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AIMS: Depression is a common mental disorder and the leading cause of disability world-wide (GBD 2018). With heritability measures around 37% (Sullivan, Neale, & Kendler, 2000), most of the risk for developing depression is of a likely environmental origin. Socioeconomic status has been repeatedly associated with depression and its many comorbid diseases (Gold et al., 2020) in studies that differ widely in their age range and geographical coverage. As a result, estimates of depression risk stratified by SES are imprecise and not easily generalisable. The biological mechanisms underlying the association between SES and depression are similarly poorly understood, although differences in alcohol consumption, smoking behaviour, and obesity are widely reported. Inflammatory mechanisms have also been implicated in both SES and depression. The aim of this thesis is to establish whether SES is associated with depression using the broadest possible evidence-base, to provide an estimate of depression risk linked to low SES, and to explore it's underlying biological mechanisms. METHODS: I conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies investigating the association between clinical depression and SES. There were no restrictions on country of origin, age of participants or publication date. The 140 included studies (N = 329,005, N of cases = 48,158) were meta-analysed (dichotomised into low and high SES) and reviewed, and gross national income per capita was used to interrogate differences in risk estimates and between-study heterogeneity. To investigate the biological mechanisms associated with low SES I performed a methylome wide association study (MWAS) on the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD, a continuous measure) using the single largest DNA methylation (DNAm) dataset, Generation Scotland. Estimates from the SIMD MWAS were used to predict Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) as a replication analysis. I then performed an MWAS on the interaction of inflammatory disease and depression to further interrogate the findings from the SIMD MWAS and connect these findings to a possible low-SES subtype of depression. For both MWASs I performed differentially methylated point (DMP) and region (DMR) analysis, functional mapping and annotation of the differentially methylated genes, and gene set enrichment analysis. RESULTS: The systematic review and meta-analysis revealed an increased risk of depression associated with low SES (odds ratios from 1.57 to 1.95). The results were consistent across cultures, and SES measures. Low income was associated with the highest risk of depression. There was considerable between study effect size heterogeneity (I2 = 81-87%) in almost all meta-analysed outcomes. The MWAS of SIMD returned 15 epigenome wide significant DMPs, and 449 DMRs. Functional annotation and gene enrichment analysis revealed bone health, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, and major depression as associated phenotypes. The inflammatory depression MWAS showed no epigenome wide significant DMP but 8 DMPs reached a less rigorous 'discovery threshold' and 7 epigenome wide significant DMRs were found. Genetic functional annotation and gene enrichment analysis implicated inflammatory markers, inflammatory diseases, response to SSRIs, liver and kidney function, and gluconeogenic pathways. CONCLUSION: Findings from this thesis show that low SES and risk of clinical depression are positively associated. Longitudinal studies hint at a low SES to MDD direction of causality, but the evidence is only suggestive, and it is likely to be a bidirectional relationship. Low SES is associated with many physical measures and conditions even after accounting for smoking, alcohol consumption, and BMI. Low SES is associated with a range of inflammatory markers and chronic mental and physical diseases. The biological mechanisms underlying the link between SES and depression may be related to systemic chronic inflammation. Possible sources for this systemic inflammation include several frequently comorbid chronic health problems and environmental toxins. These findings provide further impetus to investigate the mechanisms underlying the depression-SES association and develop interventions to mitigate the many health risks associated with low SES.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a condition characterised by progressive lung function limitation. COPD is associated with airway inflammation and high numbers of inflammatory cells. Alveolar macrophages are the major phagocytic cell of the lung and control levels of pathogens through phagocytosis. Despite an increase in cell numbers in COPD subjects, there is evidence of bacterial colonisation possibly due to reduced phagocytosis. Reduced clearance of bacteria extends to fungal spores and apoptotic cells, suggesting defective phagocytosis of pathogens could contribute to colonisation, inflammation and disease progression. This thesis examines mechanisms underpinning defective bacterial phagocytosis. Monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) from non-smokers, smokers and COPD subjects differentiated in GM-CSF were used to explore the role of the motor protein dynein in the context of defective phagocytosis in COPD. Defective bacterial phagocytosis of H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae was confirmed in COPD MDM, compared to non-smoker MDM and was associated with reduced trafficking of dynein. Inhibiting the movement of dynein in healthy cells also led to defective phagocytic uptake. To understand if these results were due to differences in cell signalling, leading to alterations in cytoskeletal rearrangements in COPD, the phosphorylation profile of MDM from COPD patients and controls in the absence or presence of H. influenzae was analysed. Analysis showed differential phosphorylation of several cytoskeletal associated proteins, including ezrin. Further analysis of ezrin suggested that reduced activation is linked to a reduction in phagocytosis in MDM, suggesting ezrin is important in this process. Changes to its expression or activity could contribute to defective phagocytosis, through its effect on microtubule instability, leading to reduced receptor recycling and early satiety. Cytoskeletal changes could be contributing to defective phagocytosis by COPD MDM. Investigations into defective phagocytosis aim to find an appropriate target for therapeutic modification, thereby restoring phagocytic capability, reducing bacterial load and diminishing inflammation.

Continuous high-frequency deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is an established treatment for Parkinson’s disease (PD). Current developments focus on trying to widen the therapeutic window of such treatments. Closed-loop DBS, where stimulation is dynamically controlled by feedback from biomarkers of pathological brain circuit activity, is one such development. Numerous electrophysiological signals extracted from local field potentials (LFPs) or electrocorticography (ECoG) in the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuit relate to symptom severity and have consequently been proposed as real-time biomarkers. These signals include phase-amplitude coupling, beta-oscillatory bursts, single neuronal firing patterns, and features of waveform morphology. The neuronal basis and interdependency of these signals, however, are poorly understood. To address this a two-fold approach was taken. First, subthalamic macro- and micro electrode recordings of LFPs and single unit activity were studied in human PD patients undergoing DBS-surgery. Simultaneously recorded ECoGs were analysed in order to relate previously proposed cortical biomarkers to subthalamic neuronal activity. Second, selective optogenetic stimulation of basal-ganglia or cerebellar receiving thalamus was deployed in rodents to investigate if cortical electrophysiological signals observed in PD could be generated from driving inputs to motor thalamus. In human PD patients, phase-amplitude coupling in the STN was found to reflect the locking of spiking activity to network beta oscillations and this coupling increased progressively with beta-burst duration, suggesting subthalamic beta bursts to capture higher levels of input-output synchronisation. Furthermore, cortical beta bursts were associated with several other cortical and subthalamic biomarkers and cortical waveform sharpness was linked to subthalamic neuronal synchronisation. In rodents, cortical phase-amplitude coupling in the ECoG could be produced by driving basal-ganglia, but not cerebellar recipient thalamus. Thus, providing experimental evidence to a theory of a basal-ganglia-thalamic origin of cortical phase-amplitude coupling in PD. Overall, this thesis gives novel insights into the neuronal basis of electrophysiological biomarkers in PD with direct implications for future closed-loop DBS trials.

