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Heterobasidion species cause great economic loss the forest industry in the northern hemisphere. The spread of infection takes two forms, the first is an airborne infection and the second is a vegetative infection from infected root to healthy root. Much research has been done concerning the Heterobasidion pathogen. Little research has however been done on young pine stands with a previous generation of pine. Therefore the presence of Heterobasidion spp in such stands without a known history of infection is unknown. 30 sites, between 4 and 6 years after planting in southern Sweden were sampled. Using a transect and circular plots as proxies for the whole stand. Discs were taken from all dead pine trees found in the transect and 6 randomly taken live trees from two circular plots per stand. Results showed that 6.5% of the live tree samples were infected with Heterobasidion spp, and 6.2% of dead trees sampled were infected. There was no significance in relation to age, density, DBH or height to infection. Although infection presence is a small proportion of these young stands now, with many years until harvest there is much vegetative and airborne infection that could spread through the sites, potentially causing significant damage. The use of control methods such as urea, Rotstop and silvicultural controls could be a way to reduce negative effects of the Heterobasidion spp infection. Especially in a changing climate, it may be prudent to include Heterobasidion spp. controls in forest planning.

The effect of Phlebiopsis gigantea on root and butt rot causing fungus Heterobasidion spp. was investigated in fifteen stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies) in southern Sweden. The stumps were mechanically treated immediately after felling and only stumps with no sign of decay were sampled for the study. A pictorial sampling of 396 stumps was conducted one to six hours after felling to analyze the treatment coverage. Six to seven weeks later, discs of the photographed stumps were cut and analyzed for the presence of Heterobasidion. The effect of P. gigantea on Heterobasidion was calculated using four measurements: treatment coverage of Rotstop®S Gel, relative infected area, number of Heterobasidion colonies per disc and infection frequency (proportion of infected stumps). Overall, treatment with Rotstop®S Gel did not protect against spore infection. Larger stumps were more susceptible and suffered from more severe infections, regarding size and number of Heterobasidion colonies. However, the relative infected area decreased with an increasing coverage of P. gigantea, highlighting the importance of having a 100% treatment coverage on all stumps. By contrast, treatment coverage failed to reach minimum coverage (85-95%), commonly required by stakeholders, on a large proportion of the stumps, pointing to the need of improving the technology calibration. Further studies on stump treatment against root and butt rot in practice are necessary, as the results from this study are inferior to earlier studies with controlled measurements., Effekten av Phlebiopsis gigantea på rotrötesvampen Heterobasidion spp. undersöktes i femton granbestånd (Picea abies) i södra Sverige. Stubbarna behandlades mekaniskt omedelbart efter fällning och endast friska stubbar utan tecken på röta valdes ut för studien. En bildsamling av 396 stubbar utfördes en till sex timmar efter fällning för att analysera täckningsgraden av behandlingen. Sex till sju veckor senare kapades diskar från de tidigare fotograferade stubbarna för att analysera förekomsten av Heterobasidion. Effekten av P. gigantea på Heterobasidion beräknades m.h.a. fyra mått: täckningsgraden av Rotstop®S Gel, den relativa infekterade arean, antal kolonier av Heterobasidion per disk och infektionsfrekvensen (proportionen av infekterade stubbar). Resultaten visade att Rotstop®S Gel inte skyddade mot sporinfektioner. Större stubbar hade högre infektionsbenägenhet och led av svårare infektioner, gällande storlek och antal kolonier av Heterobasidion. Däremot minskade den relativa infekterade arean med en ökande täckningsgrad av P. gigantea, vilket påvisar vikten av att behandla alla stubbar med 100% täckningsgrad. Däremot uppnådde endast liten andel av stubbarna minimumkraven (85–95%), som ofta är begärda av skogsföretagen, vilket pekar på att kalibrering av teknologin behöver förbättras. Fler studier på rot- och stubbröta i praktiken är nödvändiga, eftersom resultaten från denna studie är sämre än tidigare studier med kontrollerade mått.

