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With its long tradition, research on misconceptions helps to understand how concepts are learned and how learning in the disciplines can be supported. Up to now, research on misconceptions has focused on natural sciences, while research on misconceptions in behavioral sciences is scarce, not to say absent. In this study an attempt was made to reveal upper secondary school students’ misconceptions on doing research in behavioral sciences. The starting point for the study were research proposals of upper secondary school students. As part of a larger study, students were asked to write a research proposal in maximum two pages. A two-steps approach was adopted in the analysis of these research proposals. First, using a codebook containing both deductive and inductive codes, two-pagers were analyzed in order to identify ‘errors’. In a second step, an interpretative analysis aimed at inferring potential misconceptions underlying these errors. The study can be considered as a starting point for research on misconceptions in behavioral sciences which is currently missing in the field., Con su larga tradición, la investigación sobre los conceptos erróneos ayuda a comprender cómo se aprenden los conceptos y cómo se puede apoyar el aprendizaje en las disciplinas. Hasta ahora, la investigación sobre los conceptos erróneos se ha centrado en las ciencias naturales, mientras que la investigación sobre los conceptos erróneos en las ciencias del comportamiento es escasa, por no decir inexistente. En este estudio se intentó revelar los conceptos erróneos de los estudiantes de secundaria superior sobre la realización de investigaciones en ciencias del comportamiento. El punto de partida del estudio fueron las propuestas de investigación de los estudiantes de secundaria superior. Como parte de un estudio más amplio, se pidió a los estudiantes que redactaran una propuesta de investigación en un máximo de dos páginas. Para el análisis de estas propuestas de investigación se adoptó un enfoque en dos fases. En primer lugar, utilizando un libro de códigos que contenía códigos deductivos e inductivos, se analizaron las propuestas de dos páginas para identificar los "errores". En un segundo paso, se realizó un análisis interpretativo con el fin de inferir posibles conceptos erróneos subyacentes a estos errores. El estudio puede considerarse un punto de partida para la investigación sobre las concepciones erróneas en las ciencias del comportamiento, que actualmente no existe en este campo.

In this study we focus on the integration of mathematical learning content (i.e., proportional reasoning) in game-based learning environments (GBLE). More specifically, two kinds of GBLEs are set up: an extrinsically integrated GBLE and an intrinsically integrated GBLE. In the former environment, the mathematical content is not part of the core mechanics and structure of the gaming world. In the latter environment, the mathematical content is delivered through the parts of the game that are the most fun to play and embodied within the structure of the gaming world and the players’ interactions with it. Sixty-four vocational track students participated in the study, all of them working in either version of the self-developed GBLE “Zeldenrust”. The results of this study suggest that the way the content is integrated in a GBLE (i.e., intrinsically or extrinsically) matters: contrary to our expectations, students who played the extrinsically integrated game showed higher learning gains, motivational gains and perceived usefulness than students who played the game in which the content was intrinsically integrated.

The challenge in serious games is to improve the effectiveness of learning by stimulating relevant cognitive processes. In this paper, we investigate the potential of surprise in two experiments with prevocational students in the domain of proportional reasoning. Surprise involves an emotional reaction, but it also serves a cognitive goal as it directs attention to explain why the surprise occurred and can play a key role in learning. In our experiments, surprises were triggered by a surprising event, ie, a nonplaying character who suddenly appeared and changed characteristics of a problem. In Experiment 1—comparing a surprise condition with a control condition—we found no overall differences, but the results suggested that surprise may be beneficial for higher level students. In Experiment 2, we combined Expectancy strength (Strong vs. Weak) with Surprise (Present vs. Absent) using higher level students. We found a marginal overall effect of surprising events on learning indicating that students who experienced surprises learned more than students who were not exposed to these surprises but we found a stronger effect of surprise when we included existing proportional reasoning skill as factor. These results provide some evidence that a narrative technique as surprise can be used in game-based learning for the purpose of learning.

This study addresses the added value of faded worked examples in a computer game-based learning environment. The faded worked examples were introduced to encourage active selection and processing of domain content in the game. The content of the game was proportional reasoning and participants were 12- to 15-year-old students from prevocational education. The study compared two conditions in which students worked with the environment with faded worked examples (n = 49) or without worked examples (n = 44). The students who received the faded worked examples performed better on a posttest measuring their proportional reasoning skills, and this performance was related to the number of times they had interacted with the worked examples. Though already effective, there is still room for improvement which potentially can be found in the level of explanation given in the worked example before this was faded.

In this systematic review, 17 articles were analyzed focusing on three research questions: (1) How is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) conceptualized in empirical research on foreign and second language (FL/L2) education? (2) How is PCK studied in empirical research on FL/L2 education? (3) What are the main conclusions of empirical research on FL/L2 education? An overview of the most important research findings does not reveal generalizable conclusions from research on FL/L2 PCK. The research domain is characterized by a variety of conceptualizations and research methods. Key words: Pedagogical content knowledge, second language, foreign language, teacher knowledge, systematic review., En esta revisión sistemática, se analizaron 17 artículos enfocando tres preguntas de investigación: (a)¿Cómo se conceptualiza el conocimiento didáctico del contenido (CDC) en la investigación empírica de la educación de la lengua extranjera y la segunda lengua (LE/SL)? (b)¿Cómo se estudia el CDC en la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? (c)¿Cuáles son las principales conclusiones de la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? La revisión de los resultados de investigación más importantes de la investigación de LE/SL CDC no revela conclusiones generalizables. Esta área de investigación es caracterizada por una variedad de conceptualizaciones y de métodos de investigación.

