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The World Health Organization and World Bank (2011) estimate that there are more than 1 billion people with disabilities in the world. To address this population's diverse needs, the United Nations drafted their Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in 2006. Article 24 (Education) of the CRPD requires ratifying countries to develop an inclusive education system to address the educational needs of students with disabilities alongside their peers without disabilities. Despite substantive improvements and movement toward inclusive education, many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) continue to struggle with accurately identifying and supporting students with disabilities, including knowing how to effectively screen, evaluate, and qualify students for additional services (Hayes, Dombrowski, Shefcyk, & Bulat, 2018a). These challenges stem from the lack of policies, practices, and qualified staff related to screening and identification. As a result, many students with less-apparent disabilities--such as children with learning disabilities--remain unidentified and do not receive the academic supports they need to succeed in school (Friend & Bursuck, 2012). This guide attempts to address the lack of appropriate, useful disability screening and identification systems and services as countries look to educate all students in inclusive settings. Specifically, this guide introduces viable options for screening and identification related to vision, hearing, and learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms in LMICs. It also provides guidance on how LMICs can transition from an assessment-center model toward a school-based identification model that better serves an inclusive education system.

This study examines the impact of the Asian financial crisis on children in Indonesia. Data from four rounds of the 100 Villages Survey are used to examine changes in school attendance rates, child labor force participation, and health status. These data cover over 120 households in each of 100 villages around Indonesia and were collected prior to the crisis in May 1997 and three times after the onset of the crisis. Also examined are ways in which households report they are coping with the crisis. Findings show little evidence that the crisis has had a dramatic negative impact on children. School attendance dropped slightly after the onset of the crisis but has since rebounded to higher than pre-crisis levels. Fewer children are now working, although the older children who are working and are not attending school seem to be working longer hours. Comparisons of child health status indicators over time are complicated by changes in the questionnaire but appear to be relatively stable. Ongoing monitoring is necessary, however, because the impact on children may only be observed in the long run after households' financial resources have been completely depleted and several years of hardship have impacted on health. (Includes 21 notes. Contains 4 figures, 6 tables, an annex table, and 10 references.) (Author/BT)

This study used internationally comparable household datasets to investigate the interaction of gender and wealth in generating within-country inequalities in educational enrollment and attainment. Data from 57 Demographic and Health Surveys in 41 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific were used to carry out country-specific analyses. Specifically, the effects of gender, household wealth (asset ownership and housing characteristics), the education of adult household members, and the presence of schools in the community on the educational outcomes of children were assessed in each country and compared across countries. Analyses were repeated using only rural data. A large female disadvantage in education was found in countries of western, central, and northern Africa and southern Asia. While gender gaps in education were large in a subset of countries, wealth gaps in education were large in almost all countries studied. Also, in some countries wealth and gender interacted to exacerbate the gender gap among the poor. The education of adults in the household significantly impacted the enrollment of children in all countries, and the effect of female adult education was larger than that of males in some countries. The presence of a primary and a secondary school in the community significantly influenced enrollment in some countries, notably in western and central Africa, and the effect did not differ by child's gender. In most countries, rural results were similar to those from the total sample. (Contains 26 references and many data tables and figures.) (SV)

An outline is provided for a 3-day unit of instruction in the area of development education. The unit has been implemented in several hundred Danish schools and aims to (1) teach children about other children's lives and conditions while increasing awareness of their own situation, (2) convey to pupils that all children have some basic needs that must be met if they are to live a decent life, (3) instruct children that the basic needs of all children are not being met and that rich societies must change if the conditions of children in poor societies are to improve, and (4) point out that basic requirements also encompass some nonmaterial needs. Activities are listed for each day. These include brainstorming sessions conducted in classes as large as those in many developing countries and practical activities such as mending clothes to be sent to refugee camps and setting up a "civic restaurant" to sell food and pure water to raise money for UNICEF programs. (RH)