Hybridization may be a major driver in the evolution of plant pathogens. In a high elevation Alpine larch stand in Montana, a novel hybrid fungal pathogen of trees originating from the mating of Heterobasidion irregulare with H. occidentale has been recently discovered. In this study, sequence analyses of one mitochondrial and four nuclear loci from 11 Heterobasidion genotypes collected in the same Alpine larch stand indicated that hybridization has increased allelic diversity by generating novel polymorphisms unreported in either parental species. Sequence data and ploidy analysis through flow cytometry confirmed that heterokaryotic (n + n) genotypes were not first-generation hybrids, but were the result of multiple backcrosses, indicating hybrids are fertile. Additionally, all admixed genotypes possessed the H. occidentale mitochondrion, indicating that the hybrid progeny may have been backcrossing mostly with H. occidentale. Based on reticulate phylogenetic network analysis by PhyloNet, Bayesian assignment, and ordination tests, alleles can be defined as H. irregulare-like or H. occidentale-like. H. irregulare-like alleles are clearly distinct from all known H. irregulare alleles and are derived from the admixing of both Heterobasidion species. Instead, all but one H. occidentale alleles found in hybrids, although novel, were not clearly distinct from alleles found in the parental H. occidentale population. This discovery demonstrates that Alpine larch can be a universal host favouring the interspecific hybridization between H. irregulare and H. occidentale and the hybridization-mediated evolution of a nucleus, derived from H. irregulare parental species but clearly distinct from it.

Heterobasidion annosum s.s. and H. parviporum are severe pathogens of conifers causing butt rot and root rot thus reducing the economic value of timber. Here, the antifungal activity of Bacillus subtilis isolate A18 against these two Heterobasidion species was investigated. Five different culture media with different culture age were investigated to study the effect of substrate composition and culture age for metabolite production. Bacterial cultures and cell-free culture filtrates were tested for antifungal activity. Inhibition of fungal growth was analysed using the agar disc-diffusion method. MALDI-TOF and LC-HRMS analyses were used to identify the antifungal metabolites. Substrate composition and age of culture were found to be active variables with direct effect on the antifungal activity of bacterial culture extracts. High anti-fungal activity was observed when B. subtilis was cultured in PDB, SGB and LB media for four days. Mass-spectrometry analysis showed the presence of lipopeptides in culture filtrates identified as members of the surfactins, polymixins, kurstakins and fengycins. A culture filtrate containing fengycin-type lipopeptides showed the highest bioactivity against Heterobasidion species. Bacterial cultures had higher bioactivity compared to their respective cell free culture filtrates. The results of the present study suggest that B. subtilis A18 is a powerful biocontrol agent against Heterobasidion infections of tree wounds and stumps., QC 20190715

Root and butt rot caused by Heterobasidion spp. result in severe economic losses in Norway spruce forests of the northern hemisphere. Stump treatment using biological or chemical control agents are amongst the most effective solutions of limiting introduction of Heterobasidion spp. after tree felling. The aims of my thesis were to test the control efficacy of Rotstop®, native Latvian Phlebiopsis gigantea strain and urea as a control agent against natural spore infection of Heterobasidion spp. on pre-commercial thinning stumps of Norway spruce and to develop the methodology to increase the efficacy of control agents. Sample plots in three Norway spruce stands located in eastern part of Latvia were pre-commercially thinned. In search of improved efficacy of control agents, two methods of preventing primary infection by Heterobasidion spp. were compared. First method concerned practical stump treatment with a control agent while according to second method protective cover (wooden disc) was placed on half of the stumps in each sample plot after treatment was applied. After 14 weeks a total of 476 sample discs were obtained and later on analysed. Results concerning presence and magnitude of infection were not influenced by sample plot. All treatments within a method showed lower infection rates than corresponding control stumps. 35 % of not covered control stumps were infected with a mean relative infection area of 3.4 %. Infection frequency for treated stumps ranged from 13-18 % with a mean relative infected area ranging from 0.9 to 1.1 %. Infection rates for covered control and urea-treated stumps were higher but for native Latvian P. gigantea and Rotstop®-treated stumps it was lower compared to their not covered counterparts. Control efficacy in terms of reduced relative area of infection was similar for all treatments when stumps were not covered. When stump surface was covered, Latvian P. gigantea and Rotstop® showed greater values than urea (96 %, 99 % and 73 % res

