparison. In conclusion, our study offers supplementary insights into the potential utility of time-transferred microbiome analysis on garments for forensic applications.

In the published article, there was an error in the legend for Figure 1 as published. The figure legend did not indicate that it has been adapted from Plowright et al. (2017). Copyright permission was obtained from Springer Nature to adapt Figure 1 from Plowright et al. (2017). The corrected legend appears below. Figure 1. Zoonotic risk distribution, pathway to spillover, and the multimodal role of the determinants of spillover. The zoonotic risk is demonstrated by the accumulated distribution of reservoir hosts and vectors that play a role in the pathway to spillover. The risk of spillover is determined by a series of processes from the ecological dynamics of reservoir host distribution and density, to the susceptibility, replication and dissemination of the biological factors in the recipient host. This is also reflected in the multimodal role of the determinants of spillover, demonstrating the disciplines that are being used to study zoonotic transmission and the determinants of spillover. This figure was adapted from Figure 1 in Plowright et al. (2). Copyright permission was obtained with license number 55218980848529. The authors apologize for this error and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.

After death, bones and teeth, biomineralized tissues composed of an organic and an inorganic part, are often the last remaining structures of an organism. The processes that affect biological tissues post-mortem is collectively defined as taphonomy. Forensic taphonomy studies the post-mortem modifications of remains in relation to a variety of physical, chemical, or biological agents, with the aim of assisting forensic investigations. Current research has typically focused on taphonomic effects observed in single depositional environments. This review summarizes the to-date information on the known taphonomic agents present across five depositional environments (burial, subaerial exposure, aquatic environments, burnt and frozen remains), and the effects generated on biomineralized tissues. Taphonomy is a relatively new sub-discipline of forensic anthropology and includes several areas where research is limited, such as the taphonomic processes in frozen and aquatic environments and the post-mortem alterations of teeth. As more research is conducted, the benefit of incorporating forensic taphonomy into forensic investigations have become increasingly evident. Each depositional environment features a range of characteristic taphonomic effects, which may be used to generate an accurate description of the post-mortem histories of remains. By providing training in forensic taphonomy investigative techniques, and incorporating them into investigations, more precise information may be gathered, potentially leading to faster turnaround times and case resolutions. The information presented in this review will prove useful in assisting the forensic community and may stimulate future research.

Coronavirus infections have been a part of the animal kingdom for millennia. The difference emerging in the twenty-first century is that a greater number of novel coronaviruses are being discovered primarily due to more advanced technology and that a greater number can be transmitted to humans, either directly or via an intermediate host. This has a range of effects from annual infections that are mild to full-blown pandemics. This review compares the zoonotic potential and relationship between MERS, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. The role of bats as possible host species and possible intermediate hosts including pangolins, civets, mink, birds, and other mammals are discussed with reference to mutations of the viral genome affecting zoonosis. Ecological, social, cultural, and environmental factors that may play a role in zoonotic transmission are considered with reference to SARS-CoV, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2 and possible future zoonotic events.

Non-human DNA (e.g. animal DNA) has become an increasingly useful tool to forensic science, aiding in linking suspects, victims, and crime scenes (24). However, due to many complexities (eg. the potential for non-human DNA to be from any species and the challenges of distinguishing DNA mixtures) and limited resources, this kind of DNA often remains unanalysed in investigations. Presumptive identification of blood is not always human specific and current DNA testing usually stops when DNA samples fail human DNA testing protocols. An efficient way to routinely detect and confirm the presence of animal DNA within samples is therefore needed. This research outlines the framework and development of a universal Vertebrate Class assay for the detection of Mammalian (mammal), Aves (bird), Fish, and Reptilia (reptile) DNA. The assay functions as a real-time PCR TaqMan multiplex assay, with an internal positive control. Primers and probes have been designed with Geneious Prime, targeting the mitochondrial genome, specifically regions of the cytochrome b gene (Cyt b) and cytochrome c oxidise subunit 1 gene (COX1) (4, 25-29). Multistage testing was conducted (eg. primer and probe screening and selection, SYBR green testing and TaqMan multiplex testing). Varied success was reported for the identification of Mammalian, Aves and Fish DNA samples across all multistage laboratory testing processes. The Reptilia probe was not able to be tested at this time due to unforeseen delays. With necessary further testing and validation, this will be the first Vertebrate Class assay design with potential capabilities of detecting Mammalian, Aves, Fish, and Reptilia classes simultaneously, providing both universal and specific detection in one convenient and rapid assay.

