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I dagsläget hanteras papperstentamina manuellt på Karlstads universitet. Detta system är inte effektivt; det bildas köer vid ankomst \& inlämning och inlämningstidsstatistik är svår att ta vara på. Hade denna statistik funnits till lärares och administratörer hade de enklare kunnat bedöma tentaminas tidsåtgång. Lärare skulle kunna sätta en kortare skrivtid på många tentamina och fler tentamina schemaläggas av tentamensavdelningen. Trycket på skrivsalar är mycket stort idag och att schemalägga tentamina kan vara en stor utmaning. Målen med detta projektarbete var främst att skapa ett digitalt system som samlar och presenterar statistik kring inlämningstider för kursansvariga, och sekundärt att försöka effektivisera den generella studenthanteringen vid salstentamina. Planen var att skapa en mobilapplikation som skannar QR-koder på tentaminas försättsblad, och en webbsida som presenterar denna statistik. I denna uppsats diskuteras och utvärderas resultatet av en sådan lösning. Det system vi har utvecklat blev klart, men kunde inte driftsättas på Karlstads universitetet då vi inte fick åtkomst till existerande system som Ladok. Vi fick inte heller möjligheten att testa och därmed utvärdera systemet vid ett riktigt provtillfälle., Pen-and-paper examinations are currently managed manually at Karlstad University. This system is not efficient; queues form during arrivals and submissions, and submission time statistics are difficult to make use of. If these statistics were to be made available to teachers and administrators, they would be able to more easily assess the time requirements for exams. Consequently, teachers would be able to allocate shorter writing times for many exams, and administrators thus schedule more of them. The pressure on exam halls is substantial today, and scheduling exams can be a challenge. The goal of this project was to create a digital system which gathers and presents statistics regarding submission times. The plan was to create a mobile application which scans QR codes found on exam cover sheets, and a website which presents these statistics. In this thesis, the results of such a solution are discussed and evaluated. The system we developed was completed, but was unable to be deployed in production at Karlstad University as we did not get access to any existing systems, such as Ladok. Futhermore, we were not given the opportunity to test and thus evaluate the system at an exam session.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(7), 911-931

[Resumen]: En este proyecto se lleva a cabo el diseño e implementación de una aplicación web enfocada en la búsqueda y participación en grupos de estudio dentro de una comunidad educativa. El propósito principal de la aplicación es facilitar la colaboración y el intercambio de recursos e incentivar la comunicación en persona entre estos grupos programando reuniones, además de ofrecer herramientas de aprendizaje en conjunto. La aplicación ofrece a los usuarios la búsqueda de universidades de su interés y, dentro de ellas, explorar las asignaturas disponibles y los grupos relacionados, permitiéndoles unirse a estos últimos después de iniciar sesión. Los grupos pueden ser configurados como públicos o privados y cuentan con administradores responsables de su moderación. Dentro de cada grupo, los miembros tienen la capacidad de interactuar a través de mensajes, compartir recursos y programar reuniones mediante un calendario compartido. En lo que respecta a los recursos compartidos en los grupos, se permite la subida y descarga de archivos en formato PDF, imágenes y videos. Además, la aplicación ofrece la posibilidad de crear y compartir exámenes en formato tipo test, encuestas y flashcards, tarjetas de aprendizaje que presentan breves preguntas y respuestas que facilitan la comprensión de conceptos clave. Por último, hay que destacar que la aplicación está disponible en tres idiomas: castellano, gallego e inglés., [Abstract]: This project entails the design and implementation of a web application focused on searching for and participating in study groups within an educational community. The main purpose of the application is to facilitate collaboration and resource sharing, as well as encourage inperson communication among these groups by scheduling meetings, while also providing collaborative learning tools. The application offers users the ability to search for universities of their interest and, within those universities, explore available subjects and related study groups. Users can join these study groups after logging in. Study groups can be configured as public or private and are managed by administrators responsible for moderation. Within each group, members have the ability to interact through messages, share resources, and schedule meetings using a shared calendar. Regarding shared resources within the groups, users can upload and download files in PDF format, images, and videos. Additionally, the application provides the option to create and share exams in multiple-choice format, surveys, and flashcards—learning cards that present brief questions and answers to facilitate the understanding of key concepts. Lastly, it’s important to highlight that the application is available in three languages: Spanish, Galician, and English.

Instructors' interactions can foster knowledge sharing around teaching and the use of research-based instructional strategies (RBIS). Coordinated teaching presents an impetus for instructors' interactions and creates opportunities for instructional improvement but also potentially limits an instructor's autonomy. In this study, we sought to characterize the extent of coordination present in introductory undergraduate courses and to understand how departments and instructors implement and experience course coordination. We examined survey data from 3,641 chemistry, mathematics, and physics instructors at three institution types and conducted follow-up interviews with a subset of 24 survey respondents to determine what types of coordination existed, what factors led to coordination, how coordination constrained instruction, and how instructors maintained autonomy within coordinated contexts. We classified three approaches to coordination at both the overall course and course component levels: independent (i.e., not coordinated), collaborative (decision-making by instructor and others), controlled (decision-making by others, not instructor). Two course components, content coverage and textbooks, were highly coordinated. These curricular components were often decided through formal or informal committees, but these decisions were seldom revisited. This limited the ability for instructors to participate in the decision-making process, the level of interactions between instructors, and the pedagogical growth that could have occurred through these conversations. Decision-making around the other two course components, instructional methods and exams, was more likely to be independently determined by the instructors, who valued this autonomy. Participants in the study identified various ways in which collaborative coordination of courses can promote but also inhibit pedagogical growth. Our findings indicate that the benefits of collaborative course coordination can be realiz

The objective of this research was to perform a construct validity, and a psychometric analysis of the Exams-related Emotions Scale (EES), analyze the differences in their scores regarding gender and academic year in primary and secondary education student, as well as study the relationship between emotions and academic performance. During the construction and analysis of the psychometric characteristics of the scale, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were performed. To test EES scores based on gender and school year, the T-Student test for independent samples and ANOVA were used, respectively. To verify the relationship between the scores of the different types of emotions and academic performance, the Pearson correlation test was performed. A total of 562 students belonging to the 5th (n = 228) and 6th (n = 186) primary school year and the 1st (n = 134) and 2nd (n = 94) secondary school year participated in the research. Age between 10 and 15 years old (mean = 11.66, standard deviation = 1.206) both males (50.5%) and females (49.5%). The results offered support for the three-factor structure. The analysis of invariance with respect to gender showed that the factor structure was invariant. Boys scored higher on the positive emotions factor and lower scores on anxiety than girls. Regarding school year, negative emotions and anxiety related to exams increase in the secondary courses compared to Primary while for positive emotions it is primary school students who obtain higher scores. The correlation coefficient between negative emotions (as well as anxiety) and school performance is negative whereas the correlation coefficient between positive emotions and academic performance is positive. EES scale is an instrument with scientific rigor and with adequate reliability and validity to be able to know the emotions that primary and secondary school students suffer when they are subjected to evaluation processes in the academic

