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1. The effectiveness of automatic item generation for the development of cognitive ability tests

Author

Loe, Bao Sheng and Rust, John

Subjects
153.9, Intelligence, Item Response Theory, Automatic Item Generation, Executive Functioning, Factor Analysis, Linear Logistic Test Models
Abstract

Research has shown that the increased use of computer-based testing has brought about new challenges. With the ease of online test administration, a large number of items are necessary to maintain the item bank and minimise the exposure rate. However, the traditional item development process is time-consuming and costly. Thus, alternative ways of creating items are necessary to improve the item development process. Automatic Item Generation (AIG) is an effective method in generating items rapidly and efficiently. AIG uses algorithms to create questions for testing purposes. However, many of these generators are in the closed form, available only to the selected few. There is a lack of open source, publicly available generators that researchers can utilise to study AIG in greater depth and to generate items for their research. Furthermore, research has indicated that AIG is far from being understood, and more research into its methodology and the psychometric properties of the items created by the generators are needed for it to be used effectively. The studies conducted in this thesis have achieved the following: 1) Five open source item generators were created, and the items were evaluated and validated. 2) Empirical evidence showed that using a weak theory approach to develop item generators was just as credible as using a strong theory approach, even though they are theoretically distinct. 3) The psychometric properties of the generated items were estimated using various IRT models to assess the impact of the template features used to create the items. 4) Joint responses and response time modelling was employed to provide new insights into cognitive processes that go beyond those obtained by typical IRT models. This thesis suggests that AIG provides a tangible solution for improving the item development process for content generation and reducing the procedural cost of generating a large number of items, with the possibility of a unified approach towards test administration (i.e. adaptive item generation). Nonetheless, this thesis focused on rule-based algorithms. The application of other forms of item generation methods and the potential for measuring the intelligence of artificial general intelligence (AGI) is discussed in the final chapter, proposing that the use of AIG techniques create new opportunities as well as challenges for researchers that will redefine the assessment of intelligence.

Published
2019
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2. Beyond the imitation game: Quantifying and extrapolating the capabilities of language models