Background: The third sector is expanding and becoming a bigger provider of public, social and health care services. However, little research has been undertaken to date to evidence the ability of third sector organisations (TSOs) as substitute health and social care providers to work effectively and in accordance with evidence-based practice (EBP). This entails having established processes for monitoring service delivery and outcomes, and including relevant stakeholders with the best available evidence in decision-making processes. Whilst the principles of EBP are gradually becoming an accepted part of practice in health and social care settings, little is known about how these principles have transferred into the third sector. To meet the growing demand on health and social care as a result of changes such as ageing populations, such services are increasingly delivered in quasi-markets, which are markets where public, for-profit, and third sector providers compete for service contracts financed by the state. Research convention and theories on the typology of sector have long contended that organisations across sector are driven by different incentives, but it remains unclear how, if at all, sector specific traits influence service quality. Further, little research has investigated the implications associated with the use of quasi-markets and whether certain types of service providers deliver systematically higher value than others. Objectives: This thesis aims to inform these areas by conducting two systematic reviews, which will be operationalised as an evaluation of the factors influencing the ability of TSOs to (1) evaluate their activities and (2) implement evidence-based interventions. (3) The thesis then tests whether quality-related outcomes vary across for-profit, public and third sector organisations in the context of social care organisations in Scotland. These three pieces of research have been developed and written as stand-alone journal articles for publication, bookended by chapters that will engage in a broad discussion of the core issues on the topic and of the core research questions. Together, these three papers provide an important and novel contribution to the existing literature by identifying, appraising, and synthesising existing research on the evaluation and delivery issues of TSOs, while also empirically exploring whether quality outcomes differ across public, for-profit, and third sector social care providers. Methods: A variety of methods are employed throughout the thesis. Papers 1 and 2 are systematic reviews conducted following best practice and in line with PRISMA guidelines. Both reviews included systematically searching key databases using relevant search strings, contacting experts, and reviewing websites. All included literature was quality appraised and synthesised using thematic analysis. Paper 3 employed generalised ordered logit models utilising data from the Care Inspectorate (the independent regulator of care services in Scotland) to test whether service- related outcomes vary across for-profit, public and third sector organisations. All papers were reported following best practice guidelines. Results: Paper 1 identified the main barriers for TSOs undertaking evaluation to be related to the lack of financial resources, lack of technical capability and evaluation literacy, and challenges around identifying relevant evaluation systems and outcome indicators. Key facilitating factors involved securing the appropriate support and having an organisational culture that supports evaluation, in addition to the motivation to be accountable to stakeholders. This paper has been published in Systematic Reviews. Paper 2, which focused on factors influencing the ability of TSOs to implement evidence-based interventions (EBIs), identified resource limitations, in particular staff and finance, to be the most reported barrier to TSOs implementing EBIs. Organisational culture, including factors such as alignment between the mission of the TSO and EBI, and support/prioritisation of the implementation process, were the most reported facilitators. This paper has been published in Implementation Science. Paper 3 found that public and third sector social care providers were generally more likely to be rated of high quality and of lower risk, compared to for-profit organisations, which were more likely to be rated of adequate quality and of higher risk. This paper has been published in BMJ Open. Discussion: The findings of these three studies suggest that from a regulation perspective, the large range of different activities within the third sector makes it challenging to develop policies that are appropriate to all types of TSOs. While policy-makers and academics continue to emphasise the importance of the third sector in alleviating social issues, TSOs are subject to little and insufficient guidance and support on how to evaluate and implement their services in accordance with best practice. This lack of clarity and support regarding how TSOs should adhere to best practice is problematic and may largely be at the expense of the beneficiaries; most of whom include vulnerable population groups. The findings presented in this thesis constitute a novel contribution to the knowledge-base regarding the current state of affairs in the third sector delivery of health and social care services, and also informs theories on the typology of sector. However, the findings should be interpreted with caution as a result of the study limitations, which are discussed in full. Further, the practical and policy implications identified in each paper provide an important resource for key stakeholders in terms of future strategies for regulation and improved guidance/support. As such, the findings do not just have academic relevance in terms of improving the evidence-base with regard to existing evaluation, implementation and quality practices among TSOs, but also inform practice in terms of current debates about how the needs of TSOs can be met going forward.

This thesis represents an effort to improve our understanding of the link between related diversification and firm performance. Across three chapters, I first conduct a review of work on related diversification performance and propose an agenda for future research based on disaggregating the related diversification advantage into multiple subcomponents at the micro level. In chapters 2 and 3, I then investigate these components in the context of the German manufacturing sector, relying on a detailed census dataset not previously used by strategy and management scholars. In chapter 1, I review extant work on related diversification performance to identify avenues for future research with the potential of bringing our understanding of the related diversification-performance link to the next level. I make three main contributions: First, I conduct a review of the related diversification performance literature. Second, I propose a path forward that breaks with the current paradigm by shifting the empirical and theoretical focus on the portfolio relationships and geographic location of firms' activities at the micro level. Third, I illustrate the potential of my proposed research agenda for deepening our understanding of related diversification performance. I discuss the key contributions of chapter 1 and the implications for future research on related diversification. In chapter 2, I examine the complementarity between geographic co-location and re-lated diversification. Diversification scholars increasingly agree that the related diversification advantage is limited by two factors: the relatedness of firms' activities and the number of resource sharing activities. The former limits the gains from resource sharing, while the latter drives the costs. Chapter 2 proposes geographic co-location as a third important driver of the efficiency of resource sharing. To this end, I draw on the resource sharing literature and argue that efficient resource sharing across geo-graphic locations might often be impossible because it can reduce activity relatedness and increase the coordination effort of resource sharing. In contrast to my argument, existing theory as well as empirical evidence from the diversification literature and the literature on intra-organizational knowledge transfers suggests that geographic distances in the firm do not significantly limit the gains from resource sharing. I test these competing hypotheses using census data on the universe of multi-location firms in the German manufacturing sector from 2002 to 2014. Consistent with the prediction that geographic distances severely obstruct resource sharing, I find that related diversifi-cation performance crucially depends on activity co-location; controlling for the number of activities, at least 50 percent of the effect of relatedness depends on geographic co-location. Based on my results, I propose a theoretical distinction between location free and location restricted resources that differ in their shareability across geographic locations, and I develop a set of generic diversification strategies that maps profitability and growth to different sharing patterns of the two types of resources. I discuss the key contributions of chapter 2 and the implications for future research on related diversification and resource sharing. In chapter 3, I empirically disaggregate the total related diversification advantage into its within- and between-business components. Scholars in strategy and management increasingly agree that related diversifiers command a performance advantage over firms with other diversification strategies. This has started a rich conversation about the microfoundations of the related diversification advantage. An open question emerging from this debate is to what extent related diversifiers share resources between versus within their businesses. Chapter 3 contributes to this inquiry by theoretically arguing that sharing resource across businesses might often be inefficient and by empirically separating out the performance effects of within- and between-business related diversification, using census data covering the product and business portfolios of firms in the German manufacturing sector from 2002 to 2014. Consistent with resource sharing within businesses, I find a positive performance effect of within-business diversification. Inconsistent with resource sharing between businesses, I find that related between-business diversification has no incremental effect on performance. I discuss the key contributions of chapter 3 and the implications for future research on resource sharing and related diversification performance.