There is an increasing concern regarding the potential misuse of ChatGPT-4 in compromising the integrity of examinations and assignments. This study aims to examine the capabilities of ChatGPT-4 in critical thinking abilities, whether it poses a threat to examinations and assignments in higher education, and create a discussion agenda on this issue. ChatGPT-4 was asked to generate, answer, and criticize questions in tourism marketing, tourism management, tourism economics, tourist guidance, and gastronomy. The answers were evaluated according to universal critical thinking standards. The findings obtained from this study showed that ChatGPT-4 had commendable competence in several critical thinking standards and could produce human-like texts. However, there are certain domains that might be improved to comply more effectively with the expectations and norms of academia. Educators were recommended to use comprehensive approaches that combine technological and educational techniques to address the issue of cheating enabled by tools, such as ChatGPT-4, during assessment and exam processes., Há uma crescente preocupação em relação ao possível uso indevido do ChatGPT-4 comprometendo a integridade de exames e trabalhos académicos. Este estudo visa examinar as capacidades do ChatGPT-4 nas capacidades de pensamento crítico, avaliar se ele representa uma ameaça para exames e trabalhos no ensino superior e criar uma agenda de discussão sobre esse problema. Solicitou-se ao ChatGPT-4 que gerasse, respondesse e criticasse perguntas nas áreas de marketing turístico, gestão do turismo, economia do turismo, informação turística e gastronomia. As respostas foram avaliadas deacordo com padrões universais de pensamento crítico. Os resultados deste estudo mostraram que o ChatGPT-4 apresentou competência admirável em vários padrões de pensamento crítico e conseguiu produzir textos semelhantes aos humanos. No entanto, há certos domínios que podem ser aperfeiçoados para atender mais efetivamente às expetativas e normas académicas. Recomenda-se que os educadores adotem abordagens abrangentes que combinem técnicas tecnológicas e educacionais para lidar com o problema da fraude, facilitada por ferramentas como o ChatGPT-4, durante processos de avaliação e exames.

High-stakes examinations have been a university tradition for nearly two centuries, due at least in part to a widespread perception that they offer validity, objectivity, and reliability in assessing learning. The disruptive COVID-19 crisis, however, has triggered shifts in thinking over whether university exams in an online environment hold the same rigor and authenticity—or even whether they still serve as a valid form of assessment for preparing students for postgraduate employment. This chapter examines those shifts against the backdrop of COVID-19 and examines the relationship between exams and enhancing graduate employability through three key skills: problem-solving, creativity, and critical thinking. Taking a global perspective, it reviews the current literature on these topics and considers alternative forms of assessment using practical examples that may provide more valid methods of improving postgraduate employability outcomes through more authentic realworld assessments. It ultimately argues that universities must seize the opportunities created by COVID-19 for widespread assessment reform and use this momentum for setting tasks that more closely reflect the types of skills needed for work in the post-pandemic world.

Classroom tests are a common and default form of assessments in concept-heavy, fundamental engineering courses. Tests have benefits to learning, such as the testing effect that helps with the retrieval of knowledge, but there are also disadvantages, like discouraging deep learning approaches and decreasing motivation to learn, that warrant examining and questioning why tests are common, which engineering education literature lacks. Furthermore, the advancement of assessment research has led to alternative assessments that can diversify types of assessments and promote intentionality in test usage in these courses, supporting the need for scholarship on understanding test usage. My research began to address this by studying fundamental engineering course instructors' test beliefs and behaviors because engineering instructors have shown to have autonomy in making course decisions and barriers to adopting scholarship-based assessment practices among these engineering instructors persist. This dissertation study, grounded in the Situated Expectancy Value Theory (SEVT), explored, uncovered, and articulated seven fundamental engineering course instructors' test beliefs and behaviors from mechanical engineering and engineering science departments in a public, land-grant, Research 1 institution. Leveraging the case study research methodology from a pragmatic perspective, my multi-case study, with each participant being defined as a case, answered an overarching research question and five sub-research questions that yielded findings on five test aspects: test usage, design, administration, cheating, and fairness. Eight collected data sources in the form of qualitative interviews, course, department, and institution documents became the database to answer the questions. Analyses of these data involved coding and content analysis, and subsequent thematic analysis. The outcome of these analyses shaped the individual case profiles for cross-case analysis to understand belief and

To know the level of anxiety towards Mathematics of future, the questionnaire by Fennema and Sherman (1976) is applied over seven consecutive academic years, from course 2012-13 to 2018-19, composed of 12 items Likert type from 1 to 5. Of the 895 students who answered, one in two has high or very high anxiety towards Mathematics with an average anxiety is of 2.99, with the maximum difference between courses being 37 hundredths, women have more anxiety about math than men and three out of five students get nervous and restless during a math test., Para conocer el nivel de ansiedad hacia las Matemáticas de los futuros maestros se aplica desde el curso 2012-13 al 2018-19, el cuestionario de Fennema y Sherman (1976), compuesto de 12 ítems tipo Likert de 1 a 5. De los 895 alumnos, uno de cada dos tiene ansiedad alta o muy alta hacia las Matemáticas con una ansiedad media de 2.99, la diferencia máxima entre cursos es de 37 centésimas, las mujeres tienen más ansiedad ante las matemáticas que los hombres y tres de cada cinco estudiantes se ponen nerviosos y están intranquilos durante un examen de matemáticas.