These guidelines for school location planning (SLP) provide a methodology for countries borrowing from the World Bank for the purpose of expanding and improving their education systems. The discussion is presented in four major sections. In Section A SLP is defined more exactly, and examples are given to illustrate the range of situations in which it can make a major contribution. Sections B and C examine the complementary roles of national and local planning respectively. At the national scale the program ensures the establishment of a set of norms regarding schools and their location and allocates resource expenditures between local authorities. The local educational authorities then apply these norms to generate a rational school map. In the concluding Section D of the guidelines, these two major components are brought together in a discussion of a possible administrative and implementation structure. Appendices include a description of SLP in four recent World Bank financed projects, together with a review of the state of existing knowledge on the journey-to-school and its effects on attendance, dropout, and performance in primary schools. Sources of and job descriptions for technical assistance in this field are also given. (Author/MLF)

In Bangladesh gross and net enrolment rates are used to measure overage and underage enrolment in the education system. However, due to the limits of these methods in exploring the issue of age in grade, the paper uses the CREATE Community and School Survey (COMSS) data from Bangladesh. COMSS was a longitudinal survey of 6,696 households with 9,045 children of 4-15 years old in 2007 and 2009. The paper shows that 69.4 percent of 6-15 year old children, enrolled in primary and secondary schools in 2007 are age in grade incongruent and that in the early grades of primary school this proportion is even higher. Age in grade incongruent children come from relatively low income families and have relatively poor health. Age in grade incongruent children attend school irregularly and perform worse than the congruent children of the same grade. Less than 50 percent of primary Grade 1, 2 and 3 children progress to the next grade on time. Slow progressing children also come from relatively low income families, have relatively poor health and inadequate learning materials compared to regularly progressing children of their grade group. The slow progressing children attend school irregularly compared to the regularly progressing group and get less primary school stipend money. Both these age in grade incongruent and slow progressing children are increasing the number of "silently excluded" children in classrooms. (Contains 5 tables and 17 figures.)

The main objective of the study is to gain an understanding on educational expenditure at primary and secondary levels in Bangladesh. In estimating educational expenditure by source, it has been sought to determine: (1) sources of financing of primary and secondary education; (2) rural-urban variation; (3) variation between boys and girls; (4) variation between types of educational institutions; and (5) variation among students with respect to socio-economic conditions of their families. The focus of the survey is on the students drawn from government and non-government schools, madrashas, and community (at primary level only) schools located in both rural and urban areas. The reference period is the calendar year 2005. Data presented in various Tables of this study, unless otherwise specified, are from this survey and for the year 2005. The present study has revealed that public spending on primary and secondary education remains low in comparison with other developing countries and insufficient to ensure acceptable quality. Per student public expenditure in a year in government primary schools for 2005 was Tk 1,728 followed by Tk 1,656 in the ebtedayee madrasas, and only Tk 664 in registered nongovernment schools. At the secondary level, the numbers were Tk. 2,461 per student in the government-assisted schools (98 percent of all general secondary schools) and Tk 3,810 for the secondary level (dakhil) madrasas. The data collected from the school records showed the amounts received by, schools from the government for salaries, construction and maintenance and did not include the amounts spent on stipends at primary and secondary levels and distribution of textbooks in primary school. It was evident that very little was available for quality inputs, such as, provision of teaching aids, training and supervision of teachers, provisions for libraries and laboratories. Nor were enough resources to provide for an adequate number of teachers, classrooms and a manageable class size (rather than a primary class of over 50 students and over a 100 in some secondary classes). The meagerness of resources was partially mitigated by household spending on education. Of total spending per child in government primary schools and government assisted secondary schools--the most numerous type of institution in each category--59 percent and 71 percent respectively came from household sources. Cost of private tutors was the single largest item of household expenditure. Forty-three percent of government primary school students and 85 percent of government-assisted secondary school students had private tutors. Household costs for education and dependence on private tutoring clearly aggravated educational inequity. Household spending on education per child of the lowest socio-economic quintile at both primary and secondary levels was less than half of the spending of the topmost quintile. Public spending in different types of institutions varied widely, but no rationale was apparent for this variation. Madrasas at the secondary level received the highest government subvention on a per capita basis and urban institutions were favoured in contrast to rural ones. There was, however, no capitation formula on the basis of the student population in institutions or in geographical units, often applied when the state takes seriously its obligation to provide for compulsory education. A policy reorientation and consequent increase in public resources for education and changes in the budgetary allocation pattern in favour of the poor and the disadvantaged are called for. (Contains 13 tables and 2 figures.) [This paper was published by Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE).]