This thesis aims to map military-theoretical development in Russia with a particular focus on the idea that the nature of war is defined by armed violence to a political goal. This idea has been the orthodoxy in Russia, but now non-military and non-violent means are seen to become so important that they are challenging this understanding. However, there has been no recent study in the Western debate placing the development of the nature of war at its centre. The research question is thus as follows: has the Russian understanding of the nature of war changed, and if so, how? This question is answered inductively in an idea-centred analysis of Russian military theorists, political elites and security doctrines. This thesis argues that the Russian understanding of the nature of war has since the creation of the Soviet Union, and thereafter in the Russian Federation, been defined by armed violence applied for political purposes. However, this study's main finding is that the understanding of non-military means - most notably information warfare and the creation of Colour Revolutions - have broadened the Russian understanding of the nature of war. The way in which leading theorists, elites and doctrines have come to view these non-military means as violent, more effective than military means, blurring the boundaries between war and peace, and an ongoing form of warfare suggests that the traditional understanding of war has been broadened beyond armed violence. These notions have been discussed for a longer while in the Russian military-theoretical debate, but they did not gain mainstream adoption until 2012-14.

This thesis describes mechanistic investigations into Mn(I)-mediated C–H bond activation and functionalisation processes, with an additional focus on the factors influencing the reactivity of the manganese complexes. Initially, an investigation into Mn(I)-catalysed C–H bond alkenylation of 2-phenylpyridines was performed, utilising the distinct IR bands of the manganese carbonyl species to monitor the catalyst in situ (Chapter 2). The mechanistic studies allowed for a comprehensive reaction mechanism to be derived, where pre-catalyst activation was found to be substrate-dependent, leading to two distinct pathways. Furthermore, two new catalytic cycles (involving protonation by the 2-phenylpyridine and water) were discovered, in addition to the confirmation of the previously proposed cycle. Time-Resolved InfraRed (TRIR) spectroscopy provided an opportunity to study the processes underpinning C–C bond formation in further detail, observing short-lived (0.5 ps – 1 ms) reaction intermediates and their respective kinetic behaviour (Chapter 3). Photochemical initiation led to the utilisation of a range of manganese complexes and unsaturated substrates. The uni- and bimolecular behaviour of the intermediates and their kinetics were probed from experiments diluted in toluene. Carboxylic acid additives were employed to increase the efficiency of Mn(I)-catalysis using terminal alkynes, while inhibiting reactions with acrylates (Chapter 4). Mechanistic studies revealed that a change in catalyst resting-state explains the different effects. TRIR spectroscopy allowed for the observation of the protonation by carboxylic acids, leading to an observation of the steps underpinning the CMD/AMLA-6 mechanism. Investigation into the fluorine-induced regioselectivity of Mn(I)-mediated C–H bond functionalisation of 2-phenylpyridines showed that the cyclomanganation reaction is kinetically driven and irreversible. Addition of benzoic acid led to a reversible mechanism, where the regioselectivity is thermodynamically controlled. It was additionally revealed that the regioselectivity likely arises from the relative thermodynamic stability of the manganacycles, where the trend follows the order: ortho > meta > para (with respect to the fluorine substituent).

The ancient continent of Sahul, encompassing Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania, contains some of the earliest archaeological evidence for humans outside of Africa, dating back to at least 50 thousand years ago (kya). New Guinea was also one of the sites were humans developed agriculture in the last 10 thousand years. Despite the importance of this part of the world to the history of humanity outside Africa, little is known about the population history of the people living here. In this thesis I present population-genetic studies using whole-genome sequencing and genotype array datasets from more than 500 indigenous individuals from Australia and New Guinea, as well as initial work on large-scale sequencing of other, worldwide, human populations in the Human Genome Diversity Project panel. Other than recent admixture after European colonization of Australia, and Southeast Asian ad- mixture in the lowlands of New Guinea in the last few millennia, the populations of Sahul appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence ∼50 kya. There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia, as previously suggested, and the highlands of Papua New Guinea (PNG) have remained unaffected by non-New Guinean gene flow until the present day. Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until ∼8 kya, different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already ∼30 kya. In PNG, all highlanders strikingly appear to form a clade relative to lowlanders, and population structure seems to have been reshaped, with major population size increases, on the same timescale as the spread of agriculture. However, present- day genetic differentiation between groups is much stronger in PNG than in other parts of the world that have also transitioned to agriculture, demonstrating that such a lifestyle change does not necessarily lead to genetic homogenization. The results presented here provide detailed insights into the population history of Sahul, and sug- gests that its history can serve as an independent source of evidence for understanding human evolutionary trajectories, including the relationships between genetics, lifestyle, languages and culture.

This thesis investigates Kipling's response to colonialism, capitalism and modernity, as a total system, and one that he engaged with in a critical and creative way. It does so by tracing the threads of incongruity and humour. This approach has been taken for a number of reasons. Firstly, Kipling's interest in the incongruous, appears not only in the material dealing with the colonial East, but extends throughout his writing career. Secondly, humour and incongruity are features that contribute to the aesthetic and ambivalence of Kipling's work, and their absence usually denotes a shift into a particularly dark and introspective register. Finally, incongruity and humour are rarely examined in Kipling's work (C. A. Bodelsen and J.M.S. Tompkins are rare exceptions), and their significance in his material has not been fully explored.

