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According to some accounts, the bilingual advantage is most pronounced in the domain of executive attention rather than inhibition and should therefore be more easily detected in conflict adaptation paradigms than in simple interference paradigms. We tested this idea using two conflict adaptation paradigms, one that elicits a listwide proportion-congruent effect and one that elicits an item-specific proportion-congruent effect. In both cases, the relevant finding is that congruency effects are reduced when the proportion of congruent to incongruent items is smaller. These effects are validated measures of proactive and reactive control, respectively, and are aspects of executive attention known to be associated with individual differences in working memory capacity. We reasoned that if bilingualism affects executive attention in a similar way as does working memory capacity, indices of proactive and reactive control should be comparably associated with continuous variation in language status and working memory capacity. In two experiments, we replicated previous findings that working memory capacity is associated with variation in congruency effects (suggesting greater reliance on proactive control). In contrast, language status had no consistent association with performance, save for a hint that bilingualism may be associated with greater reliance on reactive control. Thus, the bilingual advantage may exist, but not in proactive control or any other aspects of executive attention that have been proposed thus far.

The executive functions (EF) constitute a set of skills involved in the control and regulation of cognitive functioning. The relation between EF and the development of language is especially relevant regarding the conceptualization of linguistic disorders. This study aims to explore the differential use of EF among two groups: Typical Language Development (TLD) and Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Participants were 44 students (56,82% boys), 22 TLD and 22 SLI, with ages between 6,00–6,92 years (M=6.17, SD=.19). The previous diagnostic factor showed significant effects in executive attention (p<.001, η2 partial =.77), working memory (p<.001, η2 partial =.67), cognitive flexibility (p<.01, η2 partial =.15), and planning (p< .001, η2 partial =.63). In all cases, except in cognitive flexibility, the effect size was strong. The results would support the thesis of non-specificity in the SLI and the possible presence of general cognitive dysfunctions that underlie the disorder. How to cite: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Executive Functions in Students with Specific LanguageImpairment at the Beginning of Elementary Education. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.79390, Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) constituyen un conjunto de habilidades implicadas en el control y regulación del funcionamiento cognitivo. La relación entre FE y desarrollo del lenguaje es especialmente relevante en la conceptualización de los trastornos lingüísticos. El objetivo del estudio consistía en explorar el uso diferencial de FE en dos grupos: Desarrollo Lingüístico Típico (DLT) y Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje (TEL). Participaron 44 estudiantes (56,82% niños), 22 DLT y 22 TEL, con edades entre 6,00–6,92 años (M=6.17, DT=.19). El factor diagnóstico previo mostró efectos significativos en atención ejecutiva (p<.001, η2 parcial =.77), memoria de trabajo (p<.001, η2 parcial =.67), flexibilidad cognitiva (p<.01, η2 parcial =.15), y planificación (p<.001, η2 parcial =.63). En todos los casos, salvo en flexibilidad cognitiva, el tamaño del efecto fue fuerte. Los resultados avalarían la tesis de no especificidad en TEL y la posible presencia de disfunciones cognitivas generales que subyacen al trastorno. Cómo citar este artículo: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Funciones Ejecutivas en Estudiantes con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje al Comienzo de la Escolarización Básica. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.79390, As funções executivas (FE) constituem um conjunto de habilidades envolvidas no controle e regulação do funcionamento cognitivo. A relação do FE com o desenvolvimento da linguagem é especialmente relevante em relação à conceituação de transtornos linguísticos. O objetivo deste estudo é explorar possíveis diferenças no uso de FE entre estudantes com desenvolvimento de linguagem típica (DLT) e estudantes com deficiência específica de linguagem (DEL). Participaram 44 estudantes (56,82% meninos), 22 com DLT e 22 com DEL, com idade entre 6,00 e 6,92 anos (média = 6,17, DP = 0,19). Em ambos os grupos, a memória de trabalho, a flexibilidade cognitiva, a atenção executiva e o planejamento foram avaliados. Uma análise comparativa entre os grupos foi realizada e o efeito do diagnóstico prévio sobre os resultados obtidos foi analisado. Os estudantes com DTL apresentaram desempenho significativamente melhor no uso de todas as FE avaliadas. O fator diagnóstico prévio teve efeito significativo sobre a atenção executiva (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,77), memória operativa (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,67), flexibilidade cognitiva (p <0,01). , parcial η2 = .15) e planejamento (p <.001, parcial η2 = .63). Em todos os casos, o tamanho do efeito foi forte, exceto na flexibilidade cognitiva, onde foi moderada. A especificidade do DEL e sua relação com os FE são discutidos. Os resultados suportariam a tese da não especificidade no DEL e a possível presença de disfunções cognitivas gerais subjacentes ao distúrbio.

