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Social media platforms are increasingly important arenas for communication in today’s society. These platforms can both enable and restrict their users’ exercise of free speech. The right to freedom of expression has traditionally protected individuals against state interference. However, the most popular social media platforms are owned by private companies, which creates new challenges for the constitutional protection of freedom of expression. This study examines how constitutional free speech rights have been adapted and should be adapted to the new communicative landscape dominated by social media. A comparative study of the adaption of constitutional free speech guarantees to social media in the US, Sweden and Germany is carried out. Relevant European law (European Convention on Human Rights and European Union law) is also included in the comparison. Four dimensions of the exercise of free speech on social media are compared. Firstly, social media users' and platforms' free speech rights are studied. Secondly, it is analysed whether constitutional free speech rights can be applied to relationships between private social media platforms and their users (horizontal effect). Thirdly, the state’s potential positive obligations to protect users' freedom of expression against social media companies are examined. Finally, laws regulating the effects of social media platforms on free speech exercise are addressed, including the Digital Services Act adopted by the European Union. Through the comparative analysis, different constitutional law mechanisms that allow freedom of expression to impact relationships between private social media platforms and their users are identified. Constitutional free speech guarantees can affect the activities of social media platforms through the horizontal effect of constitutional rights or the state’s positive obligations. Even without horizontal effect and positive obligations, the constitutional free speech law may allow the state to

Social media platforms are increasingly important arenas for communication in today’s society. These platforms can both enable and restrict their users’ exercise of free speech. The right to freedom of expression has traditionally protected individuals against state interference. However, the most popular social media platforms are owned by private companies, which creates new challenges for the constitutional protection of freedom of expression. This study examines how constitutional free speech rights have been adapted and should be adapted to the new communicative landscape dominated by social media. A comparative study of the adaption of constitutional free speech guarantees to social media in the US, Sweden and Germany is carried out. Relevant European law (European Convention on Human Rights and European Union law) is also included in the comparison. Four dimensions of the exercise of free speech on social media are compared. Firstly, social media users' and platforms' free speech rights are studied. Secondly, it is analysed whether constitutional free speech rights can be applied to relationships between private social media platforms and their users (horizontal effect). Thirdly, the state’s potential positive obligations to protect users' freedom of expression against social media companies are examined. Finally, laws regulating the effects of social media platforms on free speech exercise are addressed, including the Digital Services Act adopted by the European Union. Through the comparative analysis, different constitutional law mechanisms that allow freedom of expression to impact relationships between private social media platforms and their users are identified. Constitutional free speech guarantees can affect the activities of social media platforms through the horizontal effect of constitutional rights or the state’s positive obligations. Even without horizontal effect and positive obligations, the constitutional free speech law may allow the state to

In this contribution the added value of the Charter in the area of social security is examined. It is concluded that Article 34 of the Charter has not created fundamental rights that can be invoked in order to improve the legal position of claimants of social security or of social assistance. This conclusion is no surprise, given the express provisions limiting the interpretation of the Charter. Instead, it is interesting to note that the Charter has, in particular, added value where the scope for interpretation has not been explicitly limited, that is where provisions are applied that are not implemented by the instrument that is disputed in a particular situation. A second added value is the doctrine of horizontal effect, which means that in some cases provisions of Directives can also be invoked in horizontal situations. This is of relevance, particularly in non-statutory social security cases. Also, the Court of Justice itself seems to have had its difficulties in applying the Charter. It is difficult to understand the consistency of the Dano and CG judgments, where in the Dano the Court claimed not to have jurisdiction to interpret the non-specific provisions in the case, yet in CG, it did so without having even been asked. In this contribution it is undertaken to analyse these judgments with a view to better understanding the added value of the Charter.

Los compromisos políticos que combaten la discriminación plantean la pregunta por la medida en que las personas resultan obligadas en sus relaciones privadas. El punto es complejo, porque en el injusto conviven consideraciones individuales y colectivas cuya compatibilidad con la autonomía privada se presenta de manera muy distinta. El lugar de los deberes de no discriminar en el derecho privado puede aclararse si entendemos que el encuentro entre lo que hay de individual y de colectivo en ellos no se produce al aplicar las reglas, sino al instaurarlas. Formulada esta idea, este trabajo reflexiona sobre los encuentros y desencuentros entre los compromisos contrarios a la discriminación y el derecho privado patrimonial, proponiendo alternativas y despejando dudas que podrían ser relevantes en el proceso constituyente que en Chile se acaba de iniciar., Political commitments against discrimination pose the question to what extent individuals should be bound by them. This dilemma is challenging since the wrong combine individual and collective dimensions which compatibility with private autonomy may emerge in different ways. The place of duties not to discriminate within private law may be clarified if we understand that the meeting between what is individual and collective about them does not occur in their application to particular cases, but in their establishment. Once this point is made clear, this work reflects on the tensions between the commitments against discrimination and private law, proposing alternatives and clearing up doubts that could be relevant in the constituent process recently initiated in Chile.