Non-human DNA (e.g. animal DNA) has become an increasingly useful tool to forensic science, aiding in linking suspects, victims, and crime scenes (24). However, due to many complexities (eg. the potential for non-human DNA to be from any species and the challenges of distinguishing DNA mixtures) and limited resources, this kind of DNA often remains unanalysed in investigations. Presumptive identification of blood is not always human specific and current DNA testing usually stops when DNA samples fail human DNA testing protocols. An efficient way to routinely detect and confirm the presence of animal DNA within samples is therefore needed. This research outlines the framework and development of a universal Vertebrate Class assay for the detection of Mammalian (mammal), Aves (bird), Fish, and Reptilia (reptile) DNA. The assay functions as a real-time PCR TaqMan multiplex assay, with an internal positive control. Primers and probes have been designed with Geneious Prime, targeting the mitochondrial genome, specifically regions of the cytochrome b gene (Cyt b) and cytochrome c oxidise subunit 1 gene (COX1) (4, 25-29). Multistage testing was conducted (eg. primer and probe screening and selection, SYBR green testing and TaqMan multiplex testing). Varied success was reported for the identification of Mammalian, Aves and Fish DNA samples across all multistage laboratory testing processes. The Reptilia probe was not able to be tested at this time due to unforeseen delays. With necessary further testing and validation, this will be the first Vertebrate Class assay design with potential capabilities of detecting Mammalian, Aves, Fish, and Reptilia classes simultaneously, providing both universal and specific detection in one convenient and rapid assay.

Literature available in the field of forensics covering terrestrial-based evidence is comprehensive; however, many aspects of aquatic environmental evidence have yet to be well researched. One such developing area of aquatic evidence is that of diatoms, a major group of unicellular algae that exist in natural bodies of both fresh and marine waters. Due to their unique qualities and characteristics, diatoms have the potential to be used as evidence of contact with specific water sources. While initially used in forensics to aid drowning diagnoses, more recent case studies and research have investigated diatoms in the context of their use as a form of trace evidence, as well as factors affecting initial transfer and subsequent extraction. This research was the first to investigate factors affecting the persistence of diatoms in fabrics in both passive and active removal pressure contexts. The pressure environments selected represent realistic case circumstances, in which someone may discard (passively affect), or machine wash (actively affect) their clothing after its exposure to diatoms. Additionally, this study investigated whether cross contamination of diatoms could occur between diatom enriched fabrics and blank fabrics within a washing machine environment. Both experiments' test fabrics were immersed in diatom enriched waters containing equal parts C. Muelleri and Navicula sp. species at 2,000,000 dv/mL. The passive removal experiment tested the influence of exposure (indoor and outdoor environments) and time (week 1/2/3/4/8/12) on the concentration of diatoms across three various fabrics (cotton knit/denim weave/polyester knit). The active removal experiment tested the machine type (front loader/top loader), wash temperature (warm ~40°C/cold) and the number of washes (1/2/3) on concentrations within DEFs, in addition to testing for cross contamination using blank fabrics within the washing load. Diatoms were extracted from fabrics using the established H2O2 met

