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The immune system of plants is highly complex. It involves pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), which is signaled and manifested through branched multi-step pathways. To counteract this, pathogen effectors target and inhibit individual PTI steps. This in turn can cause specific plant cytosolic nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptors to activate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Plants and pathogens have many genes encoding NLRs and effectors, respectively. Yet, only a few segregate genetically as resistance (R) genes and avirulence (Avr) effector genes in wild-type populations. In an attempt to explain this contradiction, a model is proposed where far most of the NLRs, the effectors and the effector targets keep one another in a silent state. In this so-called "iceberg model", a few NLR-effector combinations are genetically visible above the surface, while the vast majority is hidden below. Besides, addressing the existence of many NLRs and effectors, the model also helps to explain why individual downregulation of many effectors causes reduced virulence and why many lesion-mimic mutants are found. Finally, the iceberg model accommodates genuine plant susceptibility factors as potential effector targets.

The immune system of plants is highly complex. It involves pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), which is signaled and manifested through branched multi-step pathways. To counteract this, pathogen effectors target and inhibit individual PTI steps. This in turn can cause specific plant cytosolic nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptors to activate effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Plants and pathogens have many genes encoding NLRs and effectors, respectively. Yet, only a few segregate genetically as resistance (R) genes and avirulence (Avr) effector genes in wild-type populations. In an attempt to explain this contradiction, a model is proposed where far most of the NLRs, the effectors and the effector targets keep one another in a silent state. In this so-called "iceberg model", a few NLR-effector combinations are genetically visible above the surface, while the vast majority is hidden below. Besides, addressing the existence of many NLRs and effectors, the model also helps to explain why individual downregulation of many effectors causes reduced virulence and why many lesion-mimic mutants are found. Finally, the iceberg model accommodates genuine plant susceptibility factors as potential effector targets.

The cell wall is required for many aspects of plant function and development. It is also an accessible and renewable resource utilized both in unrefined forms and as raw material for further development. Increased knowledge regarding cell wall structure and components will contribute to better utilization of plants and the resources they provide. In this thesis aspects of the primary cell wall of Populus trichocarpa and Nicotiana tabacum are explored. In Publication I a method for isolation and biochemical characterization of plant glycosyltransferases using a spectrophotometric or a radiometric assay was optimized. The radiometric assay was applied in Publication II where the proteome of the plasmodesmata isolated from P. trichocarpa was analyzed. Proteins identified belonged to functional classes such as “transport”, “signalling” and “stress responses”. Plasmodesmata-enriched fractions had high levels of callose synthase activity under ion depleted conditions as well as with calcium present. The second part of the thesis comprises the alteration of the cell wall of N. tabacum cells and A. thaliana plants through in vivo expression of a carbohydrate binding module (CBM) (Publication III). In tobacco this resulted in cell walls with loose ultrastructure containing an increased proportion of 1,4-β-glucans. The cell walls were more susceptible to saccharification, possibly due to changes in the structure of cellulose or xyloglucan. Arabidopsis plants showed increased saccharification after mild pretreatment, suggesting that heterologous expression of CBMs is a promising method for cell wall engineering. In Publication IV cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) and nanocrystals (CNCs) were extracted from the transgenic cells. CNC preparation resulted in higher yields and longer CNCs. Nanopapers prepared from the CMFs of the CBM line demonstrated enhanced strength and toughness. Thus, changes to the ordered regions of cellulose were suggested to take place due to CBM expression., QC 2019-05-08