In this article, the very essence of proportionality is assessed in light of a substantive theory of justice and rights. Despite the existence of the principle of proportionality, a theory that is “external” to the mechanics of proportionality is deemed necessary. One that facilitates the work of judges when assessing the normative issues when they adjudicate using the principle of proportionality. The steps and probabilities of proportionality are not enough in order to draw qualitative distinctions among rights or balance the abstract weight of the right’s limitation vis-à-vis the achievement of legitimate ends or the guarantee of other rights. Therefore, this article underscores the need of background substantive theories that underpin the application of the principle. Such theories should address, among other issues, the scope and enforcement of rights in the different spheres of social life, the horizontal effect of constitutional rights in the private domain, or the institutional consequences of the principle concerning the role of courts when exercising constitutional review., El presente artículo aborda el principio de proporcionalidad a la luz de una teoría sustantiva de la justicia y los derechos subjetivos que lo fundamenta. A pesar de la existencia del principio de proporcionalidad, resulta necesaria una teoría “externa” a la mecánica del funcionamiento del principio de proporcionalidad. Una que sirva de soporte a los jueces al momento de responder las preguntas normativas que exige la aplicación del principio. Los pasos y las probabilidades de la proporcionalidad no son suficientes a la hora de identificar distinciones cualitativas entre derechos o atribuir pesos abtractos a la restricción de un derecho vis-à-vis el cumplimiento de un fin legítimo o la garantía de otro derecho de igual importancia. Por tal razón, el presente artículo subraya la necesidad de elaborar serie de teorías sustantivas que sustenten el test de proporcionalidad al determinar, entre otros elementos, el alcance y la aplicación de los derechos en las diferentes esferas sociales, el efecto horizontal de los derechos constitucionales en el ámbito privado, o las implicaciones institucionales de la aplicación del principio de constitucionalidad al determinar el rol de los tribunales en ejercicio del control constitucional.

The conceptual construction of the Drittwirkung has played an important role in the history of the German dogmatic of the fundamental rights. In this paper will be analyzed the classical constructions of the Drittwirkung in the jurisprudence and in the academic debate. Likewise, the author proposes to widen the classical conception of the Drittwirkung in order to adapt it to the new challenges that face the basic rights. The latter, will be achieved through the theory of the transformation of moral rights into basic rights., La construcción conceptual de la Drittwirkung ha desempeñado un papel de suma importancia en la historia de la dogmática alemana de los derechos fundamentales. En este trabajo se analizarán las clásicas construcciones que han presentado este concepto dentro de la jurisprudencia y el debate académico. Asimismo, el autor propone ampliar el concepto de la Drittwirkung con el objetivo de adecuarla a los nuevos retos presentados por los derechos fundamentales. Esto último, por medio de la teoría de la transformación de los derechos morales en derechos fundamentales.

Optical treatment is the primary treatment of all types of amblyopia that has a refractive component. However, it is unclear how optical treatment impacts cortical processing in amblyopic children as some of them may readily improve letter recognition visual acuity (treatment responders) but others may not (treatment non-responders). The main aim was to investigate the electrophysiological and psychophysical effects of optical treatment in children who have been newly-diagnosed with amblyopia in comparison with normal maturation in non-amblyopic children. The secondary aim was to explore whether pattern onset-offset visual evoked potentials (POVEPs) and psychophysical grating acuities (GA) may be predictive of clinically significant improvements in letter recognition visual acuity (VA) after four months of optical treatment.The primary outcome measures were POVEP C3 amplitude and C3 latency and GA which were assessed in response to orientation-specific stimuli. The testing protocol was designed to optimize the assessment of meridional anisotropies and was able to identify children with refractive amblyopia and to monitor treatment outcomes.The study presented evidence that four months of optical treatment improved POVEP C3 amplitude on average, although within the amblyopic group, a subset of refractive amblyopes were not found to significantly improve in letter visual acuity. A comparison control group, comprised of non-amblyopic children, were also monitored over two visits four months apart, which represented age-normal characteristics and maturation.Meridional anisotropies were found to be a potentially useful indicator of normality, as there was evidence that orientation-specific neural mechanisms differed for the responders and non-responders to optical treatment, with the responders showing anisotropies more consistent with the control data. An onset of horizontal effect may indicate that the amblyopic visual systems are improving. Consequently, lower POVEP C