In this systematic review, 17 articles were analyzed focusing on three research questions: (1) How is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) conceptualized in empirical research on foreign and second language (FL/L2) education? (2) How is PCK studied in empirical research on FL/L2 education? (3) What are the main conclusions of empirical research on FL/L2 education? An overview of the most important research findings does not reveal generalizable conclusions from research on FL/L2 PCK. The research domain is characterized by a variety of conceptualizations and research methods. Key words: Pedagogical content knowledge, second language, foreign language, teacher knowledge, systematic review., En esta revisión sistemática, se analizaron 17 artículos enfocando tres preguntas de investigación: (a)¿Cómo se conceptualiza el conocimiento didáctico del contenido (CDC) en la investigación empírica de la educación de la lengua extranjera y la segunda lengua (LE/SL)? (b)¿Cómo se estudia el CDC en la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? (c)¿Cuáles son las principales conclusiones de la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? La revisión de los resultados de investigación más importantes de la investigación de LE/SL CDC no revela conclusiones generalizables. Esta área de investigación es caracterizada por una variedad de conceptualizaciones y de métodos de investigación.

In this systematic review, 17 articles were analyzed focusing on three research questions: (1) How is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) conceptualized in empirical research on foreign and second language (FL/L2) education? (2) How is PCK studied in empirical research on FL/L2 education? (3) What are the main conclusions of empirical research on FL/L2 education? An overview of the most important research findings does not reveal generalizable conclusions from research on FL/L2 PCK. The research domain is characterized by a variety of conceptualizations and research methods. Key words: Pedagogical content knowledge, second language, foreign language, teacher knowledge, systematic review., En esta revisión sistemática, se analizaron 17 artículos enfocando tres preguntas de investigación: (a)¿Cómo se conceptualiza el conocimiento didáctico del contenido (CDC) en la investigación empírica de la educación de la lengua extranjera y la segunda lengua (LE/SL)? (b)¿Cómo se estudia el CDC en la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? (c)¿Cuáles son las principales conclusiones de la investigación empírica de la educación de LE/SL? La revisión de los resultados de investigación más importantes de la investigación de LE/SL CDC no revela conclusiones generalizables. Esta área de investigación es caracterizada por una variedad de conceptualizaciones y de métodos de investigación.

The present study addresses the effectiveness of an educational mathematics game for improving proportional reasoning in students from prevocational education. Though in theory game-based learning is promising, research shows that results are ambiguous and that we should look into ways to support game-based learning. The current study explored two factors (i.e., collaboration and competition) that have been associated with motivational and cognitive effects, and have potential to optimize game-based learning. In a fully crossed design, four conditions were examined: collaboration and competition, collaboration control, competition control, and control. It was found that, over all, gameplay did improve students' proportional reasoning skills but that learning effects did not differ between conditions. However, when students’ ability levels were taken into account, an interaction between collaboration and competition was found. For below-average students, the effect of collaboration was modified by competition, showing a negative effect of competition on domain knowledge gains in a collaborative learning situation. In contrast, for above-average students, the data demonstrated a trend that suggests a positive effect of competition on domain knowledge gain in a collaborative learning situation.

In this study, we investigate whether cognitive conflicts induced by curiosity-triggering events have a positive impact on learning and motivation. In two experiments, we tested a game about proportional reasoning for secondary prevocational students. Experiment 1 used a curiosity-triggering vs. control condition pretest–posttest design. The control condition received the game without curiosity-triggering events. The results provided evidence that the game improves proportional reasoning skills. Although game performance was positively related to posttest performance, the hypothesized higher increase in learning and motivation after curiosity-triggering events was not found. Based on the results of Experiment 1, the game was adapted. Experiment 2 showed basically the same pattern of results, but we did not find a learning effect after playing the game. In the Discussion, we suggest additional research with think-aloud and/or eye-tracking to map the actual thoughts after the curiosity-triggering events. In addition, we propose some alternative implementations to evoke cognitive conflicts.

In this contribution, we present a game-based learning environment for 12–16-year-old vocational students in which they can practice proportional reasoning problems. The learning content and goals, as well as the specific game features are discussed. We can conclude that developing a serious game implies many choices and decisions led by theoretical foundations, as well as by practical limitations and pragmatic considerations.