The [ReCl6]2-, [ReBr6]2- and [ReCl4(ox)]2- anions are crystallised with the organic 4,4’- bipyridinium dication (4,4-H2bipy). Magnetometry reveals exotic behaviour of the [4,4’- H2bipy][ReCl6] and [4,4’-H2bipy][ReBr6] salts which demonstrate spin-canting, antiferromagnetic exchange interactions and metamagnetism. Single crystal X-ray structures at T = 3, 14 and 20 K of the [4,4’-H2bipy][ReBr6] salt reveal the behaviour to be purely of magnetic origin as no structural changes are observed. For the [4,4’-H2bipy][ReCl4(ox)] compound an antiferromagnetic exchange interaction of 10.2 cm-1 between the anions is observed (Chapter 2). The complexes (NBu4)2[(ReCl5)2(μ-pyrazine)], (NBu4)2[(ReBr5)2(μ-pyrazine)], (NBu4)2[(ReBr5)2(μ-pyrimidine)] and (NBu4)2[(ReBr5)2(μ-triazine)] are structurally and magnetically characterised in Chapter 3. Magnetic measurements reveal the ReIV ions bridged by a 1,4-heterocyclic amine to exhibit strong antiferromagnetic coupling induced by the linearity of the bridging ligand. The two dimers bridged by a 1,3-heterocyclic amine exhibit intramolecular ferromagnetic exchange and at low temperature an intermolecular antiferromagnetic coupling is observed for the (NBu4)2[(ReBr5)2(μ-triazine)] complex due to the presence of short intermolecular Br···Br distances. Six molecular ReIVCuII chains of formula {[Cu(L)4][ReCl6]}n (L = imidazole, 1- methylimidazole, 1-vinylimidazole, 1-butylimidazole, 1-vinyl-1,2,4-triazole or dimethylformamide) are characterised structurally and magnetically in Chapter 4. SQUID magnetometry and theoretical calculations reveal the chains to exhibit ferromagnetic exchange interactions, which increase as the Re–Cl–Cu bond angle decreases. The {[Cu(vinylimidazole)4][ReCl6]}n chain exhibit magnetic order at TC = 2.4 K, and the {[Cu(imidazole)4][ReCl6]}n network exhibits ferrimagnetic behaviour. Eight complexes of the [ReCl6]2- and [ReBr6]2- anions crystallised with the [MII(L•)2]2+ (M = Fe, Co or Cu) or [Ni(L•)(CH3CN)3]2+ cations (L• = 4-dimethyl-2,2-di(2-pyridyl)oxazolidine N-oxide) are characterised structurally and magnetically in Chapter 5. The [Co(L•)2]2+ cation shows evidence of a gradual, thermally induced spin-crossover transition in variable-temperature magnetic and structural experiments. The [Ni(L•)(CH3CN)3]2+ cation show exchange of the coordinated acetonitrile molecules for atmospheric water upon drying. The nickel-radical magnetic coupling is ferromagnetic in all cases, demonstrating spin-canting behaviour with an ordering temperature of T = 2.7 K for the [ReCl6]2- based compound, and intermolecular antiferromagnetic exchange interactions for the [ReBr6]2- based complex.

This thesis is concerned with the development of the first electrochemical [11C]CO2 to [11C]CO reduction with the ultimate aim of generating a device that could not only carry out the initial conversion but also trap the subsequent product ([11C]CO) and release it in a controlled manner so that [11C]CO may become more widely adapted within the PET radiochemistry field. The opening chapter focusses on the use of PET for biomedical imaging with a particular focus on the cyclotron generated isotopes 18F, 13N, 15O and 11C and the current tracers in clinical use. The chapter will then address the shortage of tracers in the clinic made from [11C]CO2 and [11C]CO later discussing current research into utilising both of these gases and the challenges that arise for using [11C]CO as a precursor. Chapter 2 begins by introducing electrochemical CO2 reduction and the current state of the art as far as both homogeneous and heterogeneous CO2 reduction are concerned. Building on the work already done on Ni(cyclam), the results section will begin exploring Ni(cyclam)'s ability to poison itself with CO and release it over time with a gas chromatography study. This will be followed by discussion about the benefits and disadvantages of using a Zn(cyclen) catalyst which was used for the first time as a CO2 reduction catalyst. Chapter 3 shows a solid support gold coated nanoparticle being used for CO2 reduction. The catalysts trialled in Chapter 2 and 3 are then used in the radiochemistry lab in chapter 4 to convert [11C]CO2 to [11C]CO in aqueous conditions and converted the [11C]CO to [11C]N-benzylbenzamide using a two vial set-up. This demonstrated the first electrochemical conversion in a PET chemistry setting. Trapping of [11C]CO2 within the electrochemical cell was improved by adding base before adding acid to release it. Improvements were sort by altering the electrode set-up and moving to organic solvents. Chapter 5 describes the synthesis and characterisation of known and novel porphyrin and corrole complexes with local proton sources designed in the ligand to help CO2 reduction in organic solvents. A selection of these were then solid supported onto a carbon black electrode in chapter 6 and trialled as CO2 reduction catalysts and potential ability as a reversible CO store in preparation for further radiochemical experiments.

The search for physics Beyond the Standard Model is the underlying motivation for the physics programme of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. In this thesis we will present studies into the Large Hadron Collider phenomenology of dark matter inspired extensions to the Standard Model, di-Higgs + 2 jet (hhjj) production, CP violating effects in the Higgs sector, and the use of shape information from top polarisation measurements in searches for new physics. Full scans of the parameter space of Simplified Dark Matter models are demonstrated to be viable and allow for intriguing comparisons to relic density constraints. Strongly self-interacting dark sectors are shown to leave a potentially measurable imprint on the energy scaling of mediator production. The weak boson fusion induced production of hhjj turns out to be sensitive to a number of new physics effects, including CP violation in the Higgs sector. The use of top polarisation measurements to discover new physics which predicts polarised resonances is shown to be an effective way to ameliorate the loss of shape information for kinematically challenging regions of parameter space.

Background Donor lungs not deemed suitable for immediate transplantation may be reconditioned using ex-vivo lung perfusion (EVLP). The objective identification of which donor lungs can be successfully reconditioned and will function well post-transplant has not yet been established. Aim To characterise physiological, microbiological, and immunological changes during clinical EVLP and evaluate their association with transplant outcome and cellular changes during perfusion. Methods In two cohorts of rejected donor lungs undergoing clinical EVLP, microbial load in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) and markers of inflammation and tissue injury in perfusate, BAL, and lung tissue were examined. An in vitro model of neutrophil adherence to lung vasculature was used to evaluate endothelial activation in response to perfusate fluid. Results In consecutive cohorts, bacterial loads in BAL were significantly reduced after EVLP with high-dose antibiotics in the perfusate. Yeast loads increased when no anti-fungal treatment was given, but were reduced when prophylactic anti-fungal treatment was added. The most effective markers to differentiate in-hospital Survival from Non-survival post-transplant were perfusate IL-lp (AUC=1.00, p=0.002) and TNF-a (AUC=0.95, p=0.006) after 30 minutes of EVLP.

This thesis explores the determinants of tax evasion and their implications for tax policy, with a special focus on taxation in developing countries. Chapter 1 studies how the transition from self-employment to employee-jobs over the long run of development explains the rise of the modern tax system. I construct a new microdataset, covering 90 countries at all levels of development today and 140 years within the US between 1870 and 2010. Using these data, I provide new stylized facts: within country, the share of employees increases over the income distribution, and increases at all levels of income as a country develops; 2) the income tax exemption threshold moves down the income distribution as a country develops tracking employee growth. I provide a causal estimate of the impact of employee-share on the exemption threshold and on tax revenue, by studying a state-led development program which was implemented across US states in the 1950s-60s. I find that the exogenous increase in employee share is associated with a lower state income tax threshold and higher revenue. Chapter 2 studies individual and social motives in tax evasion. We build a dynamic model that incorporates these motives, their interactions, and where social motives underpin the role of norms. Our empirical analysis exploits the adoption in 1990 of a poll tax to fund local government in the UK, which led to widespread evasion, and a series of natural experiments due to narrow election outcomes, which induce shifts into single-majority local governments and lead to more vigorous enforcement of local taxes. The econometric results are consistent with the model’s main predictions on the dynamics of evasion. Chapter 3 studies the impact of access to formal finance and firm size on tax inspection and tax compliance. We use firm-level data on 108,000 firms across 79 countries in the World Bank Enterprise Surveys. We instrument for finance and firm size at the industry-level using an out of sample extrapolation strategy related. We find a large and positive effect of firm size on both tax inspection and sales tax compliance, but no overall significant impact of reliance on external finance.