This paper addresses the effect of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZBORA) in disputes between private parties which arise under the common law. Because the NZBORA applies to the courts as the judicial branch of Government, this implies that it imposes obligations on the courts when deciding cases, including ones between private parties. However, through an assessment of the relevant case law, I argue that as the courts protected rights in disputes between private parties through the common law before 1990, the NZBORA does not introduce this role. I then distinguish between the Act’s application to the courts, and other ways it affects disputes between private parties. While the NZBORA does not require a change in the courts’ approach, it has resulted in a greater emphasis on rights in private common law disputes through a number of channels. These include forming part of the statutory landscape, reinforcing existing values, enhancing access to rights for litigants and providing consistent language. I conclude that the NZBORA’s effect on private common law disputes is complex, but ultimately has been a beneficial one.

This paper addresses the effect of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZBORA) in disputes between private parties which arise under the common law. Because the NZBORA applies to the courts as the judicial branch of Government, this implies that it imposes obligations on the courts when deciding cases, including ones between private parties. However, through an assessment of the relevant case law, I argue that as the courts protected rights in disputes between private parties through the common law before 1990, the NZBORA does not introduce this role. I then distinguish between the Act’s application to the courts, and other ways it affects disputes between private parties. While the NZBORA does not require a change in the courts’ approach, it has resulted in a greater emphasis on rights in private common law disputes through a number of channels. These include forming part of the statutory landscape, reinforcing existing values, enhancing access to rights for litigants and providing consistent language. I conclude that the NZBORA’s effect on private common law disputes is complex, but ultimately has been a beneficial one.

Positive obligations of States to protect and implement human rights are considered a part of various effects of human rights in legislations. In this article, it is argued that a crucial problem arises from the inconsistent practice of addressing violations of human rights committed by juristic persons together with a lack of underlying general theory of liability for human rights violations com-mitted by private entities. Without a major change in the legal doctrine and case-law, we will need to remain focused on the role of the State as a guaran-tor of human rights, rather than on the imposition of human rights obligations on private-law enti-ties. In this article, it is argued that the nature of the relationship between a juristic person and the State is not the only relevant aspect, as we should also examine the activity of the juristic person in question., Obrigações estatais positivas de proteger e de implementar direitos humanos são parte dos vários efeitos dos direitos humanos nas legislações nacionais. Neste artigo, argumenta-se que um pro-blema crucial decorre da prática de abordar viola-ções de direitos humanos cometidas por pessoas jurídicas sem uma teoria geral da responsabilidade por violações de direitos humanos cometidas por entidades privadas. Sem uma mudança importante na doutrina e na jurisprudência será preciso per-manecer olhando apenas para o papel do Estado como garantidor de direitos humanos. Neste artigo argumenta-se que a natureza da relação entre uma pessoa jurídica e o Estado não é o único aspecto relevante. É preciso examinar também a atividade da pessoa jurídica em questão.

This article argues that different regimes of horizontal effect adjudication invariably turn on different attitudes to state sovereignty. Aversions to horizontal effect are usually a reflection of an apprehension regarding state sovereignty (understood as a threat to liberty) whereas endorsements of horizonal effect usually reflect a positive regard for state sovereingty (as a condition for liberty).