Interactive and immersive technologies such as video games, exergames, and virtual reality are typically regarded as entertainment mediums. They also offer a multitude of health and well-being benefits. They have the capacity to incorporate established well-being techniques (e.g., mindfulness, exercise, and play) and expose users to beneficial environment settings with greater ease, improved access, and a broader appeal. The authors conducted a scoping review to explore whether these technologies could be used to benefit attention in healthy adults, that is, in a regulatory sense such as during periods of cognitive fatigue or attention-critical tasks. Research efforts have typically focused on long-term practice methods for attention enhancement with these technologies. Instead, this review provides the first attempt to unify a broad range of investigations concerned with their immediate impact on attention through state-change mechanisms. This applies the concept of attention state training and a growing evidence base, which suggests that meditative practices, exercise bouts, and nature exposures can provide short-term improvements in attentional performance following brief interactions. A systematic search of MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO databases resulted in 11 peer-reviewed articles (13 experimental trials) each including at least one objective measure of attention directly following the use of an interactive or immersive technology. Most studies involved interactive technologies (i.e., video games and exergames), whereas there were three immersive interventions in the form of virtual reality. The comparisons between baseline and postintervention showed mostly no effect on attention, although there were five cases of improved attention. There were no instances of negative effects on attention. The results are significant considering mounting concerns that technology use could be detrimental for cognitive functioning. The positive effects reported here indicate

Version of Record online: 25 October 2018, Interventions including social scaffolding and metacognitive strategies have been used in educational settings to promote cognition. In addition, increasing evidence shows that computerized process-based training enhances cognitive skills. However, no prior studies have examined the effect of combining these two training strategies. The goal of this study was to test the combined effect of metacognitive scaffolding and computer-based training of executive attention in a sample of typically developing preschoolers at the cognitive and brain levels. Compared to children in the regular training protocol and an untrained active control group, children in the metacognitive group showed larger gains on intelligence and significant increases on an electrophysiological index associated with conflict processing. Moreover, changes in the conflict-related brain activity predicted gains in intelligence in the metacognitive scaffolding group. These results suggest that metacognitive scaffolding boosts the influence of process-based training on cognitive efficiency and brain plasticity related to executive attention.

This is a first study that investigated the relationships between executive attention—as an important aspect of emotion regulation—and state empathy and sympathy in ODD/CD boys with (N = 31) and without (N = 18) comorbid anxiety disorder (7–12 years). Empathic reactions were evoked using three sadness-inducing film clips. One clip was highly evocative involving a bear cub losing his mother, whilst two other clips were mildly evocative involving children in common childhood situations. Self-reports of empathy and sympathy were collected and executive attention was assessed with a performance task. Poor executive attention skills were associated with less empathy and sympathy, particularly in ODD/CD boys with anxiety and under conditions of a highly evocative stimulus. Our findings support the view that different mechanisms may be involved in empathy problems of ODD/CD children.

Background: Difficulties with executive functioning (EF) are common in individuals with a range of developmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Interventions that target underlying mechanisms of EF early in development could be broadly beneficial, but require infant markers of such mechanisms in order to be feasible. Prospective studies of infants at high familial risk (HR) for ASD have revealed a surprising tendency for HR toddlers to show longer epochs of attention to faces than low-risk (LR) controls. In typical development, decreases in look durations towards the end of the first year of life are driven by the development of executive attention - a foundational component of EF. Here, we test the hypothesis that prolonged attention to visual stimuli (including faces) in HR toddlers reflects early differences in the development of executive attention. Methods: In a longitudinal prospective study, we used eye-tracking to record HR and LR infants' looking behaviour to social and non-social visual stimuli at ages 9 and 15 months. At age 3 years, we assessed children with a battery of clinical research measures and collected parental report of effortful control (EC) - a temperament trait closely associated with EF and similarly contingent on executive attention. Results: Consistent with previous studies, we found an attenuated reduction in peak look durations to faces between 9 and 15 months for the HR group compared with the LR group, and lower EC amongst the HR-ASD group. In line with our hypothesis, change in peak look duration to faces between 9 and 15 months was negatively associated with EC at age 3. Conclusions: We suggest that for HR toddlers, disruption to the early development of executive attention results in an attenuated reduction in looking time to faces. Effects may be more apparent for faces due to early biases to orient towards them; further, attention difficulties may interact with earlier emerging differences in social informat