This thesis analyses inequalities in access to Higher Education (HE) in England. In particular, it provides new evidence about this issue in three major ways. First, it estimates the family income gradient in university participation overall, and at a group of high status institutions. It also analyses the income gradient in university applications. While there are substantial income gradients in university attendance, and attendance at high status institutions, most of these differences are driven by application decisions, particularly once we control for 'ability' at age 11. This suggests that universities do not discriminate against students from poorer backgrounds; such students are less likely to apply. Second, it assesses the role of socio-economic status in explaining changes in university expectations across the teenage years. It analyses transitions in young people's expectations from being 'likely to apply' to being 'unlikely to apply' and vice versa, using dura on modelling techniques. Young people's socio-economic background has a significant association with changes in expectations, even controlling for prior academic attainment and other potential confounding factors. This suggests more could usefully be done to maintain the educational expectations of academically able young people from less advantaged families. Finally, it looks at the impact of aptitude tests as a screening device for entry to elite universities by looking at the effect on the proportion of successful applicants by school type (state versus private) and gender. The es mates are obtained by applying a difference in differences approach to administrative data from the University of Oxford. Although introducing the test increased the proportion of interviewees getting an offer overall, this is not the case for women. Nevertheless, the policy has no apparent effect on the overall chances of applicants being offered a place by school type or gender.

This study reconstructs the main strategic narratives of the war on terrorism, as they appeared in American editorials. The study analyses 1002 selected editorials from five major news outlets in America. The analysis is structured around six salient events in the war on terrorism: the 9/11 attacks, the Iraq invasion, President Bush’s re-election, the Iraqi surge, Barack Obama replacing Bush, and Osama bin Laden’s death. The study also tests critical hypotheses from the literature on media, war and support. Are the media left to echo the rhetoric of the elites as wars break out? Or do media organizations develop independent news frames about wars as they progress? This study finds that the literature rightly favors the persuasive power of elite rhetoric early on in conflicts. Yet, important exceptions to this pattern are found. The study challenges the notion of elite rhetoric dominating news coverage through the case of The Wall Street Journal’s editorializing of war with Iraq. The Journal supported war with Iraq before the Bush administration. They called for toppling Saddam Hussein right after the 9/11 attacks. Therefore, the Bush administration adopted the Journal’s position, and not the other way around. Additionally, the study argues that Obama ended the war on terrorism, and the study considers the killing of Osama bin Laden to demarcate the end of America’s war on terrorism. The study also documents the emergence of a torture narrative that hijacked the war on terrorism, rendering it of limited use to Obama. The media were crucial in developing this narrative. This also challenges elite rhetoric domination. The study concludes that the home front is of increased importance due to new media realities. The dissertation shows that right after 9/11, the news outlets were overwhelmingly unison in their support for the war on terrorism. They openly called on Americans to sacrifice and support the war. With the Iraq war, unity and public support was fractured along ideological lines, resulting in a War at Home.

A growing body of research points to the value of multiple group memberships for individual well-being. However, much of this work considers group memberships very broadly and in terms of number alone, and in so doing, advances an argument that when it comes to group memberships, more is better. We conducted five studies to delve further into this idea. Specifically, across these studies we considered how different features of groups may impact on how group memberships combine with one another and affect individual well-being. In two correlational studies, we found that multiple group membership indeed contributed to well-being, but also that this effect was moderated by the distinctiveness of those groups within the overall self-concept (Study 1), and by the social value and visibility of individual group memberships (i.e., stigma; Study 2). In both studies, these effects were mediated by perceived access to social support and by the reported ability to engage in identity expression (i.e., to communicate to others who one “really is”). Across another three studies we experimentally demonstrated that multiple group membership increased well-being and resilience to stress (Study 3 and 4), but only when the given groups were perceived as compatible in nature (Study 3 and 5). Together, these studies suggest that the benefits of multiple group membership depend on factors that go beyond their sheer number. Indeed, the content and social meaning of group memberships, individually and in combination, and the way in which these features guide self-expression and social action, determine whether multiple group memberships are a benefit or a burden for individual well-being and resilience.

The purpose of this thesis is to draw attention to the special characteristics of the outcome of psychotherapy through qualitative research. The thesis explores a phenomenological and hermeneutic enquiry into the lived experience of psychotherapy in terms of learning outcomes. This includes both Existential therapy (ET) and Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and their possible differences and similarities. I can describe learning as any experiential change that occurs in the participants understanding as result of the therapy in which they participate. Learning outcomes are concerned with the achievements of the learner rather than the intentions of the educator, as expressed in the objectives of an educational effort. The thesis uses Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) as a qualitative method to explore meanings of the learning phenomenon generated from themes found in transcripts of semi-structured interviews from twelve participants with an equal length of short time client experience of psychotherapy. That is, six participants who had attended CBT and six participants who had attended ET. Consistent themes from the data indicate that, overall, psychotherapy helps clients to enhance general learning in three major domains: (1) Self and life; (2) Thinking, acting and feeling; (3) Relationships with others. The data also indicates that ET overall helps clients to enhance particular learning of authenticity and insight into self, life and relationships with others with courage, engagement and freedom in an open and personal approach to difficulties and life issues. Furthermore, the data indicates that CBT overall helps the client to enhance particular learning of self-capability and self-esteem with independence in self-chosen relationships and capabilities for organized and appropriate approach to difficulties and life issues. Thus, ET is more oriented towards learning authenticity and self-positioning in life, whereas CBT is more oriented towards learning capabilities for organized and appropriate ways of thinking, acting and feeling. This research points to the value of the learning perspective for therapeutic practice and facilitates a model of psychotherapeutic learning with an understanding of learning outcomes based on motivational learning, learning to do with previous experiences, learning design for process, the therapeutic learning relationship and the educational role of the psychotherapist.