The cell wall is required for many aspects of plant function and development. It is also an accessible and renewable resource utilized both in unrefined forms and as raw material for further development. Increased knowledge regarding cell wall structure and components will contribute to better utilization of plants and the resources they provide. In this thesis aspects of the primary cell wall of Populus trichocarpa and Nicotiana tabacum are explored. In Publication I a method for isolation and biochemical characterization of plant glycosyltransferases using a spectrophotometric or a radiometric assay was optimized. The radiometric assay was applied in Publication II where the proteome of the plasmodesmata isolated from P. trichocarpa was analyzed. Proteins identified belonged to functional classes such as “transport”, “signalling” and “stress responses”. Plasmodesmata-enriched fractions had high levels of callose synthase activity under ion depleted conditions as well as with calcium present. The second part of the thesis comprises the alteration of the cell wall of N. tabacum cells and A. thaliana plants through in vivo expression of a carbohydrate binding module (CBM) (Publication III). In tobacco this resulted in cell walls with loose ultrastructure containing an increased proportion of 1,4-β-glucans. The cell walls were more susceptible to saccharification, possibly due to changes in the structure of cellulose or xyloglucan. Arabidopsis plants showed increased saccharification after mild pretreatment, suggesting that heterologous expression of CBMs is a promising method for cell wall engineering. In Publication IV cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) and nanocrystals (CNCs) were extracted from the transgenic cells. CNC preparation resulted in higher yields and longer CNCs. Nanopapers prepared from the CMFs of the CBM line demonstrated enhanced strength and toughness. Thus, changes to the ordered regions of cellulose were suggested to take place due to CBM expression., QC 2019-05-08

The cell wall is required for many aspects of plant function and development. It is also an accessible and renewable resource utilized both in unrefined forms and as raw material for further development. Increased knowledge regarding cell wall structure and components will contribute to better utilization of plants and the resources they provide. In this thesis aspects of the primary cell wall of Populus trichocarpa and Nicotiana tabacum are explored. In Publication I a method for isolation and biochemical characterization of plant glycosyltransferases using a spectrophotometric or a radiometric assay was optimized. The radiometric assay was applied in Publication II where the proteome of the plasmodesmata isolated from P. trichocarpa was analyzed. Proteins identified belonged to functional classes such as “transport”, “signalling” and “stress responses”. Plasmodesmata-enriched fractions had high levels of callose synthase activity under ion depleted conditions as well as with calcium present. The second part of the thesis comprises the alteration of the cell wall of N. tabacum cells and A. thaliana plants through in vivo expression of a carbohydrate binding module (CBM) (Publication III). In tobacco this resulted in cell walls with loose ultrastructure containing an increased proportion of 1,4-β-glucans. The cell walls were more susceptible to saccharification, possibly due to changes in the structure of cellulose or xyloglucan. Arabidopsis plants showed increased saccharification after mild pretreatment, suggesting that heterologous expression of CBMs is a promising method for cell wall engineering. In Publication IV cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) and nanocrystals (CNCs) were extracted from the transgenic cells. CNC preparation resulted in higher yields and longer CNCs. Nanopapers prepared from the CMFs of the CBM line demonstrated enhanced strength and toughness. Thus, changes to the ordered regions of cellulose were suggested to take place due to CBM expression., QC 2019-05-08

Plasmodesmata are channels that link adjacent cells in plant tissues through which molecular exchanges take place. They are involved in multiple processes vital to plant cells, such as responses to hormonal signaling or environmental challenges including osmotic stress, wounding and pathogen attack. Despite the importance of plasmodesmata, their proteome is not well-defined. Here, we have isolated fractions enriched in plasmodesmata from cell suspension cultures of Populus trichocarpa and identified 201 proteins that are enriched in these fractions, thereby providing further insight on the multiple functions of plasmodesmata. Proteomics analysis revealed an enrichment of proteins specifically involved in responses to stress, transport, metabolism and signal transduction. Consistent with the role of callose deposition and turnover in the closure and aperture of the plasmodesmata and our proteomic analysis, we demonstrate the enrichment of callose synthase activity in the plasmodesmata represented by several gene products. A new form of calcium-independent callose synthase activity was detected, in addition to the typical calcium-dependent enzyme activity, suggesting a role of calcium in the regulation of plasmodesmata through two forms of callose synthase activities. Our report provides the first proteomic investigation of the plasmodesmata from a tree species and the direct biochemical evidence for the occurrence of several forms of active callose synthases in these structures. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD010692., QC 20190107