It has been estimated that the sister plant pathogenic fungal species Heterobasidion irregulare and Heterobasidion annosum may have been allopatrically isolated for 34-41 Myr. They are now sympatric due to the introduction of the first species from North America into Italy, where they freely hybridize. We used a comparative genomic approach to 1) confirm that the two species are distinct at the genomic level; 2) determine which gene groups have diverged the most and the least between species; 3) show that their overall genomic structures are similar, as predicted by the viability of hybrids, and identify genomic regions that instead are incongruent; and 4) test the previously formulated hypothesis that genes involved in pathogenicity may be less divergent between the two species than genes involved in saprobic decay and sporulation. Results based on the sequencing of three genomes per species identified a high level of interspecific similarity, but clearly confirmed the status of the two as distinct taxa. Genes involved in pathogenicity were more conserved between species than genes involved in saprobic growth and sporulation, corroborating at the genomic level that invasiveness may be determined by the two latter traits, as documented by field and inoculation studies. Additionally, the majority of genes under positive selection and the majority of genes bearing interspecific structural variations were involved either in transcriptional or in mitochondrial functions. This study provides genomic-level evidence that invasiveness of pathogenic microbes can be attained without the high levels of pathogenicity presumed to exist for pathogens challenging naïve hosts.

This thesis is based on three inter-related studies: the first part deals with the microbial consortium, the identification of microbes and their volatiles, the second part deals with the study of bio-chemical control methods of two conifer pests; the pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) and the root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., and the third part describes the production of styrene by a fungus using forest waste.The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is an economically important pest insect of conifers in reforestation areas of Europe and Asia. The female weevils protect their eggs from feeding conspecifics by adding frass (mixture of weevil feces and chewed bark) along with the eggs. In order to understand the mechanism behind frass deposition at the egg laying site and to find repellents/antifeedants for pine weevils, microbes were isolated from the aseptically collected pine weevil frass. Microbial produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected by solid phase micro extraction and analyzed by GC-MS after cultivating them on weevil frass broth. The major VOCs were tested against pine weevils using a multi-choice olfactometer. Ewingella sp., Mucor racemosus, Penicillium solitum, P. expansum, Ophiostoma piceae, O. pluriannulatum, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida sequanensis were identified as abundant microbes. Styrene, 6-protoilludene, 1-octene-3-ol, 3-methylanisole, methyl salicylate, 2-methoxyphenol and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol were the VOCs of persistently isolated microbes. In behavioral bioassay, methyl salicylate, 3-methylanisole and styrene significantly reduced the attraction of pine weevils to their host plant volatiles. Heterobasidion spp. are severe pathogenic fungi of conifers that cause root and butt rot in plants. Bacterial isolates were tested for the antagonistic activity against fungi on potato dextrose agar. Bacillus subtilis strains significantly inhibited the growth of H. annosum and H. parviporum. Styrene is an industrial chemica, QC 20130507

This thesis is based on three inter-related studies: the first part deals with the microbial consortium, the identification of microbes and their volatiles, the second part deals with the study of bio-chemical control methods of two conifer pests; the pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) and the root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., and the third part describes the production of styrene by a fungus using forest waste.The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is an economically important pest insect of conifers in reforestation areas of Europe and Asia. The female weevils protect their eggs from feeding conspecifics by adding frass (mixture of weevil feces and chewed bark) along with the eggs. In order to understand the mechanism behind frass deposition at the egg laying site and to find repellents/antifeedants for pine weevils, microbes were isolated from the aseptically collected pine weevil frass. Microbial produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected by solid phase micro extraction and analyzed by GC-MS after cultivating them on weevil frass broth. The major VOCs were tested against pine weevils using a multi-choice olfactometer. Ewingella sp., Mucor racemosus, Penicillium solitum, P. expansum, Ophiostoma piceae, O. pluriannulatum, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida sequanensis were identified as abundant microbes. Styrene, 6-protoilludene, 1-octene-3-ol, 3-methylanisole, methyl salicylate, 2-methoxyphenol and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol were the VOCs of persistently isolated microbes. In behavioral bioassay, methyl salicylate, 3-methylanisole and styrene significantly reduced the attraction of pine weevils to their host plant volatiles. Heterobasidion spp. are severe pathogenic fungi of conifers that cause root and butt rot in plants. Bacterial isolates were tested for the antagonistic activity against fungi on potato dextrose agar. Bacillus subtilis strains significantly inhibited the growth of H. annosum and H. parviporum. Styrene is an industrial chemica, QC 20130507