Past research has found that mindfulness meditation trainingimproves executive attention and that this effect could bedriven by more efficient allocation of resources on demandingattentional tasks, such as the Flanker Task. However, it is notclear whether these changes depend on long-term practice.We sought to investigate the effects of a brief, 10-minutemeditation session on attention in novice meditators,compared to a control activity. We also tested moderation byindividual differences in Neuroticism. We found thatparticipants randomly assigned to meditate for 10 minutesshowed improved performance on incongruent trials on aFlanker task, with no detriment in reaction times, indicatingbetter allocation of resources. Neuroticism moderated thiseffect, as only those low in Neuroticism showed improvedallocation of attentional resources following meditation.

Objective Many preterm children show difficulties in attention at (pre)school age. The development of attention capacities of preterm and term toddlers was compared using a longitudinal and multi-method approach at 12, 18 and 24 months. Method Attention was measured for 123 preterm (32–36 weeks gestation) and 101 term born children, using eye tracking (18 months), observations during mother–child interaction (18 months), and mother-reports (12, 18, and 24 months). Results Preterm toddlers had lower scores than term children on the eye-tracking measures of orienting and alerting. No group differences were found with observations, mother-reports, and the eye-tracking measure of executive attention. More preterm than term children had suboptimal scores on measures of the alerting system at 18 months, possibly indicating difficulties in attention development. Conclusion Preterm children showed an increased risk for suboptimal functioning in alerting attention capacities, as early as at a toddler age.

Executive attention is involved in the regulation of thoughts, emotions and responses. This function experiences major development during preschool years and is associated to a neural network involving the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal structures. Recently, there have been some attempts to improve attention and other executive functions through training. In the current study, a group of 5 years old children (n=37) were assigned to either a training-group who performed ten sessions of computerized training of attention or a non-trained control group. Assessment of performance in a range of tasks, targeting attention, intelligence and regulation of affect was carried out in three occasions: (1) before, (2) after, and (3) two months after completion of training. Also, brain function was examined with a high-density electroencephalogram system. Results demonstrate that trained children activate the executive attention network faster and more efficiently than untrained children, an effect that was still observed two months after without further training. Also, evidence of transfer of attention training to fluid intelligence and, to a lesser degree, to regulation of affect was observed. Results show that efficiency of the brain system underlying self-regulation can be enhanced by experience during development, providing opportunities for curricular improvement.

Attention has been related to functions of alerting, orienting, and executive control, which are associated with distinct brain networks. This study aimed at understanding the neural mechanisms underlying the development of attention functions during childhood. A total of 46 healthy 4–13-year-old children and 15 adults performed an adapted version of the Attention Network Task (ANT) while brain activation was registered with a high-density EEG system. Performance of the ANT revealed changes in the efficiency of attention networks across ages. While no differences were observed on the alerting score, both orienting and executive attention scores showed a more protracted developmental curve. Further, age-related differences in brain activity were mostly observed in early ERP components. Young children had poorer early processing of warning cues compared to 10–13-year-olds and adults, as shown by an immature auditory-evoked potential complex elicited by warning tones. Also, 4–6-year-olds exhibited a poorer processing of orienting cues as indexed by lack of modulation of the N1. Finally, flanker congruency produced earlier modulation of ERPs amplitude with age. Flanker congruency effects were delayed and more anteriorly distributed for young children, compared to adults who showed a clear modulation of the N2 in fronto-parietal channels. Additionally, interactions among attention networks were examined. Both alerting and orienting conditions modulated the effectiveness of conflict processing by the executive attention network. The Orienting×Executive networks interactions was only observed after about age 7. Results are informative of the neural correlates of the development of attention networks in childhood.