Author

Srivastava, Aarohi, Rastogi, Abhinav, Rao, Abhishek, Shoeb, Abu Awal Md, Abid, Abubakar, Fisch, Adam, Brown, Adam R., Santoro, Adam, Gupta, Aditya, Garriga-Alonso, Adrià, Kluska, Agnieszka, Lewkowycz, Aitor, Agarwal, Akshat, Power, Alethea, Ray, Alex, Warstadt, Alex, Kocurek, Alexander W., Safaya, Ali, Tazarv, Ali, Xiang, Alice, Parrish, Alicia, Nie, Allen, Hussain, Aman, Askell, Amanda, Dsouza, Amanda, Slone, Ambrose, Rahane, Ameet, Iyer, Anantharaman S., Andreassen, Anders, Madotto, Andrea, Santilli, Andrea, Stuhlmüller, Andreas, Dai, Andrew, La, Andrew, Lampinen, Andrew, Zou, Andy, Jiang, Angela, Chen, Angelica, Vuong, Anh, Gupta, Animesh, Gottardi, Anna, Norelli, Antonio, Venkatesh, Anu, Gholamidavoodi, Arash, Tabassum, Arfa, Menezes, Arul, Kirubarajan, Arun, Mullokandov, Asher, Sabharwal, Ashish, Herrick, Austin, Efrat, Avia, Erdem, Aykut, Karakaş, Ayla, Roberts, B. Ryan, Loe, Bao Sheng, Zoph, Barret, Bojanowski, Bartłomiej, Özyurt, Batuhan, Hedayatnia, Behnam, Neyshabur, Behnam, Inden, Benjamin, Stein, Benno, Ekmekci, Berk, Lin, Bill Yuchen, Howald, Blake, Diao, Cameron, Dour, Cameron, Stinson, Catherine, Argueta, Cedrick, Ramírez, César Ferri, Singh, Chandan, Rathkopf, Charles, Meng, Chenlin, Baral, Chitta, Wu, Chiyu, Callison-Burch, Chris, Waites, Chris, Voigt, Christian, Manning, Christopher D., Potts, Christopher, Ramirez, Cindy, Rivera, Clara E., Siro, Clemencia, Raffel, Colin, Ashcraft, Courtney, Garbacea, Cristina, Sileo, Damien, Garrette, Dan, Hendrycks, Dan, Kilman, Dan, Roth, Dan, Freeman, Daniel, Khashabi, Daniel, Levy, Daniel, González, Daniel Moseguí, Perszyk, Danielle, Hernandez, Danny, Chen, Danqi, Ippolito, Daphne, Gilboa, Dar, Dohan, David, Drakard, David, Jurgens, David, Datta, Debajyoti, Ganguli, Deep, Emelin, Denis, Kleyko, Denis, Yuret, Deniz, Chen, Derek, Tam, Derek, Hupkes, Dieuwke, Misra, Diganta, Buzan, Dilyar, Mollo, Dimitri Coelho, Yang, Diyi, Lee, Dong-Ho, Shutova, Ekaterina, Cubuk, Ekin Dogus, Segal, Elad, Hagerman, Eleanor, Barnes, Elizabeth, Donoway, Elizabeth, Pavlick, Ellie, Rodola, Emanuele, Lam, Emma, Chu, Eric, Tang, Eric, Erdem, Erkut, Chang, Ernie, Chi, Ethan A., Dyer, Ethan, Jerzak, Ethan, Kim, Ethan, Manyasi, Eunice Engefu, Zheltonozhskii, Evgenii, Xia, Fanyue, Siar, Fatemeh, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, Happé, Francesca, Chollet, Francois, Rong, Frieda, Mishra, Gaurav, Winata, Genta Indra, Melo, Gerard de, Kruszewski, Germán, Parascandolo, Giambattista, Mariani, Giorgio, Wang, Gloria, Jaimovitch-López, Gonzalo, Betz, Gregor, Gur-Ari, Guy, Galijasevic, Hana, Kim, Hannah, Rashkin, Hannah, Hajishirzi, Hannaneh, Mehta, Harsh, Bogar, Hayden, Shevlin, Henry, Schütze, Hinrich, Yakura, Hiromu, Zhang, Hongming, Wong, Hugh Mee, Ng, Ian, Noble, Isaac, Jumelet, Jaap, Geissinger, Jack, Kernion, Jackson, Hilton, Jacob, Lee, Jaehoon, Fisac, Jaime Fernández, Simon, James B., Koppel, James, Zheng, James, Zou, James, Kocoń, Jan, Thompson, Jana, Kaplan, Jared, Radom, Jarema, Sohl-Dickstein, Jascha, Phang, Jason, Wei, Jason, Yosinski, Jason, Novikova, Jekaterina, Bosscher, Jelle, Marsh, Jennifer, Kim, Jeremy, Taal, Jeroen, Engel, Jesse, Alabi, Jesujoba, Xu, Jiacheng, Song, Jiaming, Tang, Jillian, Waweru, Joan, Burden, John, Miller, John, Balis, John U., Berant, Jonathan, Frohberg, Jörg, Rozen, Jos, Hernandez-Orallo, Jose, Boudeman, Joseph, Jones, Joseph, Tenenbaum, Joshua B., Rule, Joshua S., Chua, Joyce, Kanclerz, Kamil, Livescu, Karen, Krauth, Karl, Gopalakrishnan, Karthik, Ignatyeva, Katerina, Markert, Katja, Dhole, Kaustubh