Literature available in the field of forensics covering terrestrial-based evidence is comprehensive; however, many aspects of aquatic environmental evidence have yet to be well researched. One such developing area of aquatic evidence is that of diatoms, a major group of unicellular algae that exist in natural bodies of both fresh and marine waters. Due to their unique qualities and characteristics, diatoms have the potential to be used as evidence of contact with specific water sources. While initially used in forensics to aid drowning diagnoses, more recent case studies and research have investigated diatoms in the context of their use as a form of trace evidence, as well as factors affecting initial transfer and subsequent extraction. This research was the first to investigate factors affecting the persistence of diatoms in fabrics in both passive and active removal pressure contexts. The pressure environments selected represent realistic case circumstances, in which someone may discard (passively affect), or machine wash (actively affect) their clothing after its exposure to diatoms. Additionally, this study investigated whether cross contamination of diatoms could occur between diatom enriched fabrics and blank fabrics within a washing machine environment. Both experiments' test fabrics were immersed in diatom enriched waters containing equal parts C. Muelleri and Navicula sp. species at 2,000,000 dv/mL. The passive removal experiment tested the influence of exposure (indoor and outdoor environments) and time (week 1/2/3/4/8/12) on the concentration of diatoms across three various fabrics (cotton knit/denim weave/polyester knit). The active removal experiment tested the machine type (front loader/top loader), wash temperature (warm ~40°C/cold) and the number of washes (1/2/3) on concentrations within DEFs, in addition to testing for cross contamination using blank fabrics within the washing load. Diatoms were extracted from fabrics using the established H2O2 met

Coronavirus infections have been a part of the animal kingdom for millennia. The difference emerging in the twenty-first century is that a greater number of novel coronaviruses are being discovered primarily due to more advanced technology and that a greater number can be transmitted to humans, either directly or via an intermediate host. This has a range of effects from annual infections that are mild to full-blown pandemics. This review compares the zoonotic potential and relationship between MERS, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2. The role of bats as possible host species and possible intermediate hosts including pangolins, civets, mink, birds, and other mammals are discussed with reference to mutations of the viral genome affecting zoonosis. Ecological, social, cultural, and environmental factors that may play a role in zoonotic transmission are considered with reference to SARS-CoV, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2 and possible future zoonotic events.

Ticks are vectors of pathogens affecting companion animals and can cause tick paralysis, anaemia, dermatitis, and secondary infections. In Australia, there is currently only one known tick-borne pathogen of companion animals. Babesia canis vogeli is transmitted by Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.)1 (brown dog tick). This tick species is a potential vector of Babesia gibsoni and Anaplasma platys, which are putative tick-borne pathogens that require vector transmission studies. The lack of recognised tick-borne pathogens in Australia is likely due to the lack of research on pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and protozoa in Australian ticks. Twenty ixodid (hard tick) species have previously been recorded on dogs, cats, and horses in Australia, including Rhi. sanguineus s.l., Ixodes holocyclus (eastern paralysis tick), and Haemaphysalis longicornis (the common name in Australia is bush tick and the common name in Asia is Asian longhorned tick), which are known and putative vectors of tick-borne pathogens. Since there have been few tick surveys in Australia since the mid-twentieth century, a nationwide survey of ixodids (Acari: Ixodidae) was conducted to identify tick species that parasitise dogs, cats, and horses. Ticks were morphologically examined to determine species, instar, and sex, and the collection locations of the different tick species were mapped using QGIS software. The companion animal owners responded to questionnaires and descriptive statistics were summarised. A total of 4,765 ticks were identified from 7/8 states and territories in Australia. Overall, 220 larvae, 805 nymphs, 1,404 males, and 2,336 females of 11 tick species were identified from 837 companion animal hosts. One novel host record was obtained for Ixodes myrmecobii, which was found on Felis catus (domestic cat) in the town of Esperance, Western Australia. The most common tick species identified included Rhi. sanguineus s.l. on dogs (73%), I. holocyclus on cats (81%), and Haem. longicor

Ticks are vectors of pathogens affecting companion animals and can cause tick paralysis, anaemia, dermatitis, and secondary infections. In Australia, there is currently only one known tick-borne pathogen of companion animals. Babesia canis vogeli is transmitted by Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.)1 (brown dog tick). This tick species is a potential vector of Babesia gibsoni and Anaplasma platys, which are putative tick-borne pathogens that require vector transmission studies. The lack of recognised tick-borne pathogens in Australia is likely due to the lack of research on pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and protozoa in Australian ticks. Twenty ixodid (hard tick) species have previously been recorded on dogs, cats, and horses in Australia, including Rhi. sanguineus s.l., Ixodes holocyclus (eastern paralysis tick), and Haemaphysalis longicornis (the common name in Australia is bush tick and the common name in Asia is Asian longhorned tick), which are known and putative vectors of tick-borne pathogens. Since there have been few tick surveys in Australia since the mid-twentieth century, a nationwide survey of ixodids (Acari: Ixodidae) was conducted to identify tick species that parasitise dogs, cats, and horses. Ticks were morphologically examined to determine species, instar, and sex, and the collection locations of the different tick species were mapped using QGIS software. The companion animal owners responded to questionnaires and descriptive statistics were summarised. A total of 4,765 ticks were identified from 7/8 states and territories in Australia. Overall, 220 larvae, 805 nymphs, 1,404 males, and 2,336 females of 11 tick species were identified from 837 companion animal hosts. One novel host record was obtained for Ixodes myrmecobii, which was found on Felis catus (domestic cat) in the town of Esperance, Western Australia. The most common tick species identified included Rhi. sanguineus s.l. on dogs (73%), I. holocyclus on cats (81%), and Haem. longicor