Suggestions are offered to help K-12 teachers integrate anthropological approaches and content into the world history curriculum. The paper contains nine inquiry lessons which ask students to explore how the various societies have dealt with kinship, decision making, distribution of resources, transmission of values, and other cultural universals. Each lesson provides an introduction, an overview, learning objectives, student activities, evaluation methods, and a bibliography of teacher readings. Various student readings needed to implement the lessons are included. The introductory lesson, "Teaching World History in Cultural Perspective," presents the cultural universals. In Chapter 2 students examine the Pinatubo Negritos, the Netsilik Eskimos, and the King Bushmen as examples of the herding and gathering societies. The third lesson looks at the Bantu-speaking Africans as an example of agri-pastoral people. Chapter 4 focuses on the agricultural societies, presenting material on the ancient middle-American Mayan culture. Students examine the Chinese agricultural society in Chapter 5. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the rise of industrialism in Europe and in Japan. The eighth lesson examines the post-industrial United States. In Chapter 9 students look at the development of totalitarianism with post-industrial Nazi Germany. The tips paper concludes with a bibliography of pertinent curriculum materials in ERIC. (Author/RM)

Discusses social change and educational realities in South Africa, noting the relatively poor qualifications of black teachers. The paper also examines South African teacher training models and presents teacher training models suitable for developing countries. (SM)

This paper addresses some of the general issues of international cooperation within the context of distance education. Examples of the types of international cooperation are introduced in order to explain some of the pitfalls that can occur when coordinating organizations on an international level. Extensive discussion is undertaken concerning international cooperation at the multilateral level to point out how the features of distance education can effectively benefit larger units of people and accelerate development through collaborative ventures, including arrangements involving aid agencies and developing countries or arrangements among nation states. It is concluded that, although economic factors, political influences, and a host of other mediating factors may directly affect the basis for cooperation at the international level (North-North, South-South, or North-South arrangements), the potential outcomes of such cooperation include an improved lifestyle for distance education students, increased literacy, and the encouragement of rapid growth and development in many developing countries. (8 references) (DB)

This manual endorses and adopts the sector-assessment approach for planning and managing the allocation of educational resources. Chapter 1 presents the manual's goals. Chapter 2 describes the manual's content and information sources, explains the term "sector assessment," identifies the groups that benefit from recommendations made by the assessments, and presents a brief historical overview of the education sector-assessments. The third chapter describes the systems approach and explains its usefulness for education sector-assessments. The types of expected outcomes are described, as well as an overview of the sector-assessment process. Chapter 4 describes the elements of planning: scope of work, level of effort, personnel, management, logistics, costs, schedule, and institutional relationships. Chapter 5 discusses national goals and the specific education and training objectives derived from them. Different perspectives that have influenced the analysis of education systems are discussed in terms of national goals and objectives. The sixth chapter describes the policy context of educational activities and the nature of each subsector. The kinds and quality of data necessary to support the analysis are examined, and the analytic themes used to examine each subsector are discussed. Chapter 7 describes the writing style and format of the assessment report, and chapter 8 offers suggestions for its presentation and dissemination. The final chapter offers examples of positive effects of sector assessments on educational change in Somalia and Botswana. Thirty-three tables are included. (Contains 59 references.) (LMI)