D., Gimpel, Kevin, Omondi, Kevin, Mathewson, Kory, Chiafullo, Kristen, Shkaruta, Ksenia, Shridhar, Kumar, McDonell, Kyle, Richardson, Kyle, Reynolds, Laria, Gao, Leo, Zhang, Li, Dugan, Liam, Qin, Lianhui, Contreras-Ochando, Lidia, Morency, Louis-Philippe, Moschella, Luca, Lam, Lucas, Noble, Lucy, Schmidt, Ludwig, He, Luheng, Colón, Luis Oliveros, Metz, Luke, Şenel, Lütfi Kerem, Bosma, Maarten, Sap, Maarten, Hoeve, Maartje ter, Farooqi, Maheen, Faruqui, Manaal, Mazeika, Mantas, Baturan, Marco, Marelli, Marco, Maru, Marco, Quintana, Maria Jose Ramírez, Tolkiehn, Marie, Giulianelli, Mario, Lewis, Martha, Potthast, Martin, Leavitt, Matthew L., Hagen, Matthias, Schubert, Mátyás, Baitemirova, Medina Orduna, Arnaud, Melody, McElrath, Melvin, Yee, Michael A., Cohen, Michael, Gu, Michael, Ivanitskiy, Michael, Starritt, Michael, Strube, Michael, Swędrowski, Michał, Bevilacqua, Michele, Yasunaga, Michihiro, Kale, Mihir, Cain, Mike, Xu, Mimee, Suzgun, Mirac, Tiwari, Mo, Bansal, Mohit, Aminnaseri, Moin, Geva, Mor, Gheini, Mozhdeh, Mukund, Varma T, Peng, Nanyun, Chi, Nathan, Lee, Nayeon, Krakover, Neta Gur-Ari, Cameron, Nicholas, Roberts, Nicholas, Doiron, Nick, Nangia, Nikita, Deckers, Niklas, Muennighoff, Niklas, Keskar, Nitish Shirish, Iyer, Niveditha S., Constant, Noah, Fiedel, Noah, Wen, Nuan, Zhang, Oliver, Agha, Omar, Elbaghdadi, Omar, Levy, Omer, Evans, Owain, Casares, Pablo Antonio Moreno, Doshi, Parth, Fung, Pascale, Liang, Paul Pu, Vicol, Paul, Alipoormolabashi, Pegah, Liao, Peiyuan, Liang, Percy, Chang, Peter, Eckersley, Peter, Htut, Phu Mon, Hwang, Pinyu, Miłkowski, Piotr, Patil, Piyush, Pezeshkpour, Pouya, Oli, Priti, Mei, Qiaozhu, Lyu, Qing, Chen, Qinlang, Banjade, Rabin, Rudolph, Rachel Etta, Gabriel, Raefer, Habacker, Rahel, Delgado, Ramón Risco, Millière, Raphaël, Garg, Rhythm, Barnes, Richard, Saurous, Rif A., Arakawa, Riku, Raymaekers, Robbe, Frank, Robert, Sikand, Rohan, Novak, Roman, Sitelew, Roman, LeBras, Ronan, Liu, Rosanne, Jacobs, Rowan, Zhang, Rui, Salakhutdinov, Ruslan, Chi, Ryan, Lee, Ryan, Stovall, Ryan, Teehan, Ryan, Yang, Rylan, Mohammad, Saif M., Anand, Sajant, Dillavou, Sam, Shleifer, Sam, Wiseman, Sam, Gruetter, Samuel, Bowman, Samuel R., Schoenholz, Samuel S., Han, Sanghyun, Kwatra, Sanjeev, Rous, Sarah A., Ghazarian, Sarik, Ghosh, Sayan, Casey, Sean, Bischoff, Sebastian, Gehrmann, Sebastian, Schuster, Sebastian, Sadeghi, Sepideh, Hamdan, Shadi, Zhou, Sharon, Srivastava, Shashank, Shi, Sherry, Singh, Shikhar, Asaadi, Shima, Gu, Shixiang Shane, Pachchigar, Shubh, Toshniwal, Shubham, Upadhyay, Shyam, Shyamolima, null, Debnath, null, Shakeri, Siamak, Thormeyer, Simon, Melzi, Simone, Reddy, Siva, Makini, Sneha Priscilla, Lee, Soo-Hwan, Torene, Spencer, Hatwar, Sriharsha, Dehaene, Stanislas, Divic, Stefan, Ermon, Stefano, Biderman, Stella, Lin, Stephanie, Prasad, Stephen, Piantadosi, Steven T., Shieber, Stuart M., Misherghi, Summer, Kiritchenko, Svetlana, Mishra, Swaroop, Linzen, Tal, Schuster, Tal, Li, Tao, Yu, Tao, Ali, Tariq, Hashimoto, Tatsu, Wu, Te-Lin, Desbordes, Théo, Rothschild, Theodore, Phan, Thomas, Wang, Tianle, Nkinyili, Tiberius, Schick, Timo, Kornev, Timofei, Telleen-Lawton, Timothy, Tunduny, Titus, Gerstenberg, Tobias, Chang, Trenton, Neeraj, Trishala, Khot, Tushar, Shultz, Tyler, Shaham, Uri, Misra, Vedant, Demberg, Vera, Nyamai, Victoria, Raunak, Vikas, Ramasesh, Vinay, Prabhu, Vinay Uday, Padmakumar, Vishakh, Srikumar, Vivek, Fedus, William, Saunders, William, Zhang, William, Vossen, Wout, Ren, Xiang, Tong, Xiaoyu, Zhao, Xinran, Wu, Xinyi, Shen, Xudong, Yaghoobzadeh, Yadollah, Lakretz, Yair, Song, Yangqiu, Bahri, Yasaman, Choi, Yejin, Yang, Yichi, Hao, Yiding, Chen, Yifu, Belinkov, Yonatan, Hou, Yu, Hou, Yufang, Bai, Yuntao, Seid, Zachary, Zhao, Zhuoye, Wang, Zijian, Wang, Zijie