Estimating the time since death (minimum Post-Mortem Interval, minPMI) is crucial in forensic investigations. In an aquatic environment, this process is particularly challenging because of the complexity of a corpse’s decomposition process and the many factors related to the environment. Furthermore, there is a general paucity of research in this field. Recently, the use of the clothing discovered alongside a corpse has come under scrutiny: clothing has a high chance to be present, and their colonisation rate by aquatic organisms could be used to estimate the victim’s minimum Post-Mortem Submersion Interval (minPMSI). Besides a biological/zoological-based estimation, no other avenues to age clothing in an underwater context have been tested. This research is the first to focus on the use of Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) to age fabrics, considering the modification of their optical properties as a result of exposure to a marine environment. Cotton, neoprene, satin, and velvet were submerged underwater over a period of six months off the coast of Perth, Western Australia. In a pilot study, the fabrics were analysed using two different light scenarios (VIS-NIR and VIS-NIR + VIS-H) to identify which one would provide the best reflectance profiles. Results demonstrated that the additional halogen illumination (VIS-NIR + VIS-H) did not provide any extra information with respect to VIS-NIR. In the main study, the fabric’s spectral profiles were therefore captured using only VIS-NIR lighting. Profiles were generated for all submerged samples as well as controls (N=112), and the resulting data were compared within and between fabrics. The most significant differences were observed for the cotton and satin, with a strong negative regression observed between the months spent submerged and the profiles generated. These fabrics showed a significant change of the colour, texture, and structure, as marine organisms were highly attracted to them. Neoprene and velvet, instead, showed

Forensic entomology is primarily concerned with the estimation of time since death and involves determination of the age of immature insects colonising decomposing remains. Accurate age determination of puparia is usually accomplished by dissection, which means destructive sampling of evidence. As part of improving abilities to correctly identify species and developmental age, it is highly desirable to have available non-destructive methods. In this study, we acquired external hyperspectral imaging (HSI) data (77 spectral bands, 389-892 nm) from the dorsal and ventral sides of individual puparia of two species of blowfly (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Calliphora dubia Macquart 1855 and Chrysomya rufifacies Macquart 1842. Puparia were dissected to determine the presence/absence of eight internal morphological development characteristics (legs, wings, labella, abdominal segments, antennae, thoracic bristles, orbital/facial bristles and eye colour and arista). Based on linear discriminant analysis and independent validation of HSI data, reflectance features from puparia could be used to successfully (1) distinguish the two species (classification accuracy = 92.5 %), (2) differentiate dorsal and ventral sides of puparia (classification accuracy C. dubia = 81.5 %; Ch. rufifacies = 89.2 %) and (3) predict the presence of these morphological characteristics and therefore the developmental stage of puparia (average classification accuracy using dorsal imaging: C. dubia = 90.3 %; Ch. rufifacies = 94.0 %). The analytical approach presented here provides proof of concept for a direct puparial age relationship (i.e. days since the onset of pupation) between external puparial reflectance features and internal morphological development. Furthermore, this approach establishes the potential for further refinement by using a non-invasive technique to determine the age and developmental stage of blowflies of forensic importance.