It has been established that placing the C57BL6/J mouse on a high fat diet induces obesity and impaired glucose homeostasis, and produces a model that is pathophysiologically relevant to the human condition of the metabolic syndrome. The cardiovascular changes in this model have been relatively poorly explored. I have focussed my work on understanding the effects of this diet on cardiac function using in vivo cardiac functional assessment in combination with in vitro analysis of intact single cardiomyocyte dynamics and Ca2+ handling, as well as demembranated left ventricle trabeculae for the study of myofilament function. High fat diet caused increased left ventricular end diastolic pressure after 30 weeks as assessed by in vivo pressure catheterisation. This change was associated with, increased passive tension in demembranated trabeculae at 30 w, increased collagen 3 expression on mRNA level and increased total tissue collagen from high fat diet after 40 weeks. Reversion to normal diet for 10 weeks had no discernible effect on whole organ function compared with animals continually fed with the high fat diet, despite body fat content and glucose homeostasis becoming normalised. Isolated cardiomyocytes exhibited increased relaxation rate after 40 weeks which was partly reversed by a return to normal diet. The increased cardiomyocyte relaxation rate occurred without changes to the intracellular Ca2+ transient, thus suggesting it may be caused by altered myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity. There was no established decreased myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity seen in demembranated trabeculae at week 40, even though trends were seen towards increased phosphorylation of serines 23/24 of cardiac troponin I, a modification known to induce Ca2+ desensitisation. It is concluded that high fat diet feeding in the C57BL6/J mouse is a mild but valid model for studying the effects on cardiac function of obesity and impaired glucose handling. It results in impaired diastolic function at the whole organ level after 30 weeks feeding. This effect is likely principally caused by extracellular deposition of collagen (which reduces compliance) rather than by changes at the cardiomyocyte level. This whole organ diastolic alteration appears to become established, not responding to dietary fat reduction. The increased relaxation rate of cardiomyocytes more likely originates from changes at the myofilament level as opposed to Ca2+ handling although this could not be statistically verified in this study. As high fat diet feeding was found to increase myocardial NADPH oxidase activity, myofilament function was also assessed in a mouse model of NADPH oxidase 2 over-expression. NADPH oxidase 2 over-expression was found to cause myofilament sensitisation to Ca2+ and increased actomyosin cross bridge cycling rate at maximum Ca2+ activation. This was associated with an increased total phosphorylation of cardiac troponin I independent of phosphorylation of serines 23/24. This finding may represent a new signalling pathway linking NADPH oxidase 2 activity to contractile activation via the myofilament but appears opposite to myofilament changes induced by high fat diet feeding.

As existing research on leader-follower value similarity and leader-member exchange (LMX) has shown varying results, this thesis has set out to explore whether the relationship between work values, LMX and work outcomes could be examined using another approach. Building on person-environment fit and discrepancy theories of job satisfaction research, this thesis proposes that similarity between the leader’s and the follower’s work values (work value similarity) and the leader’s fulfilment of the follower’s work values (work value fulfilment) are positively related to LMX and work outcomes (follower’s satisfaction with the leader, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, task performance and organisational citizenship behaviour). Related to this, it is proposed that LMX plays a mediating role on the relationship between work value similarity and work outcomes, just as LMX is proposed to play a mediating role on the relationship between work value fulfilment and work outcomes. Furthermore, it is proposed that work value fulfilment compared to work value similarity is more strongly related to LMX. To test the hypothesised relationships, two studies were conducted at a consumer products manufacturer in the UK and Denmark. The first study is cross-sectional and consists of 167 followers from the UK. The second study is longitudinal and data for this study were collected in two waves with a five-month interval from followers and leaders in Denmark. At time 1, the longitudinal study had a sample of 468 followers, of which 206 were rated by their immediate manager. At time 2 the study had a sample of 316 followers, of which 140 were rated by their immediate manager. Work value similarity and work value fulfilment were measured using direct and indirect measures of congruence, and the thesis uses structural equation modelling, relative weight analysis, and polynomial regression analysis. Across the studies, the thesis has generally found support for the hypothesised relationships. Findings of the thesis show that work value similarity and work value fulfilment are positively related to LMX and work outcomes, and that LMX plays a mediating role on the relationship between work value similarity and work outcomes, just as LMX plays a mediating role on the relationship between work value fulfilment and work outcomes. Furthermore, findings show that work value fulfilment compared to work value similarity is more strongly related to LMX. Generally, the results have been found by using crosssectional and longitudinal data, single-source and multi-source data, direct and indirect measures of congruence, and by using different advanced approaches for studying congruence. The implications of these findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Environmental Innovation is seen as vital for sustainable futures. Knowledge about environmental innovation is sought in various contexts and recent thinking recognizes this as a process that unfolds in time and space. Environmental innovation journeys are therefore the subject of a growing literature. However, little is known about how environmental innovation journeys actually proceed in various contexts, how we might make sense of these and intervene to attain more sustainable futures. This thesis begins to address this gap in knowledge. It reports ethnographic research undertaken to explore an environmental innovation journey situated in a firm from the UK food and farming sector. Data were collected from multiple sources via multiple methods including participant observation and semi-structured interviews. This thesis shows that the environmental innovation journey is non-linear, involving temporary fixes and is reversible. This insight accords with recent constructivist accounts of environrnental innovation. Inspired by the work of John Law, these were drawn upon to make sense of the environmental innovation journey without compromising reality. Seen in this way, environmental innovation journeys involve developing, maintaining and deleting situated practices. This involves processes that are shaped by competing environmental discourses, which manifest in the firm as storylines and images of performances required of practices. Thus, the contribution of this thesis is to offer an approach to making sense of environmental innovation journeys, which may be used in other contexts and which can be adapted as appropriate by actors involved.

Having spent several years working as part of a multi-disciplinary team treating people with diabetes who had severe foot problems and, subsequently, in a more peripheral role establishing a strategy to implement a preventative diabetic foot health awareness programme, it became apparent that there was a gap in the literature with regard to individual perspectives, understanding and lay knowledge of . diabetes and foot health. Whist the development, complications, economic burden and treatment of diabetes has been well researched, the effect of diabetes on patients' lives and patients' perceptions of their illness are areas of research that are still in their infancy (Williams and Airey, 2000). This is particularly the case for those who are classified as currently being at low risk of ulceration: they are almost invisible in the current body of literature on foot care and prevention of complications. This gap is the impetus behind this qualitative study that explores the accounts and perspectives that people with diabetes (and low risk of developing ulcers) hold with regard to their foot health. The research, based on 23 semi-structured interviews, investigates the factors which affect an individual's capacity to act with regard to foot health and foot self-care. It reveals that people negotiate and shape their diabetes self management priorities through their experiences of the health care system, interactions with healthcare professionals, and their concerns about living with diabetes on a day-to-day basis. These experiences, in turn , influence their attitudes towards foot health and foot self-care. A better understanding of individual needs and expectations of foot health advice and care is required in order to enhance the available provision, education and guidance in this field. A truly collaborative approach between healthcare professionals and people with diabetes is required if foot health outcomes and preventative foot care practices are to be improved

The amount of biomedical literature available is increasing at an exponential rate and is becoming increasingly difficult to navigate. Text-mining methods can potentially mitigate this problem, through the systematic and large-scale extraction of structured information from inherently unstructured biomedical text. This thesis reports the development of four text-mining systems that, by building on each other, has enabled the extraction of information about a large number of published statements in the biomedical literature. The first system, LINNAEUS, enables highly accurate detection ('recognition') and identification ('normalization') of species names in biomedical articles. Building on LINNAEUS, we implemented a range of improvements in the GNAT system, enabling high-throughput gene/protein detection and identification. Using gene/protein identification from GNAT, we developed the Gene Expression Text Miner (GETM), which extracts information about gene expression statements. Finally, building on GETM as a pilot project, we constructed the BioContext integrated event extraction system, which was used to extract information about over 11 million distinct biomolecular processes in 10.9 million abstracts and 230,000 full-text articles. The ability to detect negated statements in the BioContext system enables the preliminary analysis of potential contradictions in the biomedical literature. All tools (LINNAEUS, GNAT, GETM, and BioContext) are available under open-source software licenses, and LINNAEUS and GNAT are available as online web-services. All extracted data (36 million BioContext statements, 720,000 GETM statements, 72,000 contradictions, 37 million mentions of species names, 80 million mentions of gene names, and 57 million mentions of anatomical location names) is available for bulk download. In addition, the data extracted by GETM and BioContext is also available to biologists through easy-to-use search interfaces.