The purpose of this study is to identify test preparation strategies and concerns of university students in the open and regulated education system. We surveyed 294 students (55.10% male, 44.90% female), 60.54% from the open access system, and 39. 46% from the regulated access system, four dimensions are measured: students' and parents' concerns about university education, constraints to effective academic performance, exam preparation strategies and factors affecting academic performance. The results show three main student concerns in both training systems: self-development, seeking new learning (84.35%) and graduation (73.13%). On the other hand, about half of the students (49.32%) feel that their parents are preoccupied with their studies and are stressed or bothered (31.29%) by their incessant advice. We have identified 15 types of difficulties that are sources of constraint on the efficiency of university student performance, grouped into three categories: cognitive difficulties (32.64%), teaching methods difficulties (30.57%) and organization difficulties of the training program (36.79%). One-fifth of students review every day, every course, and thus spend an average of half an hour to an hour (41%) per review day. However, female students spent significantly more time per day (+3 hours, p<.038) on course revision than their male colleagues. Analysis of students' exam preparation programs shows six preparation strategies, dominated by the reading method (28.90%) and course outlines (26.30%). In both training systems, half of the students were dissatisfied (52.38%) with their personal preparation methods, of which 71.22% were female students. These students also perceive that their exam review strategies are little or not effective (56.46%) of which 40.22% are female students significantly different from their male counterparts (p<.05). The majority of students (61.88%) in both training systems do not place importance on all training modules. This findi

[EN] The Covid-19 pandemic forced universities to convert their traditional face-to-face exams to online exams with doubts as to whether student cheating or technical difficulties would affect their final grades. After taking three of these exams online, we considered comparing their grades with those of previous years on traditional exams. The average mark of the traditional exams before the pandemic was 6.95 over 10, while the average mark of the three exams carried out in the Covid-19 era is 6.64. The student's t test indicated that there are no significant differences between the two types of exams in the mean (p = 0.408), the median (p = 0.378), the range (p = 0.307), the minimum (p = 0.410) and the maximum (p = 0.072). Taking online exams did not modify the exam grades compared to previous years. There is a lot of variability in similar studies in the literature due to cheating that can be performed in online exams. A proctoring system, good question design, and limited exam time can minimize these differences.

[EN] One of the biggest challenges of online teaching is student evaluation. With the students not being physically present, assessing their level of knowledge on a subject presents different challenges than those tradionally encountered in face-to-face teaching. In this paper we present an overview of different evaluation systems and reflect about its advantages and disadvantages when applying them in online environments.The most common evaluation systems: multiple-choice quizzes, open question exams, essays, projects and oral exams, are ranked depending on several criteria. Criteria include items that any professor should take into consideration such as easiness of design and preparation or difficulty of student cheating. The advantages and downsides of each evaluation system are presented and several mechanisms to mitigate the disatvanges of each method are proposed.This paper is helpful to professors and teachers, specially in the current situation where the Covid-19 pandemic has moved most high-education teaching online.

[EN] How can we improve the homogenization of university education around the world? This is the central question of our research. In order to answer it, we focus on the classic tool used to evaluate students: exams. The aim of our paper is to establish a methodology with which to construct a database of world university exams by academic field. The database would be available to professors and students worldwide, and both categories could use it to contrast their level in a certain subject. In this sense, our proposal aims to achieve two objectives: 1) to maximize the effectiveness of exams as a measurement of students´ knowledge; 2) to use exams as a tool to homogenize education within universities in a certain academic field.

[ES] La tecnología está cambiando el sector de la educación a una gestión automatizada por dispositivos inteligentes. Un golpe de nuevas necesidades ha surgido con la inmersión del mundo en una pandemia, acelerando el proceso de modernizar las técnicas tradicionales de la enseñanza. Para poder dar clases a distancia se recurre a herramientas como Zoom o Teams, videollamadas para poder establecer la comunicación alumno-profesor. ¿Pero qué pasa con la evaluación de exámenes? ¿Son suficientes las funcionalidades actuales para estas nuevas necesidades? Así surge Cloud Exams, plataforma que permite gestionar los exámenes en la nube utilizando cualquier dispositivo y lanzar exámenes de manera online proveyendo de mecanismos anticopia para asegurar la veracidad de los resultados. La ventaja frente a herramientas similares es su enfoque a ambientes más profesionales, ya que muchas de ellas se centran en el entretenimiento no dando suficiente robustez para evaluar resultados de exámenes, como por ejemplo Kahoot o Quizizz. Y no solo eso, también da muchas opciones y es más versátil y adaptable a nuevas necesidades que las soluciones que actualmente utilizan muchas escuelas, como por ejemplo Sakai o Moodle. El proyecto trata del ciclo de evaluación y desarrollo de la propia aplicación siguiendo un desarrollo ágil Scrum adaptado a la situación., [EN] Technology is changing the education sector to automated management by smart devices. A coup of new needs has emerged as the world plunged into a pandemic, accelerating the process of modernizing traditional teaching techniques. To be able to teach remotely, tools such as Zoom or Teams, video calls are used to establish student-teacher communication. But what about exam evaluation? Are current features sufficient for these new needs? This is how Cloud Exams appear, a platform that allows you to manage exams in the cloud using any device and launch online exams, providing anti-copy mechanisms to ensure the veracity of the results.The advantage over similar tools is their approach to more professional environments, since many of them are focused on entertainment, not giving enough robustness to evaluate test results, such as Kahoot or Quizizz. And not only that, it also offers many options and is more versatile and adaptable to new needs than the solutions currently used by many schools, such as Sakai or Moodle. The project deals with the evaluation and development cycle of the application itself following an agile Scrum development adapted to the situation., [CA] La tecnologia està canviant el sector de l'educació a una gestió automatitzada per dispositius intel·ligents. Un cop de noves necessitats ha sorgit amb la immersió del món en una pandèmia, accelerant el procés de modernitzar les tècniques tradicionals de l'ensenyament. Per poder donar classes a distància es recorre a eines com Zoom o Teams, videotrucades per poder establir la comunicació alumne-professor. Però què passa amb l'avaluació d'exàmens? Són suficients les funcionalitats actuals per a aquestes noves necessitats? Així sorgeix Cloud Exams, plataforma que permet gestionar els exàmens en el núvol utilitzant qualsevol dispositiu i llançar exàmens de manera online proveint de mecanismes anticòpia per assegurar la veracitat dels resultats. L'avantatge enfront de eines similars és el seu enfocament a ambients més professionals, ja que moltes d'elles es centren en l'entreteniment no donant suficient robustesa per avaluar resultats d'exàmens, com ara Kahoot o Quizizz. I no només això, també dóna moltes opcions i és més versàtil i adaptable a noves necessitats que les solucions que actualment utilitzen moltes escoles, com ara Sakai o Moodle. El projecte tracta del cicle d'avaluació i desenvolupament de la pròpia aplicació seguint un desenvolupament àgil Scrum adaptat a la situació.