Throughout the globe, training in the investigation of forensic crime scene work is a vital part of the overall training process within Police Academies and forensic programs throughout the world. However, the exposure of trainee forensic officers to real life scenes, by instructors, is minimal due to the delicate nature of information presented within them and the overall difficulty of Forensic investigations. Virtual Reality (VR) is computer technology utilising headsets, to produce lifelike imageries, sounds and perceptions simulating physical presence inside a virtual setting to a user. The user is able to look around the virtual world and often interact with virtual landscapes or objects. VR headsets are head‐mounted goggles with a screen in front of the eyes (Burdea & Coffet 2003). The use of VR varies widely from personal gaming to classroom learning. Uses also include computerised tools that are used solely online. The current use of VR within Forensic Science is that it is used widely in several capacities that include the training and examination of new forensic officers. However, there is minimal review and authentication of the efficiency of VR use for the teaching of forensic investigation. This is surprising, as the VR field has experienced rapid expansion in the educating of many varying fields over the past few years. Even though VR could enhance forensic training by offering another, perhaps more versatile, engaging way of learning, no devoted VR application has yet been commercially implemented for forensic examination education. Research into VR is a fairly young field, however the technology and use of it is still rapidly growing and the improvement of interactive tools is inevitably having an impact on all facets of learning and teaching.

Forensic entomology is the study of insects and arthropods associated with legal investigations. Forensic entomology methods have been used worldwide to deal with several different criminal matters, but in particular to assist in determining a more accurate time since death of humans and animals. Soon after the death event, the odour of the body attracts various insect species to the carcass. These organisms will reach the dead body in a predictable sequential arrival pattern which allows the identification of the insects associated to the stage of decomposition to become invaluable information during legal investigations. Insect succession patterns have been studied largely around the world by using the predictable sequential arrival pattern of different insect species that become attracted to the decomposing carcass at various stages of the decay. The species composition in different parts of the world can be distinctive to that region or overlap across a vast area. Many factors can affect the rate of decomposition of the carcass and therefore affecting the pattern of insect succession. Currently, in some countries there are insufficient studies detailing the seasonal variation of insect succession patterns on decomposing remains. To date, there have been no published studies detailing insect succession patterns on decomposing remains in the Tasmania. This data is essential as it can become invaluable during legal investigations, as it can be used in conjunction with existing methods to assist in determining the time since death. The present research represents the first insect succession pattern research to be undertaken in Tasmania investigating the insect succession patterns on decomposing swine carcasses in two contrasting location sites in Tasmania, agricultural and suburban, during one summer season. This research aimed to provide a preliminary database, detailing forensically important insects on decomposing carcasses within the Tasmania geographical region

Throughout the globe, training in the investigation of forensic crime scene work is a vital part of the overall training process within Police Academies and forensic programs throughout the world. However, the exposure of trainee forensic officers to real life scenes, by instructors, is minimal due to the delicate nature of information presented within them and the overall difficulty of Forensic investigations. Virtual Reality (VR) is computer technology utilising headsets, to produce lifelike imageries, sounds and perceptions simulating physical presence inside a virtual setting to a user. The user is able to look around the virtual world and often interact with virtual landscapes or objects. VR headsets are head‐mounted goggles with a screen in front of the eyes (Burdea & Coffet 2003). The use of VR varies widely from personal gaming to classroom learning. Uses also include computerised tools that are used solely online. The current use of VR within Forensic Science is that it is used widely in several capacities that include the training and examination of new forensic officers. However, there is minimal review and authentication of the efficiency of VR use for the teaching of forensic investigation. This is surprising, as the VR field has experienced rapid expansion in the educating of many varying fields over the past few years. Even though VR could enhance forensic training by offering another, perhaps more versatile, engaging way of learning, no devoted VR application has yet been commercially implemented for forensic examination education. Research into VR is a fairly young field, however the technology and use of it is still rapidly growing and the improvement of interactive tools is inevitably having an impact on all facets of learning and teaching.