Educational reform in developing countries, specifically in Saudi Arabia, will be facilitated if certain strategies are employed when implementing educational change. Problems which restrict reform tend to be a culture which opposes change, staffing, finances, a shortage of relevant learning materials, excessive centralization of authority, expatriation by the educated, and urban migration. Also counterproductive to educational reform are rigorous standards of achievement and the ethnocentrism of foreign educated nationals who fail to understand the culture in which they are working. Strategies to combat these problems include carefully selecting and working toward established educational goals, reorienting students toward their traditional culture, and improving the quality of instruction in the classroom. Educational research and development centers which would become a center of authority in the system and laboratory schools which would offer a place for experimentation in educational alternatives should be established. Current projects in a Saudi Arabian research center include analysis of a leading Arabic language private school, an investigation of English language teaching, proposals for introducing computer-assisted instruction, and the development of standardized measurement instruments. (KC)

One tragic consequence of recession, debt, and adjustment has been that many countries are now further from the goal of providing a primary school place for each eligible child than they were a decade or more ago. This paper demonstrates the ways in which this trend can be reversed and identifies the conditions necessary for achieving primary schooling for all children by the end of the century. The main policy instruments available to expand access in the context of fiscal restraint are assessed. Lessons of promising reforms are drawn from country case studies and the wider research literature. It is estimated that the total additional recurrent costs of achieving schooling for all by the year 2000 would, in the absence of policy reforms, amount to 58 billion dollars. The greater part of these costs could be accommodated by developing countries provided three conditions were met. First, governments would need to introduce policies to reduce costs and mobilize additional resources to finance expansion. Second, some restructuring of expenditures--in particular from military budgets toward education--would be required. Third, a return to economic growth in Africa would need to take place. If the above conditions were met, the financing gap that remained could be closed by transfers of between 1 and 1.3 billion dollars per year from 1990 to 2000. Forty-one references are included. (RH)

Educational production can be studied by correlating levels of academic achievement with three independent variables: student's family background, student's mental ability, and school quality. To examine family background and school quality, information was gathered from schools in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru. Regression analyses of individual students by country, grade, and sex using reading comprehension and science scores reveal a strong correlation between family factors, such as parent educational background, and academic achievement, but do not show a strong correlation between academic achievement and school factors. Although the improtance of family factors decreases as a student moves to higher grade levels, school factors do not seem important at any stage in explaining academic achievement as long as minimal physical facilities are available. To better understand what factors most contribute to academic achievement, further research should deemphasize statistical analysis and focus on teacher-student interaction, formulating a taxonomy of teacher attributes and identifying those teachers who seem to produce higher levels of achievement in their students. Statistical findings by country are provided in 22 tables and 7 appendixes. (JBM)

Prepared under contract with the International Council of Archives for Unesco's Records and Archive Management Programme (RAMP), this study explains and documents the variety of ways in which archives can be made an integral part of pre-university education, and illustrates how both teachers and students can increase their understanding and appreciation of history by becoming familiar at first hand with the source materials essential for the writing of history. The study is intended both for teachers who could benefit from archival outreach programs and for archival administrators and archivists who are encouraged to establish or further develop programs in this area. The introduction provides a historical summary of the role of archives in education, and subsequent chapters discuss objectives and target groups for teaching with archives; different tasks for different types of archives and archival documents; the various fields of action of archives education services; the organization of archives education services; and teaching aids from archives. Major results and conclusions of the study presented in the form of summary guidelines conclude the report. A bibliography and listing of acknowledgements are included; and two specimen archival documents with suggestions for educational use are appended. (KM)

There are concrete ways to bring international concerns into classrooms. The answer to whether we want to do so can only emerge out of civic and professional debate. Lists of organizations and resource materials about hunger and related problems are provided. (MLF)