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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) greatly extended our possibilities to acquire high resolution remote sensing data for assessing the spatial distribution of species composition and vegetation characteristics. Yet, current pixel- or texture-based mapping approaches do not fully exploit the information content provided by the high spatial resolution. Here, to fully harness this spatial detail, we apply deep learning techniques, that is, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), on regular tiles of UAV-orthoimagery (here 2–5 m) to identify the cover of target plant species and plant communities. The approach was tested with UAV-based orthomosaics and photogrammetric 3D information in three case studies, that is, (1) mapping tree species cover in primary forests, (2) mapping plant invasions by woody species into forests and open land and (3) mapping vegetation succession in a glacier foreland. All three case studies resulted in high predictive accuracies. The accuracy increased with increasing tile size (2–5 m) reflecting the increased spatial context captured by a tile. The inclusion of 3D information derived from the photogrammetric workflow did not significantly improve the models. We conclude that CNN are powerful in harnessing high resolution data acquired from UAV to map vegetation patterns. The study was based on low cost red, green, blue (RGB) sensors making the method accessible to a wide range of users. Combining UAV and CNN will provide tremendous opportunities for ecological applications.

On 16th September 2013, twelve ecologists met to evaluate how species can be given consideration in biodiversity offsets in the English context. They noted that while the type, area and distinctiveness of vegetation cover (‘habitat’) within a proposed development site is sometimes a useful basis for assessing likely impacts on individual species, this is not always the case. If biodiversity offsetting is to contribute towards a goal of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity, assessment of the impacts of a development must take into account the abundance of individual species in the wider landscape within which it is situated. An assessment process should be initiated to identify Species of Principal Importance for which habitat is not a suitable proxy to their presence or absence. This process would be based on the wealth of existing ecological evidence and methods available in England, including habitat suitability assessments and models. There is a need to designate a set of approaches to offsetting for impacts on each species requiring special consideration in biodiversity offsets. It is recommended that a central on-line repository of know-how for establishing species populations is created for use as a guide to the long-term viability of plans for offsets for species.

On 16th September 2013, twelve ecologists met to evaluate how species can be given consideration in biodiversity offsets in the English context. They noted that while the type, area and distinctiveness of vegetation cover (‘habitat’) within a proposed development site is sometimes a useful basis for assessing likely impacts on individual species, this is not always the case. If biodiversity offsetting is to contribute towards a goal of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity, assessment of the impacts of a development must take into account the abundance of individual species in the wider landscape within which it is situated. An assessment process should be initiated to identify Species of Principal Importance for which habitat is not a suitable proxy to their presence or absence. This process would be based on the wealth of existing ecological evidence and methods available in England, including habitat suitability assessments and models. There is a need to designate a set of approaches to offsetting for impacts on each species requiring special consideration in biodiversity offsets. It is recommended that a central on-line repository of know-how for establishing species populations is created for use as a guide to the long-term viability of plans for offsets for species.

1. Many grasslands worldwide are undergoing succession to woody vegetation, causing complex effects on carbon (C) sequestration, nutrient cycling and biodiversity. Land managers are frequently tasked with maximizing ecosystem services and biodiversity. Nonetheless, there are few studies quantifying trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity during early woody succession. 2. We assessed the consequences of woody succession for C stocks, above-and below-ground taxa richness (plants, nematodes, mites, microbes, fungi), and soil ecosystem function at one site with a native tree, Kunzea ericoides, and one site with a non-native tree, Pinus nigra, both establishing in conservation grasslands. 3. Woody succession at both sites was associated with large gains in above-ground C stocks and, under P. nigra, losses from the mineral soil-C pool. 4. Taxa richness responses were complex, nonlinear and incongruent. While some taxa showed initial increases in richness with woody succession (e. g. plants), other taxa had rapid declines (e. g. plant-feeding and plant-associated nematodes, oribatid mites). 5. Below-ground ecosystem functioning shifted towards increased bacterial energy channels with woody succession, despite no change in bacterial or fungal biomass or fungal hyphal lengths. Most other soil measures were consistent with literature expectations (increased C: N ratios, release of recalcitrant phosphorus). 6. Synthesis and applications. Our gradient-based measurements of woody succession effects on ecosystems did not follow expectations based on comparing end-points of grasslands to homogeneous mature forest. The discordance of biodiversity responses across taxonomic groups suggests that managers cannot rely on the indicator-species concept to ensure conservation of cryptic biodiversity. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity followed non-congruent patterns, with significant losses of taxa richness from some functional groups during woody succession. Management

1. Many grasslands worldwide are undergoing succession to woody vegetation, causing complex effects on carbon (C) sequestration, nutrient cycling and biodiversity. Land managers are frequently tasked with maximizing ecosystem services and biodiversity. Nonetheless, there are few studies quantifying trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity during early woody succession. 2. We assessed the consequences of woody succession for C stocks, above-and below-ground taxa richness (plants, nematodes, mites, microbes, fungi), and soil ecosystem function at one site with a native tree, Kunzea ericoides, and one site with a non-native tree, Pinus nigra, both establishing in conservation grasslands. 3. Woody succession at both sites was associated with large gains in above-ground C stocks and, under P. nigra, losses from the mineral soil-C pool. 4. Taxa richness responses were complex, nonlinear and incongruent. While some taxa showed initial increases in richness with woody succession (e. g. plants), other taxa had rapid declines (e. g. plant-feeding and plant-associated nematodes, oribatid mites). 5. Below-ground ecosystem functioning shifted towards increased bacterial energy channels with woody succession, despite no change in bacterial or fungal biomass or fungal hyphal lengths. Most other soil measures were consistent with literature expectations (increased C: N ratios, release of recalcitrant phosphorus). 6. Synthesis and applications. Our gradient-based measurements of woody succession effects on ecosystems did not follow expectations based on comparing end-points of grasslands to homogeneous mature forest. The discordance of biodiversity responses across taxonomic groups suggests that managers cannot rely on the indicator-species concept to ensure conservation of cryptic biodiversity. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity followed non-congruent patterns, with significant losses of taxa richness from some functional groups during woody succession. Management

This survey of the British documentary photography of the last 40 years traces the origins of this practice, signals the influence of cinema, television and design on journalistic photography and describes the gradual detachment of landscape photography from the concept of picturesqueness. Biographical notes.

This survey of the British documentary photography of the last 40 years traces the origins of this practice, signals the influence of cinema, television and design on journalistic photography and describes the gradual detachment of landscape photography from the concept of picturesqueness. Biographical notes.