This thesis is concerned with how the ecological approach to perception with the inclusion of listening modes, informs the creation of sound art installation, or more specifically as referred to in this thesis as constructed sound environments. The basis for the thesis has been a practiced based research where the aim and purpose of the written part of this PhD project has been to critically investigate the area of sound art, in order to map various approaches towards participating in and listening to a constructed sound environment. The main areas has been the notion of affordance as coined by James J. Gibson (1986), listening modes as coined by Pierre Schaeffer (1966) and further developed by Michel Chion (1994), aural architects as coined by Blesser and Salter (2007) and the holistic approach towards understanding sound art developed by Brandon LaBelle (2006). The findings within the written part of the thesis, based on a qualitative analysis, have informed the practice that has resulted in artefacts in the form of seven constructed sound environments that also functions as case studies for further analysis. The aim of the practice has been to exemplify the methodology, strategy and progress behind the organisation and construction of sound environments The research concerns points towards the acknowledgment of affordance as the crucial factor in understanding a constructed sound environment. The affordance approach govern the idea that perceiving a sound environment is a top-down process where the autonomic quality of a constructed sound environment is based upon the perception of structures of the sound material and its relationship with speaker placement and surrounding space. This enables a researcher to side step the conflicting poles of musical/abstract and non-musical/realistic classification of sound elements and regard these poles as included, not separated elements in the analysis of a constructed sound environment.

The overarching topic of this dissertation is the semantics and pragmatics of definite descriptions. It focuses on the question whether sentences such as ‘the king of France is bald’ literally assert the existence of a unique king (and therefore are false) or simply presuppose the existence of such a king (and thus fail to express propositions). One immediate obstacle to resolving this question is that immediate truth value judgments about such sentences (sentences with non-denoting descriptions) are particularly unstable; some elicit a clear intuition of falsity whereas others simply seem awkward or strange. Because of these variations, truth value judgments are generally considered unreliable. In the first chapter of the dissertation, an explanation of this phenomenon is developed. It is observed that when these types of sentences are considered in the context of a discourse, a systematic pattern in judgments emerges. This pattern, it is argued, should be explained in terms of certain pragmatic factors, e.g. whether a speaker’s utterance is interpreted as cooperative. A detailed and general explanation of the phenomenon is then presented which draws importantly on recent research in the semantics and pragmatics of questions and focus. It is shown that the behavior of these judgments can be systematically explained, that truth value judgments are not as unreliable as standardly assumed, and that the proposed explanation best supports the conclusion that definite descriptions presuppose rather than assert existence. In the second chapter, the following problem is investigated. If definite descriptions are assumed to literally assert existence, a sentence such as ‘Hans wants the ghost in his attic to be quiet’ is incorrectly predicted to be true only if Hans wants there to be a (unique) ghost in his attic. This prediction is often considered evidence against Russell’s quantificational analysis and evidence in favor of the referential analysis of Frege and Strawson. Against this claim, it is demonstrated that this problem is a general problem about the existence commitments of natural language determiners, i.e. not an argument in favor of a referential analysis. It is shown that in order to avoid these undesirable predictions, quite radical changes to the semantic framework are required. For example, it must be assumed that a sentence of the form ‘The F is G’ has the open sentence ‘x is G’ as its asserted content. A uniform quantificational and presuppositional analysis of definites and indefinites is outlined which by exploiting certain features of so-called dynamic semantics unproblematically assumes that the asserted contents indeed are open sentences. In view of the proposed quantificational/presuppositional analysis, the dissertation is concluded by a rejection of the argument put forward by Reimer (1998) and Devitt (2004) that definite descriptions are ambiguous between attributive (quantificational) and referential (indexical) uses. Reimer and Devitt’s argument is (in contrast to Donnellan, 1966) based primarily on the assumption that definite descriptions are conventionally used to communicate singular thoughts and that the conventional meaning of a definite description therefore must be fundamentally indexical/directly referential. I argue that this argument relies crucially on tacit assumptions about semantic processing for which no empirical evidence is provided. I also argue that the argument is too general; if sound, it would be an argument for an indexical treatment of most, if not all, other determiners. I then conclude by demonstrating that the view does not explain any new data and thus has no clear motivation. In short, this dissertation provides a detailed pragmatic explanation of a long-standing puzzle about truth value judgments and then outlines a novel dynamic semantic analysis of definites and indefinites. This analysis solves a significant problem about existence commitments — a problem that neither Russell’s nor the Frege/Strawson analysis are equipped to handle. This analysis is then defended against the claim that definite descriptions are ambiguous.

Multi-product bundles are defined as two or more different products that are available for purchase as one single product. Multi-product bundling is becoming increasingly common in the food retail market; however research to date on how consumers evaluate multi-product food bundles is limited. Therefore, food choice and product bundle choice were identified as key bodies of knowledge, to which research on this topic could contribute. The aim of the research was: "to investigate how consumers evaluate selected multi-product food bundles" and to fulfil this aim, a mixed method approach was adopted involving a preliminary in-store survey and three main studies encompassing a quantitative questionnaire study (n=452), a quantitative experiment (n= 150) and a qualitative focus group study (n=32), which included a decision-mapping exercise (n=31). In analysing the findings, a factor analysis revealed that consumers take eight factors into account when evaluating selected multi-product food bundles. The most important evaluation factors were centred on the taste and bundle components and bundle convenience. Based on a literature review, a theory-driven model for the relationships between evaluation factors and multi-product food bundle desirability was developed and successfully tested through structural equation modelling. The experiment added that constituent products included in the bundles were found to affect the evaluations to a significant degree. The focus group study underpinned the findings from the two other studies and added that multi-product food bundle evaluation processes generally were sequential and consisted of two to four evaluation stages. A combination of these findings was integrated into a comprehensive model outlining three dimensions of multi-product food bundle evaluations. This research significantly contributes to the knowledge on multi-product bundles and has generated unique information for both product developers and retailers, which could inform future promotional strategies and enable consumer research in relation to the effects of multi- product bundling in the food sector.