This thesis is based on three inter-related studies: the first part deals with the microbial consortium, the identification of microbes and their volatiles, the second part deals with the study of bio-chemical control methods of two conifer pests; the pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) and the root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., and the third part describes the production of styrene by a fungus using forest waste.The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is an economically important pest insect of conifers in reforestation areas of Europe and Asia. The female weevils protect their eggs from feeding conspecifics by adding frass (mixture of weevil feces and chewed bark) along with the eggs. In order to understand the mechanism behind frass deposition at the egg laying site and to find repellents/antifeedants for pine weevils, microbes were isolated from the aseptically collected pine weevil frass. Microbial produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected by solid phase micro extraction and analyzed by GC-MS after cultivating them on weevil frass broth. The major VOCs were tested against pine weevils using a multi-choice olfactometer. Ewingella sp., Mucor racemosus, Penicillium solitum, P. expansum, Ophiostoma piceae, O. pluriannulatum, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida sequanensis were identified as abundant microbes. Styrene, 6-protoilludene, 1-octene-3-ol, 3-methylanisole, methyl salicylate, 2-methoxyphenol and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol were the VOCs of persistently isolated microbes. In behavioral bioassay, methyl salicylate, 3-methylanisole and styrene significantly reduced the attraction of pine weevils to their host plant volatiles. Heterobasidion spp. are severe pathogenic fungi of conifers that cause root and butt rot in plants. Bacterial isolates were tested for the antagonistic activity against fungi on potato dextrose agar. Bacillus subtilis strains significantly inhibited the growth of H. annosum and H. parviporum. Styrene is an industrial chemica, QC 20130507

This thesis is based on three inter-related studies: the first part deals with the microbial consortium, the identification of microbes and their volatiles, the second part deals with the study of bio-chemical control methods of two conifer pests; the pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) and the root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., and the third part describes the production of styrene by a fungus using forest waste.The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is an economically important pest insect of conifers in reforestation areas of Europe and Asia. The female weevils protect their eggs from feeding conspecifics by adding frass (mixture of weevil feces and chewed bark) along with the eggs. In order to understand the mechanism behind frass deposition at the egg laying site and to find repellents/antifeedants for pine weevils, microbes were isolated from the aseptically collected pine weevil frass. Microbial produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected by solid phase micro extraction and analyzed by GC-MS after cultivating them on weevil frass broth. The major VOCs were tested against pine weevils using a multi-choice olfactometer. Ewingella sp., Mucor racemosus, Penicillium solitum, P. expansum, Ophiostoma piceae, O. pluriannulatum, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida sequanensis were identified as abundant microbes. Styrene, 6-protoilludene, 1-octene-3-ol, 3-methylanisole, methyl salicylate, 2-methoxyphenol and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol were the VOCs of persistently isolated microbes. In behavioral bioassay, methyl salicylate, 3-methylanisole and styrene significantly reduced the attraction of pine weevils to their host plant volatiles. Heterobasidion spp. are severe pathogenic fungi of conifers that cause root and butt rot in plants. Bacterial isolates were tested for the antagonistic activity against fungi on potato dextrose agar. Bacillus subtilis strains significantly inhibited the growth of H. annosum and H. parviporum. Styrene is an industrial chemica, QC 20130507