Plasmodesmata (PD) represent membrane-lined channels that link adjacent plant cells across the cell wall. PD of higher plants contain a central tube of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) called desmotubule. Membrane and lumen proteins seem to be able to move through the desmotubule, but most transport processes through PD occur through the cytoplasmic annulus (Brunkard (Bale 2013). Calreticulin (CRT), a highly conserved Ca2+-binding protein found in all multicellular eukaryotes, predominantly located in the ER, was shown to localize to PD, though not all PD accumulate CRT. In nitrogen-fixing actinorhizal root nodules of the Australian tree Casuarina glauca, the primary walls of infected cells containing the microsymbiont become lignified upon infection. TEM analysis of these nodules showed that during the differentiation of infected cells, PD connecting infected cells, and connecting infected and adjacent uninfected cells, were reduced in number as well as diameter (Schubert eta, 2013). In contrast with PD connecting young infected cells, and most PD connecting mature infected and adjacent uninfected cells, PD connecting mature infected cells did not accumulate CRT. Furthermore, as shown here, these PD were not associated with callose, and based on their diameter, they probably had lost their desmotubules. We speculate that either this is a slow path to PD degradation, or that the loss of callose accumulation and presumably also desmotubules leads to the PD becoming open channels and improves metabolite exchange between cells., AuthorCount:3

Apple (Malus × domestica) is an economically important temperate fruit-bearing crop which belongs to the family of Rosaceae and its pomaceous fruit is one of the most commonly cultivated. Several studies have demonstrated that the cell wall plays a pivotal role during flower and fruit development. It takes active part in pollen tube growth and contributes to determine the fruit firmness trait through the action of cell wall-related enzymes (i.e. polygalacturonase and pectinmethylesterase). We have investigated the expression of callose and cellulose synthase genes during flowering from tight cluster to anthesis and during early fruit development in domesticated apple. We also link the changes observed in gene expression to the profile of soluble non-structural carbohydrates at different developmental stages of flowers/fruitlets and to the qualitative results linked to wall polysaccharides' composition obtained through near-infrared spectroscopy. This work represents an important addition to the study of tree physiology with respect to the analysis of the expression of callose and cellulose synthase genes during flower and early fruit development in domesticated apple. © 2013 The Botanical Society of Japan and Springer Japan.

Detergent-resistant plasma membrane microdomains [DRMs (detergent-resistant membranes)] were isolated recently from several plant species. As for animal cells, a large range of cellular functions, such as signal transduction, endocytosis and protein trafficking, have been attributed to plant lipid rafts and DRMs. The data available are essentially based on protcomics and more approaches need to be undertaken to elucidate the precise function of individual populations of DRMs in plants. We report here the first isolation of DRMs from purified plasma membranes of a tree species, the hybrid aspen Populus tremula x tremuloides, and their biochemical characterization. Plasma membranes were solubilized with Triton X-100 and the resulting DRMs were isolated by flotation in sucrose density gradients. The DRMs were enriched in sterols, sphingolipids and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins and thus exhibited similar properties to DRMs from other species. However, they contained key carbohydrate synthases involved in cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis, namely callose [(1 -> 3)-beta-D-glucan] and cellulose synthases. The association of these enzymes with DRMs was demonstrated using specific glucan synthase assays and antibodies, as well as biochemical and chemical approaches for the characterization of the polysaccharides synthesized in vitro by the isolated DRMs. More than 70% of the total glucan synthase activities present in the original plasma membranes was associated with the DRM fraction. In addition to shedding light on the lipid environment of callose and cellulose synthases, our results demonstrate the involvement of DRMs in the biosynthesis of important cell wall polysaccharides. This novel concept suggests a function of plant membrane microdomains in cell growth and morphogenesis., QC 20100525

Wall-bound purple acid phosphatases have been shown to be potentially involved in the regulation of plant cell growth. The aim of this work was to further investigate the function of one of these phosphatases in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), NtPAP12, using transgenic cells overexpressing the enzyme. The transgenic cells exhibited a higher level of phosphatase activity in their walls. The corresponding protoplasts regenerating a cell wall exhibited a higher rate of beta-glucan synthesis and cellulose deposition was increased in the walls of the transgenic cells. A higher level of plasma membrane glucan synthase activities was also measured in detergent extracts of membrane fractions from the transgenic line, while no activation of Golgi-bound glycan synthases was detected. Enzymatic hydrolysis and methylation analysis were performed on the products synthesized in vitro by the plasma membrane enzymes from the wild-type and transgenic lines extracted with digitonin and incubated with radioactive UDP-glucose. The data showed that the glucans consisted of callose and cellulose and that the amount of each glucan synthesized by the enzyme preparation from the transgenic cells was significantly higher than in the case of the wildtype cells. The demonstration that callose and cellulose synthases are activated in cells overexpressing the wall-bound phosphatase NtPAP12 suggests a regulation of these carbohydrate synthases by a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation process, as well as a role of wall-bound phosphatases in the regulation of cell wall biosynthesis., QC 20100525