Summary This thesis is an evaluation of Roman light infantry and non-pitched battle combat in the Roman army, from the years 264 BC – AD 235. This study incorporates a thorough etymological assessment of the Latin and Greek vocabulary of light infantry, and how the ancient sources use these terms. Building on this assessment, this thesis then includes a discussion on defining Roman light infantry. From this follows an analysis of the various modes of combat of these troops, including skirmishing, ambushing, small-scale engagements. A ‘face of battle’ approach (after John Keegan) assessing the nature and experience of the various forms of warfare mentioned above is also included.

Reflecting on fieldwork carried out in the UK insurance sector, the thesis explores the role played by various types of actuarial and hydrological expertise in the performance of flooding as a matter of sustained public concern. In doing so, the question is raised: what analytical status to give the concept of risk when accounting for the epistemic doings involved in bringing yet unrealised future floods to bear on the present? Contrary to most other European countries the provision of flood insurance in the UK is left to the market and organised via an agreement under which insurers pledge to provide cover in areas protected by the Government to a standard of 1:75 years (the average return period between floods). What should be taken into account when mapping out this 1:75 year flood zone is subject to debates constantly revitalised by flood events with changing characteristics as well as new ways of modelling and anticipating what has yet to take place. How should we understand the knowledge claims hardwired into these debates through the involvement of actuarial and hydrological expertise? The thesis will argue that a reorientation of flood risk away from a status as the (multiple) object of these claims towards a status as an event in which a diverse variety of other things are brought into being (maps, futures, frequencies, anxieties, publics, geographies, things which are not necessarily very well understood as risk per se), will give rise to more productive and eventful questions. In the terminology of Isabelle Stengers, to risk is to create the possibility of bringing new things to life – the risking of floods seems to be constantly exciting such creativities.

In this thesis I attempt to bring out some interesting implications of Plato’s political thought as it is presented in the Politicus. In particular, I will show how this dialogue provides a new picture of the relation between ruler and ruled; a picture that stresses the importance and responsibility of every citizen, not just of the statesman himself. This is achieved by an analysis of the notion of political craftsmanship envisaged by the main speaker of the dialogue, the Eleatic Stranger. However, before I turn to consider the Politicus itself, I provide a brief presentation of another Platonic craftsman, the demiurge of the Timaeus. As will be clear, the teleological structure, and the accompanying terminology, of his craftsmanship will mirror that of the true statesman and thus help us understand the latter’s political rule. My choice to focus on this aspect of the Politicus is motivated by the text itself. For the question of the kind of craftsmanship involved in political rule is picturesquely, yet effectively, brought to the fore by the myth in the early parts of the dialogue, which distinguishes between two rival conceptions and associates the statesman with one of them. I conclude by reflecting on the significance of my findings for Plato’s political thought as a whole.

Three new NILT genes were successfully cloned and characterized from rainbow trout, with one NILT alternatively spliced into a long isoform containing two Ig domains and a short isoform containing one Ig domain.  The expression of NILTs was studied in six different tissues and two different cell lines, with expression apparent in immunologically important tissues.  Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis showed that NILTs are more closely related to triggering receptor expressed on myeloid (TREM) cells and Nkp44 from humans than to NITRs from rainbow trout. The genomic organisation and structure of the multigene family of NILTs in Atlantic salmon was investigated using a BAC sequencing approach.  This revealed the presence of six novel NILT genes, which either contained one or two Ig domains and several immunoreceptors tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIMs) in the cytoplasmic region. By homology search two NILT-like genes in zebrafish (Danio rerio) located on chromosome 1 have been obtained. Chromosome 1 in zebrafish also contains the Dare-ZE genes, which are equivalent to the human MHC class I genes located on chromosome 6.  The distance between the later and the TREM genes on chromosome 6 is similar to the distance between the NILT-like genes and Dare-ZE genes on zebrafish chromosome 1.  In addition, two NILT-like Ig domains were obtained from the green spotted pufferfish (Tetraodon nigroviridis), putatively part of the same receptor. The results will contribute to our knowledge of the immune system in fish and provide useful information for the control of inflammatory processes in salmonids.

Mass analysed ion kinetic energy (MIKE) spectra following collisions have been recorded using a double focusing mass spectrometer with 5 kV acceleration voltage. Metal complexes studied were formed by pick-up of metal atoms in mixed argon/solvent clusters made by supersonic expansion. DFT calculations were used to rationalise experimental data. Complexes of the form MLn+ where M = Mg, Ca, Mn, Cu, and Zn while L = NH3, CO2, benzene, pyridine, acetonitrile, and acetone have been collided with O2 and MgLn+ also with CO2, N2O, acetonitrile, and benzene. Complexes with few ligands are the most prone to oxidation due to their high speed which facilitates electron transfer. Calculated electron affinities, Mulliken populations, and natural bond orbitals of collision gases were used to rationalise electron transfer trends. Collision gases trap electrons more efficiently if they have π-bonds or adjacent electronegative atoms. Metal complex and molecular dications were collided with H2 and O2 to determine the stability of their reduced products. No systematic differences were found between collisions with the two gases at the collision energies examined. The fate of monocations formed in collision depends on their relaxation energy and the dissociation energy of relaxed monocations. LZ theory was unable to explain MIKE spectra. Metal complexes MLn+ and MLn2+ were collided with O2 to determine the propensity to form MXLn-m+ where M = Mg, Ca, Mn, Cu, and Zn while L = CH3X with X = F and Cl. Reactivity is determined by the IE of MLn+ which decrease with increasing n. Dications due to their high dissociation energy are much more likely to react as they can have enough internal energy to overcome potential barriers.

In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century a large and complex English literature on the Ottoman Turks developed, characterised by its diversity in form, content, opinion and context. This was a literature in the sense of a large body of texts sharing a topic, written in a similar time and place and in similar context, but also in the sense of a discourse, sharing literary conventions, citing similar sources, recycling information, accepted ‘facts’, anecdotes and images and drawing upon the same authorities. I examine this literature from its sixteenth-century roots, tracing its growth at the turn of the seventeenth century and its development into a complex literature, influenced by English religious and political contexts as well as growing Anglo-Ottoman trade and diplomacy, until the dramatic changes brought by diminishing Ottoman power in Europe at the close of that century. I draw these sources together as a ‘literature’, by examining trends, chronological developments and connections between them, while on the other hand I focus upon the contexts of individual works and a nuanced reading of their representations of the Ottomans. Through this I seek to bring a broader and more balanced perspective on both English literature on the Ottomans as a whole and the diversity and complexity of the works of which it was comprised.

Clear changes occurred in the field of conventional arms control in the last two decades. States adopted a multitude of norms on especially small arms control in various multilateral control instruments. In addition, non-governmental advocacy actors often established themselves as active participants in control debates with governments. The changes are surprising because they took place in the security sphere and therewith in an area traditionally understood to be the exclusive domain of governments. This research project investigates the significance of the changes for the traditional understanding of security governance. Specifically, it investigates the emergence of control norms and the role and policy impact of non-governmental actors in the promotion of the norms. It asks whether the normative changes and significance of nongovernmental actors therein challenge the understanding of security governance that underpins many established approaches to international relations theory.