This thesis is based on three inter-related studies: the first part deals with the microbial consortium, the identification of microbes and their volatiles, the second part deals with the study of bio-chemical control methods of two conifer pests; the pine weevil Hylobius abietis (L.) and the root rot fungi Heterobasidion spp., and the third part describes the production of styrene by a fungus using forest waste.The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is an economically important pest insect of conifers in reforestation areas of Europe and Asia. The female weevils protect their eggs from feeding conspecifics by adding frass (mixture of weevil feces and chewed bark) along with the eggs. In order to understand the mechanism behind frass deposition at the egg laying site and to find repellents/antifeedants for pine weevils, microbes were isolated from the aseptically collected pine weevil frass. Microbial produced volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were collected by solid phase micro extraction and analyzed by GC-MS after cultivating them on weevil frass broth. The major VOCs were tested against pine weevils using a multi-choice olfactometer. Ewingella sp., Mucor racemosus, Penicillium solitum, P. expansum, Ophiostoma piceae, O. pluriannulatum, Debaryomyces hansenii and Candida sequanensis were identified as abundant microbes. Styrene, 6-protoilludene, 1-octene-3-ol, 3-methylanisole, methyl salicylate, 2-methoxyphenol and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol were the VOCs of persistently isolated microbes. In behavioral bioassay, methyl salicylate, 3-methylanisole and styrene significantly reduced the attraction of pine weevils to their host plant volatiles. Heterobasidion spp. are severe pathogenic fungi of conifers that cause root and butt rot in plants. Bacterial isolates were tested for the antagonistic activity against fungi on potato dextrose agar. Bacillus subtilis strains significantly inhibited the growth of H. annosum and H. parviporum. Styrene is an industrial chemica, QC 20130507

Parasitism and saprotrophic wood decay are two fungal strategies fundamental for succession and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. An opportunity to assess the trade-off between these strategies is provided by the forest pathogen and wood decayer Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato.We report the annotated genome sequence and transcript profiling, as well as the quantitative trait loci mapping, of one member of the species complex: H. irregulare. Quantitative trait loci critical for pathogenicity, and rich in transposable elements, orphan and secreted genes, were identified.A wide range of cellulose-degrading enzymes are expressed during wood decay. By contrast, pathogenic interaction between H. irregulare and pine engages fewer carbohydrate-active enzymes, but involves an increase in pectinolytic enzymes, transcription modules for oxidative stress and secondary metabolite production.Our results show a trade-off in terms of constrained carbohydrate decomposition and membrane transport capacity during interaction with living hosts. Our findings establish that saprotrophic wood decay and necrotrophic parasitism involve two distinct, yet overlapping, processes.

The white rot fungus Heterobasidion annosum s.l. is a basidiomycete which is considered to be the most economical important pathogen of conifer trees (Pinus, Picea and Abies) in the northern hemisphere. Presently, the knowledge on the biology and molecular aspects of the Heterobasidion pathosystem is still poor and this is the major set-back in preventing the spread of the pathogen. A deeper investigation at the molecular level of the pathogenicity factors involved during the infection process is very important to better control the disease. Intra-cellular signal-transduction pathways, and in particular the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs), have been shown to play key roles in the infection cycle in many fungal pathogens, being pivotal in survival, appressorial formation, sporulation and response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this study is to characterize a specific H. annosum MAPK, with high sequence homology to FUS3 gene (involved in mating) in S. cerevisiae and with PMK1 gene (involved in appressoria formation) in Magnaporthe grisea. In order to study the function of this MAPK in H. annosum, we performed a complementation experiment in the S. cerevisiae fus3?? mutant. Expression level profiles, proteomics and immunology studies were used to distinguish between phosphorylated/active and non-phosphorylated/inactive form of the MAPK. Some valuable insights on this kinase cascade in Heterobasidion were discovered, but further studies are required to fully understand its role in the lifecycle of this fungus.

Parasitism and saprotrophic wood decay are two fungal strategies fundamental for succession and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. An opportunity to assess the trade-off between these strategies is provided by the forest pathogen and wood decayer Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato.We report the annotated genome sequence and transcript profiling, as well as the quantitative trait loci mapping, of one member of the species complex: H. irregulare. Quantitative trait loci critical for pathogenicity, and rich in transposable elements, orphan and secreted genes, were identified.A wide range of cellulose-degrading enzymes are expressed during wood decay. By contrast, pathogenic interaction between H. irregulare and pine engages fewer carbohydrate-active enzymes, but involves an increase in pectinolytic enzymes, transcription modules for oxidative stress and secondary metabolite production.Our results show a trade-off in terms of constrained carbohydrate decomposition and membrane transport capacity during interaction with living hosts. Our findings establish that saprotrophic wood decay and necrotrophic parasitism involve two distinct, yet overlapping, processes.