Contradictory empirical findings and theoretical accounts exist that are in favor of either a written or a spoken superiority effect. In this article, we present two experiments that put the recall modality effect in the context of eyewitness reports to another test. More specifically, we investigated the role of cognitive and social factors in the effect. In both experiments, participants watched a videotaped staged crime and then gave spoken or written accounts of the event and the people involved. In Experiment 1, 135 participants were assigned to written, spoken-videotaped, spoken-distracted, or spoken-voice recorded conditions to test for the impact of cognitive demand and social factors in the form of interviewer presence. Experiment 2 (N = 124) tested the idea that instruction comprehensiveness differentially impacts recall performance in written versus spoken accounts. While there was no evidence for a spoken superiority effect, we found some support for a written superiority effect for description quantity, but not accuracy. Furthermore, any differences found in description quantity as a function of recall modality could be traced back to participants' free reports. Following up with cued open-ended questions compensated for this effect, although at the expense of description accuracy. This suggests that current police practice of arbitrarily obtaining written or spoken accounts is mostly unproblematic.

Executive attention is involved in the regulation of thoughts, emotions and responses. This function experiences major development during preschool years and is associated to a neural network involving the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal structures. Recently, there have been some attempts to improve attention and other executive functions through training. In the current study, a group of 5 years old children (n=37) were assigned to either a training-group who performed ten sessions of computerized training of attention or a non-trained control group. Assessment of performance in a range of tasks, targeting attention, intelligence and regulation of affect was carried out in three occasions: (1) before, (2) after, and (3) two months after completion of training. Also, brain function was examined with a high-density electroencephalogram system. Results demonstrate that trained children activate the executive attention network faster and more efficiently than untrained children, an effect that was still observed two months after without further training. Also, evidence of transfer of attention training to fluid intelligence and, to a lesser degree, to regulation of affect was observed. Results show that efficiency of the brain system underlying self-regulation can be enhanced by experience during development, providing opportunities for curricular improvement.

The effect of emotional stimulus content on working memory performance has been investigated with conflicting results, as both emotion-dependent facilitation and impairments are reported in the literature. To clarify this issue, 52 adult participants performed a modified visual 2-back task with highly arousing positive stimuli (sexual scenes), highly arousing negative stimuli (violent death) and low-arousal neutral stimuli. Emotional stimulus processing was found to facilitate task performance relative to that of neutral stimuli, both in regards to response accuracy and reaction times. No emotion-dependent differences in false-alarm rates were found. These results indicate that emotional information can have a facilitating effect on working memory maintenance and processing of information.

This study examines the role of executive attention on school competence in early adolescence. Twelve-year-old children (N = 37) performed a combined Flanker–Go/No-Go task while their brain activation was registered using electroencephalogram (EEG). Additionally, measures of children regulation, schooling skills, and academic achievement were obtained. We observed that individual differences in executive attention and Effortful Control predict most dimensions of school competence. Also, individual differences in the amplitude of event-related potentials (ERPs) related to interference suppression predict school achievement and some skills important for school. The results are consistent with the role attributed to executive attention in self-regulation.

No clear consensus exists in the scientific community of what constitutes efficient dual-tasking abilities. Moreover, the training of executive components has been given increased attention in the literature in recent years. Investigating transferability of cognitive training in a complex task setting, thirty subjects practiced for five days on a Name-Tag task (controls) or a Dual N-Back task (experimental), subsequently being tested on two transfer tasks; the Automated Operation Span and a dual task (Trail Making task + Mathematical Addition task). Dual N-Back training previously transferred to unrelated intelligence tests and in this study is assumed to rely primarily on executive attention. Executive attention, functioning to resolve interference and maintaining task-relevant information in working memory, has previously been linked to fluid intelligence and to dual-tasking. However, no transfer effects were revealed. The length of training may have been too short to reveal any such effects. However, the three complex tasks correlated significantly, suggesting common resources, and therefore having potentials as transfer tasks. Notably, subjects with the highest task-specific improvements performed worse on the transfer tasks than subjects improving less, suggesting that task-specific gains do not directly correlate with any transfer effect. At present, if transfer exists in these settings, data implies that five days of training is insufficient for a transfer to occur. Important questions for future research relates to the necessary conditions for transfer to occur, such as the amount of training, neural correlates, attention, and motivation.