To gain insight into complex sustainability problems and acknowledge complexity is essential and can be achieved by creating an overview of the entire system, including interaction between variables. Therefore, systems thinking is recognized as a vital cognitive skill required to grasp complex global problems. Nevertheless, the implementation of systems thinking into general education, and geography in particular, is sadly limited. Encouraging students to use appropriate tools will probably help them understand systems complexity. A lesson series to foster systems thinking in a Belgian high school geography course was developed and implemented. In this design, produced by researchers in consultation with teachers, students were required to elaborate causal diagrams based on original texts and graphs of complex geographical issues. Causal diagrams are expected to support the development of students’ systems thinking ability. The interpretation of the information sources from a geographical, and thus multidimensional perspective, is the core of inquiry-based instruction aimed at fostering systems thinking. By describing the gradual use of causal diagrams as a tool to visually represent given data, this article contributes an example of this scaffolding technique in geography education. In addition to a description of the lesson series itself, we also discuss how decisions in the design process were influenced by theoretical as well as practical aspects of geography education in Flanders (Belgium). Furthermore, first reflections on the implementation are illustrated.

Due to swift technological changes in society, programming tasks are proliferating in formal and informal education around the globe. However, challenges arise regarding the acquisition of programming skills. Many students are unequipped to develop programming skills due to limited instruction or background and therefore feel insecure when encountering programming in higher education. Some after-school initiatives focus on teaching younger students programming skills, however, not all students have the opportunity to attend. It can also be very challenging for teachers to teach programming—even more so due to significant differences in students’ knowledge and interests. To alleviate these challenges, we designed and developed a digital personalized learning (DPL) track for programming in the first grade of secondary education (12–14 year-old students) with a threefold purpose: (a) to encourage students bridging the gap between visual and more general-purpose textual programming languages (b) to meet differences in students’ programming knowledge by challenging them, albeit on their own pace, and subsequently (c) to support teachers in the delivery of programming education with relevant supportive learning materials. The design was tested by students and teachers, both of varying technical abilities. Assessments of the DPL-track were positive, with students identifying the tasks as challenging and the tools as motivating. Teachers praised the adaptivity, as well as the gradual transition from visual to textual programming. We present several suggestions for design improvement and dilemmas while reflecting on our design case.

As most of the life-threatening events, such as heart failure and trauma, occur out-of-hospital, first aid is considered crucial for a victim’s survival chances. Unfortunately, a substantial part of these psychomotor or consciously brain-controlled motor skills are executed poorly or incorrectly due to the inexperience of first aid attendants or low retention after training. Together with an enlarged demand over the past years for first aid skills within the business sector and, corresponding, the tremendous load in teaching hours, this high need for training sessions in first aid led to the development of an online learning environment for psychomotor skills within the domain of Health Sciences. Although online learning environments already exist for teaching cognitive skills, developing one for psychomotor skills is considered challenging as it has not been proven effective yet. What is considered important, however, is to avoid cognitive overload and to maintain learners’ motivation throughout the entire online learning environment. As such, to avoid cognitive overload, the designers used a cognitive instructional model, namely the 4C/ID model, and used it as a framework for their online learning environment. On top, choice options were added to the online learning environment to maintain motivation throughout the process of learning psychomotor skills. The ultimate goal lies in enabling the learner to perform the psychomotor skill fluently in practice. The design process of the online learning environment, the corresponding design challenges, failures, and how they were dealt with are described in detail.

In today’s complex world, the acquisition of research skills is considered an important goal in education. Consequently, there is a growing body of literature that recognizes the value of well-designed learning environments for effectively supporting the development of this complex set of skills. However, a clear consensus on how these research skills can be facilitated is currently lacking, and the design processes underlying the learning environments aiming to foster students’ research skills are not always clearly outlined. Furthermore, interventions aiming to foster these skills are often implemented in the domains of physics, biology, and chemistry, while other domains (such as behavioral and social sciences domains) remain understudied. In addition, current approaches to foster research skills often refer to only a few epistemic activities (Fischer et al., 2014) related to research skills. Inspired by a design-based research approach, this design effort case seeks to clearly explain the design considerations for, and the development of an online learning environment aiming to foster upper secondary school students’ research skills in a behavioral sciences context. The online learning environment (RISSC or Research In Social SCiences) consists of a lesson series designed based on a systematic approach to four-component instructional design (van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2018), and was piloted with two different cohorts in upper secondary education and in first year of university.

To gain insight into complex sustainability problems and acknowledge complexity is essential and can be achieved by creating an overview of the entire system, including interaction between variables. Therefore, systems thinking is recognized as a vital cognitive skill required to grasp complex global problems. Nevertheless, the implementation of systems thinking into general education, and geography in particular, is sadly limited. Encouraging students to use appropriate tools will probably help them understand systems complexity. A lesson series to foster systems thinking in a Belgian high school geography course was developed and implemented. In this design, produced by researchers in consultation with teachers, students were required to elaborate causal diagrams based on original texts and graphs of complex geographical issues. Causal diagrams are expected to support the development of students’ systems thinking ability. The interpretation of the information sources from a geographical, and thus multidimensional perspective, is the core of inquiry-based instruction aimed at fostering systems thinking. By describing the gradual use of causal diagrams as a tool to visually represent given data, this article contributes an example of this scaffolding technique in geography education. In addition to a description of the lesson series itself, we also discuss how decisions in the design process were influenced by theoretical as well as practical aspects of geography education in Flanders (Belgium). Furthermore, first reflections on the implementation are illustrated.