Mental health can have an impact on several vital areas, including but not limited to work, studies or relationships. This paper examines the relationship between mental health issues –such as stress or anxiety– and college students, focusing on the perception of stress that students have in connection to exams, deadlines or time management, among others. For this end, a survey was carried out among a small group of English students (both in Translation and Teacher Training courses) at Universidad Católica Argentina to measure their perceived feelings of stress and to question them about the support systems available to them at the aforementioned university. Both the survey and the literature cited in the paper seem to reinforce the conclusion that mental health issues are relevant in academic contexts and may be connected to a variety of factors including academic pressures, test anxiety and bad time management.

Instructors in higher education frequently employ examinations composed of problem-solving questions to assess student knowledge and learning. But are student scores on these tests reliable? Surprisingly few have researched this question empirically, arguably because of perceived limitations in traditional research methods. Furthermore, many believe multiple choice exams to be a more objective, reliable form of testing students than any other type. We question this wide-spread belief. In a series of empirical studies in 8 classes (401 students) in a finance course, we used a methodology based on three key elements to examine these questions: A true experimental design, more appropriate estimation of exam score reliability, and reliability confidence intervals. Internal consistency reliabilities of problem-solving test scores were consistently high (all > .87, median = .90) across different classes, students, examiners, and exams. In contrast, multiple-choice test scores were less reliable (all < .69). Recommendations are presented for improving the construction of exams in higher education.

Introduction: In-service exam scores are used by residency programs as a marker for progress and success on board exams. Conference curriculum helps residents prepare for these exams. At our institution, due to resident feedback a change in curriculum was initiated. Our objective was to determine whether assigned Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) articles and Rosh Review questions were non-inferior to Tintinalli textbook readings. We further hypothesized that the non-textbook assigned curriculum would lead to higher resident satisfaction, greater utilization, and a preference over the old curriculum.Methods: We collected scores from both the allopathic In-training Examination (ITE) and osteopathic Emergency Medicine Residency In-service Exam (RISE) scores taken by our program’s residents from both the 2015-2016 and 2016-2017 residency years. We compared scores pre-curriculum change (pre-CC) to scores post-curriculum change (post-CC). A five-question survey was sent to the residents regarding their satisfaction, preference, and utilization of the two curricula.Results: Resident scores post-CC were shown to be non-inferior to their scores pre-CC for both exams. There was also no significant difference when we compared scores from each class post-CC to their respective class year pre-CC for both exams. Our survey showed significantly more satisfaction, utilization, and preference for this new curriculum among residents.Conclusion: We found question-based learning and Evidence-Based Medicine articles non-inferior to textbook readings. This study provides evidence to support a move away from textbook readings without sacrificing scores on examinations.

Јесењи период су обележиле бројне конференције, а ми издвајамо Конференцију Клуба младих хемичара Србије и Биохемијског друштва Србије. Поново представљамо истраживања докторанткиња са Хемијског факултета. Читајте о клиничкој металомици – све актуелнијој грани аналитичке хемије. Ту смо сваког испитног рока, па сазнајте нешто више о нашој Библиотеци. Прочитајте или се подсетите како је било на последњој стручној екскурзији у Хрватској и Италији. На Свечаној скупштини Српског хемијског друштва смо се подсетили успеха у 2019. години, а најављена је и Година електрохемије. Посебно истичемо текст о менталном здрављу студената – можете му се враћати током целе године и препоручите колегама којима могу бити од користи. Представљамо и избор хемијских шала са друштвених мрежа., Numerous conferences marked the last fall, and the Conference of the Young Chemists Club of Serbia and the Serbian Biochemical Society stand out. We present to you the researches of Ph.D. students at the Faculty of Chemistry. Read about clinical metallomics – a branch of analytical chemistry that draws attention more and more. During exam seasons, we spend our time there, so find out more about our Library in this issue. Read or remind yourselves of the last student trip to Croatia and Italy. At the Solemn Assembly of the Serbian Chemical Society, we were reminded of the success in 2019, and the Year of Electrochemistry was announced. We especially emphasize the text about students' mental health - you can go back to it throughout the year and recommend it to colleagues who may benefit. We also present a selection of chemical jokes from social networks.

The aim of the study is to investigate the penalty for the phenomenon of the student's cheating in the exams via comparative qualitative research methods. As a result, the criminal confrontation with the taking educational and organizational measures before mentioned above is the best way to reduce the spread of the phenomenon of cheating in the exams. In conclusion, the student's cheat in the exam is harmful to the community, because the student after graduating may practice a profession and fail in it.

Cheating in exams is a great educational problem which cause bad effects both for the people than for the country. This behavior is usually inihibited by repression and prophylactic ways, such as punishment and the limitation of the number of items carried during the exams respectively. Thus, this study proposes to identify the behavioral profile of students to assist in the elaboration of appropriate strategies to reduce the frequency of cheating in exams. To perform this study was made a popular research which inquired about the behavior of persons who cheatings during exams, and others who never cheated in any exam. The results highlight the importance of to know who are the students in class to establish a correct teaching-learning process because the acts of cheatings differs significantly between groups of persons with different genres, religious options, level of study, and other elements elucidated in this study., Trapacear em avaliações se revela um problema educacional com efeitos deletérios ao indivíduo e ao país. Os meios para se inibir este comportamento são pouco eficientes e se baseiam apenas em medidas de repressão, como punições, e profiláticas, como limitação do número de itens portados em avaliações. Desse modo, este estudo propõem identificar o perfil comportamental de estudantes que trapaceiam em exames, para auxiliar na elaboração de estratégias adequadas a redução da frequência desta transgressão nas escolas e concursos. Para tanto se realizou uma pesquisa acerca do comportamento de indivíduos que declararam trapacear, ou não trapacear, em exames escolares. Os resultados destacaram que a postura de um indivíduo perante a transgressão em exames, se diferencia significativamente entre os gêneros, posicionamento religioso, nível de estudo entre outros elementos. Os resultados desta pesquisa foram empregados no delineamento do perfil comportamental humano perante ao hábito de ‘colar’, para auxiliar o docente na elaboração de estratégias eficazes para coibir esta transgressão, e suas consequências para a sociedade., Trampas en evaluaciones se revela un problema educativo con efectos deletéreos al individuo y al país. Los medios para inhibir este comportamiento son poco eficientes y se basan sólo en medidas de represión, como castigos, y profilácticas, como limitación del número de artículos portados en evaluaciones. De este modo, este estudio propone identificar el perfil conductual de estudiantes que trampen en exámenes, para auxiliar en la elaboración de estrategias adecuadas para reducir la frecuencia de esta transgresión en las escuelas y concursos. Para ello se realizó una investigación sobre el comportamiento de individuos que declararon engañar, o no engañar, en exámenes escolares. Los resultados destacaron que la postura de un individuo ante la transgresión en exámenes, se diferencia significativamente entre los géneros, posicionamiento religioso, nivel de estudio, entre otros elementos. Los resultados de esta investigación fueron empleados en el delineamiento del perfil comportamental humano ante el hábito de ‘collar’, para auxiliar al docente en la elaboración de estrategias eficaces para cohibir esta transgresión, y sus consecuencias para la sociedad.