Chemical genetics as a part of chemical genomics is a powerful and fast developing approach to dissect biological processes that may be difficult to characterize using conventional genetics because of gene redundancy or lethality and, in the case of polysaccharide biosynthesis, plant flexibility. Polysaccharide synthetic enzymes are located in two main compartments-the Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane-and can be studied in vitro using membrane fractions. Here, we first developed a high-throughput assay that allowed the screening of a library of chemicals with a potential effect on glycosyltransferase activities. Out of the 4800 chemicals screened for their effect on Golgi glucosyltransferases, 66 compounds from the primary screen had an effect on carbohydrate biosynthesis. Ten of these compounds were confirmed to inhibit glucose incorporation after a second screen. One compound exhibiting a strong inhibition effect (ID 6240780 named chemical A) was selected and further studied. it reversibly inhibits the transfer of glucose from UDPglucose by Golgi membranes, but activates the plasma membrane-bound callose synthase. The inhibition effect is dependent on the chemical structure of the compound, which does not affect endomembrane morphology of the plant cells, but causes changes in cell wall composition. Chemical A represents a novel drug with a great potential for the study of the mechanisms of Golgi and plasma membrane-bound glucosyltransferases., QC 20100525

Here, an approach based on natural genetic variation was adopted to analyse powdery mildew resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana. ¿ Accessions resistant to multiple powdery mildew species were crossed with the susceptible Col-0 ecotype and inheritance of resistance was analysed. Histochemical staining was used to visualize archetypal plant defence responses such as callose deposition, hydrogen peroxide accumulation and host cell death in a subset of these ecotypes. ¿ In six accessions, resistance was likely of polygenic origin while 10 accessions exhibited evidence for a single recessively or semi-dominantly inherited resistance locus. Resistance in the latter accessions was mainly manifested at the terminal stage of the fungal life cycle by a failure of abundant conidiophore production. The resistance locus of several of these ecotypes was mapped to a genomic region containing the previously analysed atypical RPW8 powdery mildew resistance genes. Gene silencing revealed that members of the RPW8 locus were responsible for resistance to Golovinomyces orontii in seven accessions. ¿ These results suggest that broad-spectrum powdery mildew resistance in A. thaliana is predominantly of polygenic origin or based on RPW8 function. The findings shed new light on the natural variation of inheritance, phenotypic expression and pathogen range of RPW8-conditioned powdery mildew resistance.

Over 1,600 genes encoding carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) in the Populus trichocarpa (Torr.&Gray) genome were identified based on sequence homology, annotated, and grouped into families of glycosyltransferases, glycoside hydrolases, carbohydrate esterases, polysaccharide lyases, and expansins. Poplar ( Populus spp.) had approximately 1.6 times more CAZyme genes than Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana). Whereas most families were proportionally increased, xylan and pectin-related families were underrepresented and the GT1 family of secondary metabolite-glycosylating enzymes was overrepresented in poplar. CAZyme gene expression in poplar was analyzed using a collection of 100,000 expressed sequence tags from 17 different tissues and compared to microarray data for poplar and Arabidopsis. Expression of genes involved in pectin and hemicellulose metabolism was detected in all tissues, indicating a constant maintenance of transcripts encoding enzymes remodeling the cell wall matrix. The most abundant transcripts encoded sucrose synthases that were specifically expressed in wood-forming tissues along with cellulose synthase and homologs of KORRIGAN and ELP1. Woody tissues were the richest source of various other CAZyme transcripts, demonstrating the importance of this group of enzymes for xylogenesis. In contrast, there was little expression of genes related to starch metabolism during wood formation, consistent with the preferential flux of carbon to cell wall biosynthesis. Seasonally dormant meristems of poplar showed a high prevalence of transcripts related to starch metabolism and surprisingly retained transcripts of some cell wall synthesis enzymes. The data showed profound changes in CAZyme transcriptomes in different poplar tissues and pointed to some key differences in CAZyme genes and their regulation between herbaceous and woody plants., QC 20100525