The aim of the current study was to examine the role of individual differences in neurocognitive and temperamental systems of self-regulation in early adolescents ’ social and academic competence. Measures used in the study included the Attention Network Test, the Early Adolescence Temperament Questionnaire, a peer-reported Social Status Questionnaire, a self-reported measure of Schooling Skills, and information on grades obtained by the students in a variety of school subjects ( n = 69 12-year olds). Results showed that effi ciency of the neurocognitive network of executive attention is related to academic outcomes, particularly in mathematics, as well as to aspects of social adjustment. Temperamental effortful control appears to be a signifi cant predictor of all dimensions of school competence assessed in this study and mediates the relationship between social adjustment and poor schooling outcomes. These data suggest that individual differences in systems of self-regulation are central to understanding processes of learning and social adjustment in the school.

Due to its three-dimensional folding pattern, the human neocortex; poses a challenge for accurate co-registration of grouped functional; brain imaging data. The present study addressed this problem by; employing three-dimensional continuum-mechanical image-warping; techniques to derive average anatomical representations for coregistration; of functional magnetic resonance brain imaging data; obtained from 10 male first-episode schizophrenia patients and 10 age-matched; male healthy volunteers while they performed a version of the; Tower of London task. This novel technique produced an equivalent; representation of blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response; across hemispheres, cortical regions, and groups, respectively, when; compared to intensity average co-registration, using a deformable; Brodmann area atlas as anatomical reference. Somewhat closer; association of Brodmann area boundaries with primary visual and; auditory areas was evident using the gyral pattern average model.; Statistically-thresholded BOLD cluster data confirmed predominantly; bilateral prefrontal and parietal, right frontal and dorsolateral; prefrontal, and left occipital activation in healthy subjects, while; patients’ hemispheric dominance pattern was diminished or reversed,; particularly decreasing cortical BOLD response with increasing task; difficulty in the right superior temporal gyrus. Reduced regional gray; matter thickness correlated with reduced left-hemispheric prefrontal/; frontal and bilateral parietal BOLD activation in patients. This is the; first study demonstrating that reduction of regional gray matter in; first-episode schizophrenia patients is associated with impaired brain; function when performing the Tower of London task, and supports; previous findings of impaired executive attention and working memory; in schizophrenia.

Introduction: Much debate in management theory concerns the degree to which organizations can adapt to environmental change and the role of leadership in facilitating such change. Many firms today face the situation Americam auto makers faced in the 1970s: an unexpectedly strong challenge from an unexpected corner of the globe. Japanese preeminence in design and manufacturing, and sociopolitical changes that threaten their viability - the Arab oil embargoes which quadrupled the price of gasoline. In the wake of globalization and unstable interdependencies, past competencies can quickly become obsolete and a firm's position in market and society can abruptly deteriorate. In the aftermath of these events in the late 1970s and early 80s, the continued viability of American automating was in doubt, and the industry came under a barrage of criticism from all corners, politicians left (Brown 1980, Commoner 1980) and right (Clark 1980, Stockman 1986), academics (Ackoff 1978), public interest groups (Nader 1965, 1970, 1973), financial analysts (Keller 1989), journalists (Halberstam 1985, Yates 1983) and even from within (DeLorean 1988) for a failure to foresee and respond effectively to these events. But did they fail? And, if so, why? A study of attention can illuminate the first step or lack thereof in organizational adaptation, but also complicates the notion of adaptation implicit in the debate. In this project, I develop a construct of executive attention which I use to analyze change in the auto industry over three decades, including periods of relative environmental calm and upheaval. The principal findings which obtain and which I discuss in this article are: 1. A long lag between the central event of the period - the emergence of Japanese preeminence in design and manufacturing and executive attention (an extremely long lag in the case of GM). 2. A pattern of executive attention that is difficult to reconcile as part of a rigorous attempt to maximize profit. Rather