Objective: The following article presents OFIF, a project that has been running at the medical faculty of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich (LMU) since 2013. International students of medicine often lag behind their fellow domestic students in terms of language ability and communication skills. To compensate, OFIF offers communication skills courses with an emphasis on exam preparation. Below, we will discuss the project's success, challenges and future opportunities. Methods: In their daily academic routine, communication presents one of the greatest challenges for international students of medicine. With the aid of case scenarios and activities from clinical practice, the project courses teach strategies for effective communication. The methodical concept of the OFIF training is based on the six levels of learning of the revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy.Results: Since 2013, more than 40 trainings and classes for international medical students have been offered. In the winter term of 2017/18, 49 students representing all clinical semesters participated in the OFIF activities. An evaluation of the training classes consistently yielded positive results (95 % of the items were given a score between 9 and 10, on a scale from 1 to 10.)Conclusions: Both the amount of interest (as expressed by the number of actively participating students) and the high percentage of positive evaluations consistently demonstrate that the didactical concept underlying OFIF is useful and could serve as a best practice example for similar projects at other institutions. On the other hand, the 49 participants from all clinical semesters represented but 10 % of the total population of international students in the winter term of 2017/18. Further research examining the concrete effects of OFIF on the academic success of international students at the LMU is therefore desirable., Zielsetzung: Der vorliegende Artikel stellt das seit 2013 an der Medizinischen Fakultät der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität existierende Projekt OFIF (Orientierungs- und Fachkommunikationskurse mit Interkulturellem Fokus) vor. Da internationale Studierende der Humanmedizin im Vergleich mit heimischen Kommilitonen oft Defizite in den Bereichen Kommunikation und Sprache vorweisen, bietet OFIF Kommunikationstrainings mit prüfungsrelevanten Schwerpunkten an. Im Folgenden werden Erfolge, Herausforderungen und Chancen des Projekts erläutert. Methodik: Kommunikation ist eine der größten Hürden im Studien- und Prüfungsalltag internationaler Medizinstudierender. Daher vermitteln die Trainings des Projekts Kommunikationsstrategien anhand von Fallbeispielen und klinisch-praktischen Übungen. Das methodische Konzept der Trainings basiert dabei auf den sechs Lernebenen des kognitiven Modells der revidierten Taxonomie nach Bloom. Ergebnisse: Seit 2013 wurden über 40 Trainings und Kurse für internationale Medizinstudierende angeboten. Im Wintersemester 2017/18 nahmen 49 Studierende aus allen klinischen Semestern an OFIF-Kursen teil. Die Bewertung der Kurse durch die Teilnehmer war stets positiv (95% der Bewertungsitems wurden auf einer Skala von 1-10 mit 9 oder 10 bewertet). Schlussfolgerung: Die Tatsache, dass Studierende das Angebot von OFIF von Semester zu Semester immer wieder wahrnehmen und positiv bewerten zeigt, dass es sich hier um ein sinnvolles Konzept für die Unterstützung internationaler Studierender handelt, das als best practice Beispiel dienen kann. Gleichzeitig repräsentieren die 49 Teilnehmer im Wintersemester 2017/18 lediglich 10% der im klinischen Semester eingeschriebenen Studierenden aus dem Ausland. Weitere Forschungsarbeiten, die sich mit der Frage nach der tatsächlichen Auswirkung der Kurse auf die Prüfungs- und Studienleistungen internationaler Studierender beziehen, sind geplant.

Aquest projecte final de màster ha tingut com a finalitat realitzar una proposta metodològica d'intervenció en les avaluacions curriculars dels alumnes que presenten trastorns de lectoescriptura a les aules d'Educació Secundària. Per tal de poder establir aquesta proposta, prèviament s'ha realitzat un extens treball de recerca i investigació. Primerament, s'ha realitzat una anàlisi del trastorn, estudiant les seves possibles causes, les seves afectacions i el diagnòstic en adolescents. En segon lloc, s'han observat les legislacions espanyoles i catalanes en matèria de dislèxia, per tal de poder avaluar quin nivell d'intervenció es realitza amb aquests alumnes en els centres de secundària. Aquestes lleis, han estat comparades amb les lleis d'educació de dos països diferents, Finlàndia i els Estats Units d'Amèrica, concretament, el cas de Washington. Tot seguit, s'ha dut a terme una observació sobre les acomodacions que realitzen els docents de Catalunya en els exàmens i activitats subjectes d'avaluació dels alumnes amb dislèxia a secundària. Per realitzar aquesta part de l'estudi, s'ha utilitzat un qüestionari i s'han analitzat les dades obtingudes. Finalment, amb tota la informació recollida, s'ha generat la proposta metodològica plantejada com a objectiu del treball.

This work analyzes the influence of learning standards recently introduced in evaluation of History requirements applied in the fourth grade of secondary school in Spain (15-16 year olds). This is a descriptive study that incorporates content analysis and data quantification. The paper analyzes legislative texts and the different curricula used at the state level and in five autonomous communities, didactic programming and exams given in the 2016-2017 school year. To do so, it uses content analysis and an opinion survey sent by mail to five experts in social science didactics. The results show an assessment based on rote exams about conceptual and factual contents despite legislative changes. However, it notes glimpses of improvement in the history teaching-learning process through consideration of a new curriculum., Este trabajo analiza la influencia que tienen los estándares de aprendizaje introducidos recientemente en la evaluación de la asignatura de Historia que se aplica en cuarto curso de secundaria, en España (15-16 años). Es un estudio descriptivo que integra el análisis de contenido y la cuantificación de datos. Se analizaron textos legislativos, así como los diferentes currículos vigentes a nivel estatal y en cinco comunidades autónomas, las programaciones didácticas y los exámenes del curso académico 2016-2017. Para ello se recurrió al análisis de contenido y a la opinión de cinco expertos en didáctica de las ciencias sociales por medio de una encuesta remitida por correo. Los resultados muestran una evaluación basada en exámenes memorísticos sobre contenidos conceptuales y factuales a pesar de las modificaciones legislativas. Sin embargo, se han observado resquicios para la mejora del proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de la historia mediante el planteamiento de un nuevo currículo.