The mycorrhization helper bacterium Streptomyces sp. AcH 505 inhibits Norway spruce root infection and colonisation by the root and butt rot fungus Heterobasidion annosum 005 but not by the congeneric strain Heterobasidion abietinum 331 because of higher sensitivity of H. annosum 005 towards the AcH 505-derived naphthoquinone antibiotic WS-5995 B. Differences in antibiotic sensitivity between two isolates belonging to two species, H. annosum 005 and H. abietinum 331, were investigated by comparative gene expression analysis using macroarrays and quantitative RT-PCR after WS-5995 B, structurally related mollisin and unrelated cycloheximide application. Treatment with 25 µM WS-5995 B for 2 h resulted in a significant up-regulation of expression of inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglucomutase and GTPase genes, while the expression of genes encoding for thioredoxin and glutathione dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase was down-regulated in the sensitive fungal strain. No differential expression in the tolerant strain was detected. Application of WS-5995 B at higher concentrations over a time course experiment revealed that H. annosum 005 and H. abietinum 331 responded differently to WS-5995 B. The fungal gene expression levels depended on both the concentration of WS-5995 B and the duration of its application. The WS-5995 B-unrelated cycloheximide caused highly specific changes in patterns of gene expression. Our findings indicate considerable variations in response to bacterial metabolites by the isolates of the conifer pathogen.

Soil streptomycetes are commonly antagonistic against plant pathogens. However, interactions involving increased defense responses in the host plant, leading to suppression of plant disease development, have not yet been detailed.Here, the mechanisms were studied of disease suppression by Streptomyces sp. GB 4-2 against Heterobasidion root and butt rot in Norway spruce (Picea abies) seedlings.GB 4-2 promoted mycelial growth of the phytopathogenic fungus, germination rate of fungal spores, extension of germ tubes and early colonization of outer cortical layers of the plant root. Reduced colonization of the inner cortical cell layers was accompanied by the induction of cell wall appositions, and increased xylem formation in the vascular cylinder emerged after bacterium-fungus coinoculation. Bacterial treatment led to decreased water content in roots and needles and increased photosynthetic yield (Fv/Fm) and peroxidase activities in needles. The infection of needles by Botrytis cinerea was reduced by bacterial pretreatment.Complex interactions of GB 4-2 with Norway spruce and Heterobasidion abietinum were discovered. The bacterium promoted the growth of the phytopathogenic fungus but induced plant defense responses. Host responses indicate that GB 4-2 induces both local and systemic defense responses in Norway spruce.

Fungi, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/IC-HERB00IC-X-146782%5DMICH-F-146782, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/i/image/api/thumb/herb00ic/146782/MICH-F-146782/!250,250, The University of Michigan Library provides access to these materials for educational and research purposes. Some materials may be protected by copyright. If you decide to use any of these materials, you are responsible for making your own legal assessment and securing any necessary permission. If you have questions about the collection, please contact the Herbarium professional staff: herb-dlps-help@umich.edu. If you have concerns about the inclusion of an item in this collection, please contact Library Information Technology: libraryit-info@umich.edu., https://www.lib.umich.edu/about-us/policies/copyright-policy

Fungi, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/IC-HERB00IC-X-146783%5DMICH-F-146783, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/i/image/api/thumb/herb00ic/146783/MICH-F-146783/!250,250, The University of Michigan Library provides access to these materials for educational and research purposes. Some materials may be protected by copyright. If you decide to use any of these materials, you are responsible for making your own legal assessment and securing any necessary permission. If you have questions about the collection, please contact the Herbarium professional staff: herb-dlps-help@umich.edu. If you have concerns about the inclusion of an item in this collection, please contact Library Information Technology: libraryit-info@umich.edu., https://www.lib.umich.edu/about-us/policies/copyright-policy

Fungi, http://name.umdl.umich.edu/IC-HERB00IC-X-146703%5DMICH-F-146703, https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/i/image/api/thumb/herb00ic/146703/MICH-F-146703/!250,250, The University of Michigan Library provides access to these materials for educational and research purposes. Some materials may be protected by copyright. If you decide to use any of these materials, you are responsible for making your own legal assessment and securing any necessary permission. If you have questions about the collection, please contact the Herbarium professional staff: herb-dlps-help@umich.edu. If you have concerns about the inclusion of an item in this collection, please contact Library Information Technology: libraryit-info@umich.edu., https://www.lib.umich.edu/about-us/policies/copyright-policy