Forensic entomology is the study of insects and arthropods associated with legal investigations. Forensic entomology methods have been used worldwide to deal with several different criminal matters, but in particular to assist in determining a more accurate time since death of humans and animals. Soon after the death event, the odour of the body attracts various insect species to the carcass. These organisms will reach the dead body in a predictable sequential arrival pattern which allows the identification of the insects associated to the stage of decomposition to become invaluable information during legal investigations. Insect succession patterns have been studied largely around the world by using the predictable sequential arrival pattern of different insect species that become attracted to the decomposing carcass at various stages of the decay. The species composition in different parts of the world can be distinctive to that region or overlap across a vast area. Many factors can affect the rate of decomposition of the carcass and therefore affecting the pattern of insect succession. Currently, in some countries there are insufficient studies detailing the seasonal variation of insect succession patterns on decomposing remains. To date, there have been no published studies detailing insect succession patterns on decomposing remains in the Tasmania. This data is essential as it can become invaluable during legal investigations, as it can be used in conjunction with existing methods to assist in determining the time since death. The present research represents the first insect succession pattern research to be undertaken in Tasmania investigating the insect succession patterns on decomposing swine carcasses in two contrasting location sites in Tasmania, agricultural and suburban, during one summer season. This research aimed to provide a preliminary database, detailing forensically important insects on decomposing carcasses within the Tasmania geographical region

Decomposition is a process that occurs in a body after death involving the breakdown of organic matter. Decomposition is influenced by a range of factors that act together with the general outcome being the complete degradation of a body. Adipocere formation is a disruption of the typical decomposition process with the final result being the preservation of remains, human or animal. Adipocere arises from the decomposition of adipose tissue within the body. Adipocere is composed mostly of saturated fatty acids with hydroxy fatty acids, oxo fatty acids and fatty acid salts formed as by‐products. The mechanism of formation is not fully understood although several theories have been proposed. Adipocere is not an end product and will degrade under the right circumstances, mainly exposure to aerobic conditions and may also be consumed by macrofauna. The environments adipocere has been found in have been studied to elucidate the many factors that may influence formation. Water, soil, and dry environments are all capable of producing conditions conducive to adipocere formation. The main factors known to promote formation in all environments are an anaerobic environment, sufficient adipose tissue, warm temperatures, a mildly alkaline pH, bacteria and moisture. Adipocere may form partially within the soft tissues or they may turn completely into adipocere, preserving the internal organs and bones which may also form adipocere. Formation can occur in as little as a day or form over many years. Studying adipocere formation is important in forensic science as it may aid forensic professionals in their casework in terms of post‐mortem interval and ause/manner of death determination and comparison between similar, previously reported cases and a current case may be useful in aiding the process of the investigation. Additional research is needed in the area of adipocere degradation as there is little literature on it. The determination of the post‐mortem interval is complicated by

The burial of a corpse presents forensic investigators with the problems of gravesite location and post deposition estimation. Botany has a predominant role in the assessment of graves, its potential for providing temporal and gravesite indication is continually being researched. This research aimed to provide a proof of concept of the use of Dumas combustion on ryegrass growing on decomposing pork, and provide temporal and grave indication. The experimental design, involved growing tetraploid ryegrass seeds over two different growing mediums; washed river sand and ground soil. Grass was left to grow within the growing mediums which consisted of repetitions of buried pork, non-fertiliser treated and non-pork treated groups. Grass was harvested, dried and underwent nitrogen and ICP analysis. The dry matter yield of grass that resulted, show some level of growth difference between grass grow on buried pork and non-treated control groups. Nitrogen levels between these groups was also very different with increased levels seen between all groups on the second harvest, non-fertiliser treated groups were an exception. Further research is warranted to explore the full use of Dumas and validate the observations noted.

The practice of DNA profiling in forensics is a routinely performed technique, and is accepted as a scientifically rigorous process with known and understood limitations. The recovery of offender DNA in rape homicide can be complicated; it may be hindered by environmental factors, as well as the naturally acidic environment in the female vaginal tract 1, 2. In the cases of sodomy, the presence of Enterobacter species may compromise or degrade seminal fluid, compromising the quality of the molecular evidentiary value 3. Time is a critical factor in the recovery of offender DNA, and its persistence in cases of heavy decomposition appears to be unsatisfactorily understood from the existing research. The sequential decomposition of biological remains, such as human cadavers, over time is termed taphonomy 4, 5. The observation of the factors affecting decomposition have been, and continues to be, studied widely throughout the field of forensics. The process is predominantly affected by the autolytic processes in the body, and the bacterial digestion of the body, termed putrefaction 4. Both factors can affect the survival of semen and the integrity of molecular biological evidence in a corpse. Traditional methods of semen recovery in sexual assault cases include oral, genital and rectal swabs 3, which in cases of heavy decomposition or insect predation could reduce the genital or rectal tissue architecture for swabbing 6. The field of entomology is intimately linked to the subject of forensic biology, with the colonisation of cadavers being one of the primary external contributors to decomposition of remains 7. Forensic entomology can inform investigators with regards to an ever-increasing number of evidential aspects; these can include matters such as providing an estimation of the Post Mortem Interval (PMI), an application that is supported by a substantial foundation of research 7-12. There is a strictly sequential nature of many insect species life cycles; additionall