En esta presentación describimos el procedimiento para generar exámenes o cuestionarios con datos aleatorios usando el paquete exams del lenguaje de programación R a partir del cual podemos crear diferentes modelos de exámenes o cuestionarios de Moodle.

Conté: PUC; Laptops; Exams, Postprint (author's final draft)

[ES] EvalCon (Evaluación de Conocimientos) es una aplicación web que permite generar exámenes de diversos tipos, de forma aleatoria, a través de la parametrización de unos criterios de selección de alto nivel que interroga a una base de datos de conocimientos. La base de datos está alimentada por el personal docente y tanto los profesores como los alumnos pueden generar múltiples realizaciones. EvalCon permite a los estudiantes reforzar sus conocimientos en diversas materias y controlar si su evolución es favorable, [EN] EvalCon (knowledge evaluation) is a web application that it allows to create many different and randomly exams, through parameterization about high level select filters that ask to knowledge database. The database is powered by professors and both, professors and students, can to generate many realizations. EvalCon allows to students to strengthen their knowledge in many subjects and control whether their evolution is favorable.

Infografia amb recomanacions i exercicis per millorar el rendiment durant l'època d'exàmens, Postprint (author's final draft)

En este artículo se presenta un estudio enfocado a analizar: las emociones y estimación personal de la educación científica adquirida por futuro profesorado; el tipo y la incidencia de los exámenes en su aprendizaje; y las propuestas que hacen para la mejora de la enseñanza y evaluación de la Ciencia escolar en las etapas educativas básicas. En el estudio participaron 59 estudiantes de profesorado de Educación Primaria, que respondieron a un cuestionario diseñado para dicho propósito. Las respuestas fueron analizadas mediantes procedimientos de análisis inter-jueces y el uso de descriptores de baja inferencia. Los resultados ponen de relieve que los futuros docentes acceden a su formación inicial en Didáctica de la Ciencias con un bagaje bastante diverso y, en muchos casos, con carencias significativas para lograr una formación eficaz sobre esta. Se concluye con una serie de interrogantes con los que propiciar un serio debate para la mejora de la formación inicial del profesorado, dada la situación de emergencia en la que se encuentra la educación científica básica de los escolares de este país, This paper presents a study focused in analyzing: the emotions and personal estimation of the science education acquired by prospective teachers; kinds of exams and its influence in their learning; and the proposals they make to improve the teaching and assessment of school science at the basic education. The study involved 59 prospective Primary Education teachers who responded to a questionnaire designed for this purpose. The answers were analyzed by inter-rater analysis methods and using low inference descriptors. The results show that prospective teachers reach their initial education in science teaching with a very diverse background and, in many cases, with significant gaps, in order to achieve an effective education about it. It concludes with a series of questions to encourage a serious debate about the improvement of initial teacher education, given the low level in the basic scientific competence of Spanish pupils.

The main concern for institutions that organize exams is to detect when students cheat. Actually more frauds are possible and even authorities can be dishonest. If institutions wish to keep exams a trustworthy business, anyone and not only the authorities should be allowed to look into an exam’s records and verify the presence or the absence of frauds. In short, exams should be verifiable. However, what verifiability means for exams is unclear and no tool to analyze an exam’s verifiability is available. In this paper we address both issues: we formalize several individual and universal verifiability properties for traditional and electronic exams, so proposing a set of verifiability properties and clarifying their meaning, then we implement our framework in ProVerif, so making it a tool to analyze exam verifiability. We validate our framework by analyzing the verifiability of two existing exam systems – an electronic and a paper-and-pencil system.

Assessment is an important element of university curricula for both teachers and students. It provides evidence that students have learned what their teachers expected them to learn. There is good evidence that teachers’ use of exemplars in a dedicated marking class held before an assessment task helps students understand what is expected of them in regards to standards of work; the level of students’ assessment task performance is consequently enhanced. However it is unclear whether students’ process of marking exemplars, or a teacher’s explanation of the quality of exemplars, contributes more to students’ understanding of expectations. In this small-scale mixed methods study involving exam answer exemplars, we found that undergraduate and postgraduate Nutrition students value both marking and the teacher’s explanation for different reasons, and overall perceive the teacher’s explanation as being most beneficial for their learning. An important factor to also consider is students’ emotional reactions to the marking class and the potential implications of this on learning and exam preparation. We recommend that teachers be supported in implementing an interactive exemplar-based approach to help students learn about what is expected of them in assessment tasks, including exams.

Les certifications de français ne se réduisent pas à la passation des examens, elles conditionnent la perception que les apprenants peuvent avoir de la langue française. La Suède est un cas intéressant, dans la mesure où la culture égalitaire a longtemps freiné le développement des tests de langue et la logique de l´évaluation. Si le Diplôme d´Études de Langue Française est un atout pour situer le niveau des apprenants au sein du cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues, peut-il pour autant être utilisé comme ressource d´apprentissage? Est-ce que la préparation au DELF peut influencer une mutation de l´évaluation du niveau de français en Suède ? Une étude du contexte éducatif et de l´appropriation des niveaux du Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les Langues est nécessaire pour ensuite décrire le profil des candidats au DELF en Suède., Exams in French as a Foreign Language are not only interesting in themselves, they also have an effect on the perception of the language that learners have. Sweden is a peculiar case-study because the egalitarian culture has prevented for a long time the language tests and the logic of evaluation from emerging. If the French Language Certificate helps to identify the language level in the Common European Framework of References for Languages, can it be used as a pedagogical resource? Can the preparation for DELF exams influence the culture of evaluation of French Language in Sweden? It is necessary to study the educational context and the appropriation of language levels of the Common European Framework of References for Languages in order to describe the DELF candidates´ profile in Sweden.

Aplicació web per a correcció automàtica de proves., Aplicación web para corrección automática de pruebas., Web application for automatic exam correction.