J., Wang, Zirui, Wu, Ziyi, Srivastava, Aarohi, Rastogi, Abhinav, Rao, Abhishek, Shoeb, Abu Awal Md, Abid, Abubakar, Fisch, Adam, Brown, Adam R., Santoro, Adam, Gupta, Aditya, Garriga-Alonso, Adrià, Kluska, Agnieszka, Lewkowycz, Aitor, Agarwal, Akshat, Power, Alethea, Ray, Alex, Warstadt, Alex, Kocurek, Alexander W., Safaya, Ali, Tazarv, Ali, Xiang, Alice, Parrish, Alicia, Nie, Allen, Hussain, Aman, Askell, Amanda, Dsouza, Amanda, Slone, Ambrose, Rahane, Ameet, Iyer, Anantharaman S., Andreassen, Anders, Madotto, Andrea, Santilli, Andrea, Stuhlmüller, Andreas, Dai, Andrew, La, Andrew, Lampinen, Andrew, Zou, Andy, Jiang, Angela, Chen, Angelica, Vuong, Anh, Gupta, Animesh, Gottardi, Anna, Norelli, Antonio, Venkatesh, Anu, Gholamidavoodi, Arash, Tabassum, Arfa, Menezes, Arul, Kirubarajan, Arun, Mullokandov, Asher, Sabharwal, Ashish, Herrick, Austin, Efrat, Avia, Erdem, Aykut, Karakaş, Ayla, Roberts, B. Ryan, Loe, Bao Sheng, Zoph, Barret, Bojanowski, Bartłomiej, Özyurt, Batuhan, Hedayatnia, Behnam, Neyshabur, Behnam, Inden, Benjamin, Stein, Benno, Ekmekci, Berk, Lin, Bill Yuchen, Howald, Blake, Diao, Cameron, Dour, Cameron, Stinson, Catherine, Argueta, Cedrick, Ramírez, César Ferri, Singh, Chandan, Rathkopf, Charles, Meng, Chenlin, Baral, Chitta, Wu, Chiyu, Callison-Burch, Chris, Waites, Chris, Voigt, Christian, Manning, Christopher D., Potts, Christopher, Ramirez, Cindy, Rivera, Clara E., Siro, Clemencia, Raffel, Colin, Ashcraft, Courtney, Garbacea, Cristina, Sileo, Damien, Garrette, Dan, Hendrycks, Dan, Kilman, Dan, Roth, Dan, Freeman, Daniel, Khashabi, Daniel, Levy, Daniel, González, Daniel Moseguí, Perszyk, Danielle, Hernandez, Danny, Chen, Danqi, Ippolito, Daphne, Gilboa, Dar, Dohan, David, Drakard, David, Jurgens, David, Datta, Debajyoti, Ganguli, Deep, Emelin, Denis, Kleyko, Denis, Yuret, Deniz, Chen, Derek, Tam, Derek, Hupkes, Dieuwke, Misra, Diganta, Buzan, Dilyar, Mollo, Dimitri Coelho, Yang, Diyi, Lee, Dong-Ho, Shutova, Ekaterina, Cubuk, Ekin Dogus, Segal, Elad, Hagerman, Eleanor, Barnes, Elizabeth, Donoway, Elizabeth, Pavlick, Ellie, Rodola, Emanuele, Lam, Emma, Chu, Eric, Tang, Eric, Erdem, Erkut, Chang, Ernie, Chi, Ethan A., Dyer, Ethan, Jerzak, Ethan, Kim, Ethan, Manyasi, Eunice Engefu, Zheltonozhskii, Evgenii, Xia, Fanyue, Siar, Fatemeh, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, Happé, Francesca, Chollet, Francois, Rong, Frieda, Mishra, Gaurav, Winata, Genta Indra, Melo, Gerard de, Kruszewski, Germán, Parascandolo, Giambattista, Mariani, Giorgio, Wang, Gloria, Jaimovitch-López, Gonzalo, Betz, Gregor, Gur-Ari, Guy, Galijasevic, Hana, Kim, Hannah, Rashkin, Hannah, Hajishirzi, Hannaneh, Mehta, Harsh, Bogar, Hayden, Shevlin, Henry, Schütze, Hinrich, Yakura, Hiromu, Zhang, Hongming, Wong, Hugh Mee, Ng, Ian, Noble, Isaac, Jumelet, Jaap, Geissinger, Jack, Kernion, Jackson, Hilton, Jacob, Lee, Jaehoon, Fisac, Jaime Fernández, Simon, James B., Koppel, James, Zheng, James, Zou, James, Kocoń, Jan, Thompson, Jana, Kaplan, Jared, Radom, Jarema, Sohl-Dickstein, Jascha, Phang, Jason, Wei, Jason, Yosinski, Jason, Novikova, Jekaterina, Bosscher, Jelle, Marsh, Jennifer, Kim, Jeremy, Taal, Jeroen, Engel, Jesse, Alabi, Jesujoba, Xu, Jiacheng, Song, Jiaming, Tang, Jillian, Waweru, Joan, Burden, John, Miller, John, Balis, John U., Berant, Jonathan, Frohberg, Jörg, Rozen, Jos, Hernandez-Orallo, Jose, Boudeman, Joseph, Jones, Joseph, Tenenbaum, Joshua B., Rule, Joshua S., Chua, Joyce, Kanclerz, Kamil, Livescu, Karen, Krauth, Karl, Gopalakrishnan, Karthik, Ignatyeva, Katerina, Markert, Katja, Dhole, Kaustubh