(1 -> 3)-beta-D-Glucans are major components of the cell walls of Oomycetes and as such they play an essential role in the morphogenesis and growth of these microorganisms. Despite the biological importance of (1 -> 3)-beta-D-glucans, their mechanisms of biosynthesis are poorly understood. Previous studies on (1 -> 3)-beta-D-glucan synthases from Saprolegnia monoica have shown that three protein bands of an apparent molecular weight of 34, 48 and 50 kDa co-purify with enzyme activity. However, none of the corresponding proteins have been identified. Here we have identified, purified, sequenced and characterized a protein from the 34 kDa band and clearly shown that it has all the biochemical properties of proteins from the annexin family. In addition, we have unequivocally demonstrated that the purified protein is an activator of (1 -> 3)-beta-D-glucan synthase. This represents a new type of function for proteins belonging to the annexin family. Two other proteins from the 48 and 50 kDa bands were identified as ATP synthase subunits, which most likely arise from contaminations by mitochondria during membrane preparation. The results, which are discussed in relation with the possible regulation mechanisms of (1 -> 3)-beta-D-glucan synthases, represent a first step towards a better understanding of cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis in Oomycetes., QC 20141125

A novel class of nonionic, carbohydrate-based surfactants has been synthesized from the plant polysaccharide xyloglucan. Enzymatic hydrolysis of xyloglucan yielded a series of well-defined, highly branched oligosaccharides that, following reductive amination, were readily conjugated with fatty acids bearing C-8 to C-18 chains under mild conditions. The critical micelle concentration, determined by tensiometry and dye-inclusion measurements, showed a typical dependence on acyl chain length and was sensitive to the degree of galactosylation of the head group. Several compounds from this new group of surfactants, especially those with C-14 and C-16 chains, were useful for the extraction of membrane-bound enzyme markers from different plant cell compartments in catalytically active form., QC 20100525

Detergent extracts of microsomal fractions from Saprolegnia monoica and blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) cells were incubated with UDP-glucose to yield in vitro (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans. The insoluble products were analyzed by conventional and cryo transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and C-13 CP/MAS NMR, and their molecular weights were determined by light scattering experiments. All the products were microfibrillar, but for the detergent extracts from S. monoica, important morphological differences were observed when the pH of the synthesizing medium was modified. At pH 6, the product had a weight average degree of polymerization ((DPw) over bar) exceeding 20 000 and consisted of endless ribbon-like microfibrils. The microfibrils obtained at pH 9 had a length of only 200-300 nm, and their (DPw) over bar was similar to5000. Of all the in vitro (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, the one from R. fruticosus had the shortest length and the smallest (DPw) over bar. Crystallographic and spectroscopic data showed that the three in vitro samples consisted of triple helices of (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans and contained substantial amounts of water molecules in their structure, the shortest microfibrils being more hydrated. In addition, the long microfibrils from S. monoica synthesized at pH 6 were more resistant toward the action of an endo-(1-->3)-beta-D-glucanase than the shorter ones obtained at pH 9. These results are discussed in terms of molecular biosynthetic mechanisms of fungal and plant (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, and in relation with the possible existence of several (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan synthases in a given organism. The interpretation and discussion of these observations integrate the current knowledge of the structure and function of (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans., QC 20100525

This chapter reports the use of various detergents for the preparation of vesicles and micelles from plant plasma membranes bearing beta-glucan synthases. The effects of these detergents and other parameters on the in vitro activity of cellulose and (1-->3)-beta-glucan synthases are described. Morphological and structural aspects of the vesicles and micelles; are presented together with the characterization of the products synthesized in vitro by the detergent-extracted beta-glucan synthases. The possible involvement of porins for extrusion of cell wall glucans through plasma membranes as well as future developments for the study of in vitro biosynthesis of these polysaccharides are discussed in relation to these results., QC 20100525