English: The Constitution of Lesotho is a product of the two-year deliberative discussions between 1990 and 1992. With this relatively transformative constitutional document, Lesotho sought to break away from the harsh consequences of a century-long British colonial imperialism and domination, as well as more than two decades of authoritarian and military rule. The latter period was characterised by political intolerance, suspension of constitutions, insurgencies, sporadic violence and brutality, the introduction of draconian legislation and denial and violations of basic human rights. The Constitution therefore provided for the twin transformative tools of the horizontal application of the Bill of Rights and the decentralised constitutional review as the cradle for the constitutionalisation project that was to be carried out in the new constitutional era. The horizontal application of the Bill of Rights means that every private actor is entitled to rely on the Bill of Rights in his or her private law disputes with another private actor. The doctrine further lays down constitutional duties for the courts not only to protect the fundamental rights and freedoms of private actors, but also not to infringe upon those rights and freedoms. On the other hand, the decentralised constitutional review is looked at through the principle of subsidiarity. This is a structural principle that not only fragments and organises power and authority between the superordinate and the subordinate authorities that function in the same hierarchical order; the principle further imposes duties on the superordinate authority to support and assist the subordinate authority where the latter cannot discharge its function effectively and efficiently. Looking at the structure of the Constitution, the constitutional powers as well as the functional relationship between the High Court and the subordinate courts in Lesotho (Magistrate Courts, Central and Local Courts, Judicial Commissioner’s Court an, Afrikaans: Die Grondwet van Lesotho is ’n produk van die tweejaarlange beraadslagende gesprekke tussen 1990 en 1992. Lesotho het daarna gestreef om met hierdie relatief transformerende konstitusionele dokument weg te breek van die fel gevolge van die eeuelange Britse koloniale imperialisme en oorheersing, asook meer as twee dekades van outoritêre en militêre oorheersing. Laasgenoemde periode is gekenmerk deur politieke onverdraagsaamheid, die opskorting van grondwette, insurgensies, sporadiese geweld en brutaliteit, die instel van drakoniese wetgewing en die ontkenning en skending van basiese menseregte. Die Grondwet het daarom voorsiening gemaak vir die tweeledige transformerende hulpmiddels van die horisontale toepassing van die Handves van Regte en die gedesentraliseerde konstitusionele oorsig as die basis vir die konstitusionaliseringsprojek wat in die nuwe konstitusionele era uitgevoer moes word. Die horisontale toepassing van die Handves van Regte beteken dat elke private rolspeler daarop geregtig is om op die Handves van Regte in sy of haar privaatregtelike dispuut met ’n ander private rolspeler staat te maak. Die leerstelling bepaal verder konstitusionele pligte vir die howe, nie net om die fundamentele regte en vryhede van private rolspelers te beskerm nie, maar ook om nie inbreuk te maak op daardie regte en vryhede nie. Aan die ander kant word daar by wyse van die beginsel van subsidiariteit gekyk na die gedesentraliseerde konstitusionele hersiening. Dit is ’n strukturele beginsel wat nie alleen mag en gesag tussen die meerdere en die ondergeskikte gesag in dieselfde hiërargiese orde fragmenteer en organiseer nie. Die beginsel ken verder pligte aan die meerdere gesag toe om die ondergeskikte gesag te ondersteun en behulpsaam te wees, waar laasgenoemde nie sy funksie effektief kan verrig nie. Wanneer daar gekyk word na die struktuur van die Grondwet, is dit duidelik dat die konstitusionele hersieningsraamwerk van Lesotho gedesentraliseer is wat betref die k

This article argues that different regimes of horizontal effect adjudication invariably turn on different attitudes to state sovereignty. Aversions to horizontal effect are usually a reflection of an apprehension regarding state sovereignty (understood as a threat to liberty) whereas endorsements of horizonal effect usually reflect a positive regard for state sovereingty (as a condition for liberty).

The present work has as its central thesis the recognition of the horizontal effectiveness of the fundamental rights in the process of constitutionalization of the global digital private legal regime. For this purpose it has been used a transactional cut design and the technique of dual analysis of contents. The main result is the effectiveness of the horizontality expressed by their validity and legitimacy on the Internet (one of the Fragments global). The conclusion, presented as a provisional corollary, propose that in the recognition of the rights in private areas, it should be thought in the normative force that those have by its intrinsic nature, regardless of the Constitution of a State., El presente trabajo tiene por tesis central el reconocimiento de la eficacia horizontal de los derechos fundamentales en el proceso de constitucionalización global del régimen jurídico privado digital. Para tal efecto se ha empleado un diseño de corte transaccional y la técnica de análisis dual de contenidos. El principal resultado es la eficacia de la horizontalidad, expresada en su validez y legitimidad en Internet(uno de los fragmentos globales). La conclusión, a manera de un corolario provisional, plantea que en el reconocimiento de los derechos en ámbitos privados se debe pensar en la fuerza normativa que tienen estos por su naturaleza intrínseca, independientemente de la Constitución de un Estado.