D., Gimpel, Kevin, Omondi, Kevin, Mathewson, Kory, Chiafullo, Kristen, Shkaruta, Ksenia, Shridhar, Kumar, McDonell, Kyle, Richardson, Kyle, Reynolds, Laria, Gao, Leo, Zhang, Li, Dugan, Liam, Qin, Lianhui, Contreras-Ochando, Lidia, Morency, Louis-Philippe, Moschella, Luca, Lam, Lucas, Noble, Lucy, Schmidt, Ludwig, He, Luheng, Colón, Luis Oliveros, Metz, Luke, Şenel, Lütfi Kerem, Bosma, Maarten, Sap, Maarten, Hoeve, Maartje ter, Farooqi, Maheen, Faruqui, Manaal, Mazeika, Mantas, Baturan, Marco, Marelli, Marco, Maru, Marco, Quintana, Maria Jose Ramírez, Tolkiehn, Marie, Giulianelli, Mario, Lewis, Martha, Potthast, Martin, Leavitt, Matthew L., Hagen, Matthias, Schubert, Mátyás, Baitemirova, Medina Orduna, Arnaud, Melody, McElrath, Melvin, Yee, Michael A., Cohen, Michael, Gu, Michael, Ivanitskiy, Michael, Starritt, Michael, Strube, Michael, Swędrowski, Michał, Bevilacqua, Michele, Yasunaga, Michihiro, Kale, Mihir, Cain, Mike, Xu, Mimee, Suzgun, Mirac, Tiwari, Mo, Bansal, Mohit, Aminnaseri, Moin, Geva, Mor, Gheini, Mozhdeh, Mukund, Varma T, Peng, Nanyun, Chi, Nathan, Lee, Nayeon, Krakover, Neta Gur-Ari, Cameron, Nicholas, Roberts, Nicholas, Doiron, Nick, Nangia, Nikita, Deckers, Niklas, Muennighoff, Niklas, Keskar, Nitish Shirish, Iyer, Niveditha S., Constant, Noah, Fiedel, Noah, Wen, Nuan, Zhang, Oliver, Agha, Omar, Elbaghdadi, Omar, Levy, Omer, Evans, Owain, Casares, Pablo Antonio Moreno, Doshi, Parth, Fung, Pascale, Liang, Paul Pu, Vicol, Paul, Alipoormolabashi, Pegah, Liao, Peiyuan, Liang, Percy, Chang, Peter, Eckersley, Peter, Htut, Phu Mon, Hwang, Pinyu, Miłkowski, Piotr, Patil, Piyush, Pezeshkpour, Pouya, Oli, Priti, Mei, Qiaozhu, Lyu, Qing, Chen, Qinlang, Banjade, Rabin, Rudolph, Rachel Etta, Gabriel, Raefer, Habacker, Rahel, Delgado, Ramón Risco, Millière, Raphaël, Garg, Rhythm, Barnes, Richard, Saurous, Rif A., Arakawa, Riku, Raymaekers, Robbe, Frank, Robert, Sikand, Rohan, Novak, Roman, Sitelew, Roman, LeBras, Ronan, Liu, Rosanne, Jacobs, Rowan, Zhang, Rui, Salakhutdinov, Ruslan, Chi, Ryan, Lee, Ryan, Stovall, Ryan, Teehan, Ryan, Yang, Rylan, Mohammad, Saif M., Anand, Sajant, Dillavou, Sam, Shleifer, Sam, Wiseman, Sam, Gruetter, Samuel, Bowman, Samuel R., Schoenholz, Samuel S., Han, Sanghyun, Kwatra, Sanjeev, Rous, Sarah A., Ghazarian, Sarik, Ghosh, Sayan, Casey, Sean, Bischoff, Sebastian, Gehrmann, Sebastian, Schuster, Sebastian, Sadeghi, Sepideh, Hamdan, Shadi, Zhou, Sharon, Srivastava, Shashank, Shi, Sherry, Singh, Shikhar, Asaadi, Shima, Gu, Shixiang Shane, Pachchigar, Shubh, Toshniwal, Shubham, Upadhyay, Shyam, Shyamolima, null, Debnath, null, Shakeri, Siamak, Thormeyer, Simon, Melzi, Simone, Reddy, Siva, Makini, Sneha Priscilla, Lee, Soo-Hwan, Torene, Spencer, Hatwar, Sriharsha, Dehaene, Stanislas, Divic, Stefan, Ermon, Stefano, Biderman, Stella, Lin, Stephanie, Prasad, Stephen, Piantadosi, Steven T., Shieber, Stuart M., Misherghi, Summer, Kiritchenko, Svetlana, Mishra, Swaroop, Linzen, Tal, Schuster, Tal, Li, Tao, Yu, Tao, Ali, Tariq, Hashimoto, Tatsu, Wu, Te-Lin, Desbordes, Théo, Rothschild, Theodore, Phan, Thomas, Wang, Tianle, Nkinyili, Tiberius, Schick, Timo, Kornev, Timofei, Telleen-Lawton, Timothy, Tunduny, Titus, Gerstenberg, Tobias, Chang, Trenton, Neeraj, Trishala, Khot, Tushar, Shultz, Tyler, Shaham, Uri, Misra, Vedant, Demberg, Vera, Nyamai, Victoria, Raunak, Vikas, Ramasesh, Vinay, Prabhu, Vinay Uday, Padmakumar, Vishakh, Srikumar, Vivek, Fedus, William, Saunders, William, Zhang, William, Vossen, Wout, Ren, Xiang, Tong, Xiaoyu, Zhao, Xinran, Wu, Xinyi, Shen, Xudong, Yaghoobzadeh, Yadollah, Lakretz, Yair, Song, Yangqiu, Bahri, Yasaman, Choi, Yejin, Yang, Yichi, Hao, Yiding, Chen, Yifu, Belinkov, Yonatan, Hou, Yu, Hou, Yufang, Bai, Yuntao, Seid, Zachary, Zhao, Zhuoye, Wang, Zijian, Wang, Zijie J., Wang, Zirui, and Wu, Ziyi