The thesis is an extension and a generalization of a previous theses done by Antonio Carro and Eduard Martínez. The goal of this work is to create a virtual platform where the teachers will be able to define different structures for the tests,create tests and follow the students progress. This virtual platform will have an architecture of server-client allowing the platform independence and the future development of mobile clients also the possible integration of other e-learning platforms in the market. The main programming languages will be PHP, Javascriptii, CSS for the Internet platform and web services.

In an ongoing research project focusing on improving learning in first year engineering mechanics, a framework for engineering mechanics knowledge has been identified. The framework has been applied to break down and categorise common mistakes made by students at four separate institutions to find out where students are struggling in their efforts to learn statics and dynamics. The framework separates knowledge into factual, procedural, conceptual, and principle areas in a semi hierarchical manner. In using this framework, it has become clearly evident that the marks students are awarded for their work tend to be biased towards procedural knowledge, rather than conceptual knowledge as one might expect for an introductory course. The implication here is that students make most of their mistakes in the problem solving procedures for which most marks are awarded. We propose in our efforts to encourage a deep conceptual understanding needed for further study in engineering mechanics, we may be inadvertently encouraging surface procedural knowledge.

Package exams provides a framework for automatic generation of standardized statistical exams which is especially useful for large-scale exams. To employ the tools, users just need to supply a pool of exercises and a master file controlling the layout of the final PDF document. The exercises are specified in separate Sweave files (containing R code for data generation and LaTeX code for problem and solution description) and the master file is a LaTeX document with some additional control commands. This paper gives an overview of the main design aims and principles as well as strategies for adaptation and extension. Hands-on illustrations---based on example exercises and control files provided in the package---are presented to get new users started easily.

Šiame darbe atlikta palyginamoji kiekybinė bei kokybinė 2004 – 2007 m. geografijos mokyklinių egzaminų analizė, apžvelgta istorinė geografijos mokslo raida, jos reikšmė ir ryšys su kitais mokslais, ypatingai su ekologija, taip pat brandos egzaminų raida. Įvardinti egzamino metu tikrintas mokyklinės geografijos kurso sritis bei gebėjimų grupes ir jų tarpusavio santykį. Įvertintas, remiantis statistinės informacijos analize, egzamino užduočių klausimų sunkumas ir skiriamoji geba. Išsiaiškinti geografinių žinių ir supratimų, žinių taikymo, vertinimo bei analizės praktinių gebėjimų formavimo trūkumai, dažniausiai pasitaikančios klaidos. Palyginamoji kiekybinė ir kokybinė geografijos egzaminų analizė sudarė prielaidą hipotezei, kad problemiškiausia egzaminų užduočių sritis - kartografinės užduotys. Kiti atlikti tyrimai – 2004 - 2007 m. geografijos mokyklinių egzaminų užduočių analizė ir Valkininkų vidurinės mokyklos 6-12 kl. mokinių kartografijos gebėjimų tyrimas patvirtino hipotezę ir leido pateikti atitinkamas rekomendacijas su geografijos egzaminais susijusiems pedagogams bei užduočių rengėjams., In this work a comparative quantitative and qualitative 2004 - 2007 m. Geography of the maturity exam analysis, overview of the historical geography of scientific development, its significance and relationship to other sciences, particularly with the environment, as well as the evolution of the maturity exam. Identified during the test checks of school geography course as well as skills groups and their mutual relationship. Assessed on the basis of statistical information, analysis, test problems, questions of severity and resolution. To clarify the geographical knowledge and understanding, knowledge application, assessment and analysis of practical capacity building defects, most common error. Comparative quantitative and qualitative analysis of geography exam was accepted hypothesis that the problematic examinations mission areas-cartographic tasks. Other studies - the 2004-2007 geography of school exams and the analysis of the tasks Valkininkų high school grades 6-12. mapping skills of pupils study confirmed the hypothesis, and permitted to submit appropriate recommendations to the tests of geography teachers and the problems associated promoters.

Considered the resistance and predominance verminose in the species sheep and goats of the area of Cariri in Ceará and, trying to contribute for the agricultural products produced in this area, exams were accomplished in 1.050 sheeps and 703 goats. Was looked for to quantify and oportunizar better resources to the small cattle farmer can guarantee subsistence in the field. Took this work that aimed at to know the infestation levels to contribute with the control of the problem of the sheep and goat verminose. High loads were verified would sponge of the family Strongyloidae, and for the species sheep the largest estimate was observed for head office with 1.600,64 eggs for gram of the feces (OPG), while, for goats species was the young male with 3.134,58 OPG. High parasitic load was also observed for the number of eimeria oocysts, and for female young ovino 1.845 oocysts for gram of feces and for the goats ones, the largest punctual estimate was observed for the cabritas with 2.235 oocysts for gram of the feces, Devido à resistência e predominância de verminose nas espécies ovinas e caprinas da região do Cariri Cearense e, com o objetivo de contribuir para a melhoria dos produtos agropecuários produzidos na região, foram realizados exames em 1.050 ovinos e 703 caprinos. Buscou-se quantificar a necessidade de se oportunizar melhores recursos para que o pequeno pecuarista possa garantir sua subsistência no campo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo conhecer os níveis de infestação para contribuir com o controle do problema da verminose ovina e caprina. Constatou-se alta carga parasitaria da família Strongyloidae. Na espécie ovina a maior estimativa foi observada nas fêmeas, 1.600,64 ovos por grama de fezes (OPG), enquanto que, para a espécie caprina, a maior infestação foi observada nos machos jovens com 3.134,58 OPG. Observada também uma alta carga parasitária para o número de oocistos de Eimeria, com 1.845 oocistos por grama de fezes para as fêmeas jovens ovinas, já na espécie caprina, a maior estimativa pontual foi observada para as cabritas, com 2.235 oocistos por grama de fezes.

Utifrån att elever verkar ha en förmåga till att endast söka svar på uppgifterna de får och inte vilja intressera sig för att förstå området, så uppkom iden om detta arbete. Syftet med arbetet är att studera vilken kunskap som mäts i skolan. Begreppet kunskap beskrivs utifrån olika synsätt. Området lärstil beskrivs i arbetet med en tyngd på att beskriva ytinlärning och djupinlärning. Vidare beskrivs området kunskapsbedömning där olika frågetyper beskrivs. En studie med kvalitativ karaktär har genomförts genom intervjuer med lärare, samt kvantitativ granskning utav skriftliga kunskapsprov. Resultaten påvisar att det ligger mycket på lärarna vilka prov de använder, beroende på hur de skriftliga proven är uppbyggda samt att motivera eleverna. Den kunskap som mäts med de skriftliga proven är främst ytinriktad och det stämmer inte överens med vad kursmål och betygskriterier efterfrågar då de mest efterfrågar djupinriktad kunskap.