Knowing and understanding the stages involved in the decomposition process of a cadaver is crucial in the ability to accurately estimate the post-mortem interval (PMI) or time since death (TSD). A large amount of information about the PMI can be provided by the state of decomposition as well as the fauna colonizing the body. This is the case if decomposition is treated as a semi-continuous variable and used in conjunction with accumulated degree days (ADD) and by the successional waves of the insects and other arthropods consuming the body. PMI is a pivotal information in forensic investigations as it can be used in homicide cases by personnel of law enforcement for crime scene reconstruction and for the exclusion of potential perpetrators as well as to support witness testimony. Establishing the range of natural events and environmental conditions that were likely to have affected the remains with the passing of seasons can also be aided by knowing the PMI, permitting a more thorough taphonomic analysis. However, the use of a method to conceal a body (such as burials, wrapping, suitcases) may affect changes within a body and the associated entomological activity that are different to bodies that are exposed to the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the unique taphonomic processes that occur when a body is concealed. While numerous types of concealment have been researched and investigated in the past, minimal research has been specifically related to concealment within a suitcase. This literature review aims to address the effects of different concealment methods, with main focus on suitcase concealment, on the decomposition rate and entomological activity of a cadaver. KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic entomology, taphonomy, decomposition, accumulated degree days, post-mortem interval, concealment

Forensic science offers an interdisciplinary approach providing evidence to criminal and civil laws. Forensic scientists collect, preserve, analyse scientific evidence and prepare reports for the court of law. Traditionally, forensic science has been manifested in a range of fields that present direct individualising such as fingerprints and DNA…

Forensic entomology is primarily concerned with the estimation of time since death and involves determination of the age of immature insects colonising decomposing remains. Accurate age determination of puparia is usually accomplished by dissection, which means destructive sampling of evidence. As part of improving abilities to correctly identify species and developmental age, it is highly desirable to have available non-destructive methods. In this study, we acquired external hyperspectral imaging (HSI) data (77 spectral bands, 389-892 nm) from the dorsal and ventral sides of individual puparia of two species of blowfly (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Calliphora dubia Macquart 1855 and Chrysomya rufifacies Macquart 1842. Puparia were dissected to determine the presence/absence of eight internal morphological development characteristics (legs, wings, labella, abdominal segments, antennae, thoracic bristles, orbital/facial bristles and eye colour and arista). Based on linear discriminant analysis and independent validation of HSI data, reflectance features from puparia could be used to successfully (1) distinguish the two species (classification accuracy = 92.5 %), (2) differentiate dorsal and ventral sides of puparia (classification accuracy C. dubia = 81.5 %; Ch. rufifacies = 89.2 %) and (3) predict the presence of these morphological characteristics and therefore the developmental stage of puparia (average classification accuracy using dorsal imaging: C. dubia = 90.3 %; Ch. rufifacies = 94.0 %). The analytical approach presented here provides proof of concept for a direct puparial age relationship (i.e. days since the onset of pupation) between external puparial reflectance features and internal morphological development. Furthermore, this approach establishes the potential for further refinement by using a non-invasive technique to determine the age and developmental stage of blowflies of forensic importance.

Jelinek, H. F., Mousa, M., Alefishat, E., Osman, W., Spence, I., Bu, D., ... Alsafar, H. S. (2021). Evolution, ecology, and zoonotic transmission of betacoronaviruses: A review. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, article 644414. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.644414