Abstract

Language models demonstrate both quantitative improvement and new qualitative capabilities with increasing scale. Despite their potentially transformative impact, these new capabilities are as yet poorly characterized. In order to inform future research, prepare for disruptive new model capabilities, and ameliorate socially harmful effects, it is vital that we understand the present and near-future capabilities and limitations of language models. To address this challenge, we introduce the Beyond the Imitation Game benchmark (BIG-bench). BIG-bench currently consists of 204 tasks, contributed by 442 authors across 132 institutions. Task topics are diverse, drawing problems from linguistics, childhood development, math, common-sense reasoning, biology, physics, social bias, software development, and beyond. BIG-bench focuses on tasks that are believed to be beyond the capabilities of current language models. We evaluate the behavior of OpenAI's GPT models, Google-internal dense transformer architectures, and Switch-style sparse transformers on BIG-bench, across model sizes spanning millions to hundreds of billions of parameters. In addition, a team of human expert raters performed all tasks in order to provide a strong baseline. Findings include: model performance and calibration both improve with scale, but are poor in absolute terms (and when compared with rater performance); performance is remarkably similar across model classes, though with benefits from sparsity; tasks that improve gradually and predictably commonly involve a large knowledge or memorization component, whereas tasks that exhibit "breakthrough" behavior at a critical scale often involve multiple steps or components, or brittle metrics; social bias typically increases with scale in settings with ambiguous context, but this can be improved with prompting.