The main purpose of this paper is to discuss the major features of the learning evaluation system as applied to pupils from the basic and secondary levels, such as proposed by the Portuguese curriculum. The high failure rates observed are analyzed and stimulate various reflections, which take into account that the above mentioned system has features that should, in principle, contribute to help students progressing and not failing: a) the predominance of formative evaluation, aimed at regulating and improving the learning; b) the predominance of internal evaluation, with schools and teachers playing a major role in the pupil evaluation process; and c) the fact that decisions related to pupils' progress or failure only have to be made at the end of each cycle of mandatory schooling. The article also discusses the internal evaluations, of total responsibility of schools and teachers, and the external evaluations, namely those that have been carried out under the auspices of the international organizations. Generally speaking, it can be said that the learning evaluation system defined in the Portuguese curriculum has a progressive, and even innovative, character that tries to adapt to the reality of the education system. However, the study has shown that there is still a significant difference between what is legally proposed and what effectively takes place in the so-called "real system", that is, at the schools and classrooms. Recommendations are therefore made to reduce, or perhaps eliminate, such discrepancies which, in the author's view, constitute one of the most important challenges that Portuguese society has to face in the years to come., A principal finalidade deste artigo é a de discutir as principais características do sistema de avaliação das aprendizagens dos alunos dos Ensinos Básico e Secundário, tal como é proposto no currículo português. Os elevados índices de reprovação são analisados e suscitam reflexões várias tendo em conta que o referido sistema de avaliação apresenta três características que, em princípio, deveriam contribuir para que os alunos progredissem e não reprovassem. Tais características são: a) o predomínio da avaliação formativa, destinada a regular e a melhorar as aprendizagens; b) o predomínio da avaliação interna, com as escolas e os professores a desempenharem um papel muito relevante no processo de avaliação dos alunos; e c) o facto de as decisões referentes à progressão, ou não, dos alunos deverem ser tomadas apenas nos finais de cada ciclo da escolaridade obrigatória. São ainda discutidas as avaliações internas, da integral responsabilidade das escolas e dos professores, e as avaliações externas, nomeadamente as que se têm realizado sob os auspícios de organizações internacionais. De modo geral, parece poder afirmar-se que o sistema de avaliação das aprendizagens previsto no currículo português possui uma natureza progressiva e até inovadora, procurando adequar-se às realidades do sistema educativo. Contudo, a pesquisa tem demonstrado que ainda existe uma significativa diferença entre o que é proposto legalmente e o que efectivamente acontece no chamado sistema real, isto é, nas escolas e nas salas de aula. Nessas condições, são feitas algumas recomendações destinadas a reduzir, ou mesmo a eliminar, tais diferenças que, do ponto de vista do autor, constituem um dos mais importantes desafios que a sociedade portuguesa tem que enfrentar nos próximos anos.

This paper reports on a journey that begun in 1997 when a small group in the Faculty of Education at the University of Wollongong agreed to trial an alternative model of teacher education known as the Knowledge Building Community (KBC) Project. This alternative model of teacher education was based upon three learning principles, community learning, school-based learning and problem-based learning. Since the first students began in 1999 the original model has undergone several revisions and is now best described as a ?negotiated-evaluation-of-a-non-negotiable-curriculum-based-on-a-constructivist-model-of-learning-and-knowledge-building?. The aim of the KBC Program has been to deal with the perennial problem of contextualising students' professional learning, by linking abstract theory as closely as possible to the contexts and settings to which it applies, that is, the primary school classroom.

Validity researchers typically work with nonrandom samples, membership in which depends in part on the exam score being investigated. In a study of the SAT's validity for freshman GPA at a particular college, for example, FGPA is not observed for the entire pool of potential applicants, but only for those who are admitted and enroll. This sample selection biases validity estimates. Corrections for restriction of range remedy the problem only when the exam score is the sole determinant of selection, and even then do not permit consistent estimation of the exam's incremental validity. Regression omitted variables results motivate a proposed validity estimator that is consistent whenever the determinants of selection are observed. An algorithm is suggested for calculation of these "robust" validity coefficients, and used to estimate the SAT's validity at the University of California. The usual validity estimates are shown to be substantially biased, in the hypothesized directions, by admissions-induced sample selection.

We try to compare two theoretical-methodological approaches in order to identify factors that explain the dependent variables: evaluation stress and coping styles to this stress. On one side, Self theorists assume as independent variable of the evaluation stress the trait anxiety toward evaluation, and as independent variables of the coping stress styles the personal orientation (locus of control internal-external), and the cognitive style (dependence-independence of field). On the other side, theorists of behavior as process consider as independent variables of the first the cognitive evaluation of the exam and for the seconds tire stages of stress process (pre and post exam stages), The sample was 236 adolescents, of both genders, students of a pre-university academy, held by an university for direct acceptance, aged 16 to 18 years, selected by non probabilistic intentional sampling. Obtained results lead to the conclusion that the explanation about stress toward exams and the coping styles given for the theorists of behavior as process has more relationship with the facts than the given by self theorists., Se han contrastado dos enfoques teórico-metodológicos a fin de identificar los factores que explicarían las variables dependientes: a) estrés experimentado frente a los exámenes, y b) modos de afrontamiento de tal estrés. Se argumenta que, mientras los teóricos del Yo asumen como variable independiente de la ansiedad frente a los exámenes la Ansiedad-rasgo, y como variables independientes de los modos de afrontamiento el estrés, el estilo de orientación personal (locus de control interno-externo) y el estilo cognitivo (dependenciaindependencia de campo); de otro lado, los estudiosos de la conducta como proceso consideran como variables independientes de la primera a la evaluación cognitiva del examen y de los segundos a las etapas del proceso de estrés (previa y después del examen). La muestra comprendió 236 adolescentes de ambos sexos, estudiantes en una academia pre-universitaria auspiciada por una universidad para el ingreso directo, con edades entre 16 y 18 años, seleccionados mediante un muestreo no probabilistico, intencional. Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que la explicación proporcionada por los teóricos de la conducta como proceso se corresponde más con los hechos, que la brindada por los teóricos del Yo.