Published
2022

3. Effects of different types of written vaccination information on COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in the UK (OCEANS-III):a single-blind, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial

Author

Freeman, Daniel, Loe, Bao Sheng, Yu, Ly-mee, Freeman, Jason, Chadwick, Andrew, Vaccari, Cristian, Shanyinde, Milensu, Harris, Victoria, Waite, Felicity, Rosebrock, Laina, Petit, Ariane, Vanderslott, Samantha, Lewandowsky, Stephan, Larkin, Michael, Innocenti, Stefania, Pollard, Andrew J, Mcshane, Helen, Lambe, Sinéad, Freeman, Daniel, Loe, Bao Sheng, Yu, Ly-mee, Freeman, Jason, Chadwick, Andrew, Vaccari, Cristian, Shanyinde, Milensu, Harris, Victoria, Waite, Felicity, Rosebrock, Laina, Petit, Ariane, Vanderslott, Samantha, Lewandowsky, Stephan, Larkin, Michael, Innocenti, Stefania, Pollard, Andrew J, Mcshane, Helen, and Lambe, Sinéad

Abstract

BACKGROUND: The effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccination programme depends on mass participation: the greater the number of people vaccinated, the less risk to the population. Concise, persuasive messaging is crucial, particularly given substantial levels of vaccine hesitancy in the UK. Our aim was to test which types of written information about COVID-19 vaccination, in addition to a statement of efficacy and safety, might increase vaccine acceptance. METHODS: For this single-blind, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial, we aimed to recruit 15 000 adults in the UK, who were quota sampled to be representative. Participants were randomly assigned equally across ten information conditions stratified by level of vaccine acceptance (willing, doubtful, or strongly hesitant). The control information condition comprised the safety and effectiveness statement taken from the UK National Health Service website; the remaining conditions addressed collective benefit, personal benefit, seriousness of the pandemic, and safety concerns. After online provision of vaccination information, participants completed the Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Scale (outcome measure; score range 7-35) and the Oxford Vaccine Confidence and Complacency Scale (mediation measure). The primary outcome was willingness to be vaccinated. Participants were analysed in the groups they were allocated. p values were adjusted for multiple comparisons. The study was registered with ISRCTN, ISRCTN37254291. FINDINGS: From Jan 19 to Feb 5, 2021, 15 014 adults were recruited. Vaccine hesitancy had reduced from 26·9% the previous year to 16·9%, so recruitment was extended to Feb 18 to recruit 3841 additional vaccine-hesitant adults. 12 463 (66·1%) participants were classified as willing, 2932 (15·6%) as doubtful, and 3460 (18·4%) as strongly hesitant (ie, report that they will avoid being vaccinated for as long as possible or will never get vaccinated). Information conditions did not alter COVID-19 vaccine

Published
2021

4. Injection fears and COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy

Author

Freeman, Daniel, Lambe, Sinéad, Yu, Ly-Mee, Freeman, Jason, Chadwick, Andrew, Vaccari, Cristian, Waite, Felicity, Rosebrock, Laina, Petit, Ariane, Vanderslott, Samantha, Lewandowsky, Stephan, Larkin, Michael, Innocenti, Stefania, McShane, Helen, Pollard, Andrew J, Loe, Bao Sheng, Freeman, Daniel, Lambe, Sinéad, Yu, Ly-Mee, Freeman, Jason, Chadwick, Andrew, Vaccari, Cristian, Waite, Felicity, Rosebrock, Laina, Petit, Ariane, Vanderslott, Samantha, Lewandowsky, Stephan, Larkin, Michael, Innocenti, Stefania, McShane, Helen, Pollard, Andrew J, and Loe, Bao Sheng

Abstract

Background: When vaccination depends on injection, it is plausible that the blood-injection-injury cluster of fears may contribute to hesitancy. Our primary aim was to estimate in the UK adult population the proportion of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy explained by blood-injection-injury fears. Methods: 15,014 UK adults, quota sampled to match the population for age, gender, ethnicity, income, and region, took part (19th January-5th February 2021) in a non-probability online survey. The Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Scale assessed intent to be vaccinated. Two scales (Specific Phobia Scale-blood-injection-injury phobia; Medical Fear Survey-injections and blood subscale) assessed blood-injection-injury fears. Four items from these scales were used to create a factor score specifically for injection fears. Results: 3927 (26.2%) screened positive for blood-injection-injury phobia. Individuals screening positive (22.0%) were more likely to report COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy than individuals screening negative (11.5%), odds ratio=2.18, CI: 1.97-2.40, p <.001. The population attributable fraction indicated that if blood-injection-injury phobia were absent then this may prevent 11.5% of all instances of vaccine hesitancy, AF=0.11; 95% CI: 0.09-0.14, p < 0.001. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy was associated with higher scores on the Specific Phobia Scale, r=0.22, p <.001, Medical Fear Survey, r=0.23, p= <.001, and injection fears, r=0.25, p <.001. Injection fears were higher in youth and in Black and Asian ethnic groups, and explained a small degree of why vaccine hesitancy is higher in these groups. Conclusions: Across the adult population, blood-injection-injury fears may explain approximately 10% of cases of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Addressing such fears will likely improve the effectiveness of vaccination programmes.

Published
2021

5. General intelligence disentangled via a generality metric for natural and artificial intelligence

Author

Leverhulme Trust, European Commission, Generalitat Valenciana, Future of Life Institute, U.S. Department of Defense, Agencia Estatal de Investigación, European Regional Development Fund, COMISION DE LAS COMUNIDADES EUROPEA, Hernández-Orallo, José, Loe, Bao Sheng, Cheke, Lucy, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, Heigeartaigh, Sean O., Leverhulme Trust, European Commission, Generalitat Valenciana, Future of Life Institute, U.S. Department of Defense, Agencia Estatal de Investigación, European Regional Development Fund, COMISION DE LAS COMUNIDADES EUROPEA, Hernández-Orallo, José, Loe, Bao Sheng, Cheke, Lucy, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, and Heigeartaigh, Sean O.

Abstract

[EN] Success in all sorts of situations is the most classical interpretation of general intelligence. Under limited resources, however, the capability of an agent must necessarily be limited too, and generality needs to be understood as comprehensive performance up to a level of difficulty. The degree of generality then refers to the way an agent's capability is distributed as a function of task difficulty. This dissects the notion of general intelligence into two non-populational measures, generality and capability, which we apply to individuals and groups of humans, other animals and AI systems, on several cognitive and perceptual tests. Our results indicate that generality and capability can decouple at the individual level: very specialised agents can show high capability and vice versa. The metrics also decouple at the population level, and we rarely see diminishing returns in generality for those groups of high capability. We relate the individual measure of generality to traditional notions of general intelligence and cognitive efficiency in humans, collectives, non-human animals and machines. The choice of the difficulty function now plays a prominent role in this new conception of generality, which brings a quantitative tool for shedding light on long-standing questions about the evolution of general intelligence and the evaluation of progress in Artificial General Intelligence.

Published
2021

6. A multidisciplinary task-based perspective for evaluating the impact of AI autonomy and generality on the future of work

Author

Fernández-Macías, Enrique, Gómez, Emilia, Hernández-Orallo, José, Loe, Bao Sheng, Martens, Bertin, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, Tolan, Songül, Fernández-Macías, Enrique, Gómez, Emilia, Hernández-Orallo, José, Loe, Bao Sheng, Martens, Bertin, Martínez-Plumed, Fernando, and Tolan, Songül

Abstract

This paper presents a multidisciplinary task approach for assessing the impact of artificial intelligence on the future of work. We provide definitions of a task from two main perspectives: socio-economic and computational. We propose to explore ways in which we can integrate or map these perspectives, and link them with the skills or capabilities required by them, for humans and AI systems. Finally, we argue that in order to understand the dynamics of tasks, we have to explore the relevance of autonomy and generality of AI systems for the automation or alteration of the workplace., Comment: AEGAP2018 Workshop at ICML 2018, 7 pages, 1 table

Published
2018

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