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Biodiversity has typically been quantified using species richness, but this ignores evolutionary history. Due to the increasing availability of robust phylogenies, methods have been developed that incorporate phylogenetic relationships into quantification of biodiversity. CANAPE (categorical analysis of neo‐ and paleo‐endemism) is one such method that can provide insight into the evolutionary processes generating biodiversity. The only currently available software implementing CANAPE is Biodiverse, which is written in Perl and can be used either through a graphical user interface (GUI) or user‐developed scripts. However, many researchers, particularly in the fields of ecology and evolutionary biology, use the R programming language to conduct their analyses. Here, we present canaper, a new R package (www.r‐project.org) that provides functions to conduct CANAPE in R. canaper implements methods for efficient computation, including parallelization and encoding of community data as sparse matrices. The interface is designed for maximum simplicity and reproducibility; CANAPE can be conducted with two functions, and parallel computing can be enabled with one line of code. Our case study shows that canaper produces equivalent results to Biodiverse and can complete computations on moderately sized datasets quickly (<10 min to reproduce a canonical study). canaper allows researchers to conduct all analyses from data import and cleaning through CANAPE within R, thereby obviating the need to manually import and export data and analysis results between programs. We anticipate canaper will become a part of the toolkit for analyzing biodiversity in R. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the human impact on regions identified as the environmental central niche for the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) across southern Africa. This central niche is the area within an animal's natural range that is most insulated from changes to the environmental variables that influence that animal's distribution. We used an environmental envelope model constructed with geographic information system software to predict the geographic extent of the central niche. The predicted chacma baboon central niche was 389 000 km2, with substantial overlap with human settlements in several countries. Of note is that although Botswana contains nearly 60 000 km2 of predicted central niche, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature chacma baboon distribution map implies that much of this area is uninhabited by baboons. A regional assessment of the province of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) suggests more than 95% of its central niche is uninhabited. Additionally, the very limited and likely disturbed central niche area in Lesotho coupled with the unknown status of chacma baboons within Lesotho warrants further attention. Overall, it appears likely that significant proportions of the predicted central niche in southern Africa are currently uninhabited by the chacma baboon. These uninhabited areas correspond with areas of high human population density and anthropogenic land alteration. The remaining central niche areas that are still inhabited are potentially key areas for conservation and are important for ensuring the sustainability of future populations. However, these areas may be undergoing degradation whilst also becoming more inaccessible to baboons, thus increasing the difficulty of conservation efforts. This preliminary assessment highlights the urgent need for detailed assessments at a finer scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research focusing on broad-scale or geographically invariant species-environment dependencies suggest that temperature-related variables explain more of the variation in reptile distributions than precipitation. However, species-environment relationships may exhibit considerable spatial variation contingent upon the geographic nuances that vary between locations. Broad-scale, geographically invariant analyses may mask this local variation and their findings may not generalize to different locations at local scales. We assess how reptile-climatic relationships change with varying spatial scale, location, and direction. Since the spatial distributions of diversity and endemism hotspots differ for other species groups, we also assess whether reptile species turnover and endemism hotspots are influenced differently by climatic predictors. Using New Zealand reptiles as an example, the variation in species turnover, endemism and turnover in climatic variables was measured using directional moving window analyses, rotated through 360°. Correlations between the species turnover, endemism and climatic turnover results generated by each rotation of the moving window were analysed using multivariate generalized linear models applied at national, regional, and local scales. At national-scale, temperature turnover consistently exhibited the greatest influence on species turnover and endemism, but model predictive capacity was low (typically r2 = 0.05, P < 0.001). At regional scales the relative influence of temperature and precipitation turnover varied between regions, although model predictive capacity was also generally low. Climatic turnover was considerably more predictive of species turnover and endemism at local scales (e.g., r2 = 0.65, P < 0.001). While temperature turnover had the greatest effect in one locale (the northern North Island), there was substantial variation in the relative influence of temperature and precipitation predictors in the remaining four locales. Species turnover and endemism hotspots often occurred in different locations. Climatic predictors had a smaller influence on endemism. Our results caution against assuming that variability in temperature will always be most predictive of reptile biodiversity across different spatial scales, locations and directions. The influence of climatic turnover on the species turnover and endemism of other taxa may exhibit similar patterns of spatial variation. Such intricate variation might be discerned more readily if studies at broad scales are complemented by geographically variant, local-scale analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is commonly accepted that species interactions such as granivory are more intense in the tropics. However, this has rarely been tested. A global dataset of post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates and vertebrates for 79 native plant species from semi-natural and natural terrestrial habitats ranging from 55° N to 45° S, was compiled from the global literature to test the hypothesis that post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates and vertebrates is more intense at lower latitudes. We also quantified the relationship between post-dispersal seed removal by vertebrates and by invertebrates to global climatic features including temperature, actual evapotranspiration (AET) and rainfall seasonality. Linear mixed effect models were applied to describe the relationships between seed removal and latitude, hemisphere and climatic variables controlling for the effect of seed mass. Post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates was negatively related to latitude. In contrast, post-dispersal seed removal by vertebrates was positively but weakly related to latitude. Mean annual temperature and actual evapotranspiration were positively related to post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates, but not to post-dispersal seed removal by vertebrates, which was only marginally negatively related to rainfall seasonality. The inclusion of seed mass improved the fit of all models, but the term for seed mass was not significant in any model. Although a good climatic model for predicting post-dispersal seed predation by vertebrates at the global level was not found, our results suggest different and opposite latitudinal patterns of post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates vs vertebrates. This is the first time that a negative relationship between post-dispersal seed removal by invertebrates and latitude, and a positive relationship with temperature and AET have been documented at a global-scale. These results have important implications for understanding global patterns in plant-animal interactions, and the factors that shape plant reproductive ecology, and also for predicting how this plant-animal interaction might respond to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: We quantify spatial turnover in communities of 1939 plant and 59 mammal species at 2.5 km resolution across a topographically heterogeneous region in south-eastern Australia to identify distributional breaks and low turnover zones where multiple species distributions overlap. Environmental turnover is measured to determine how climate, topography and geology influence biotic turnover differently across a variety of biogeographic breaks and overlaps. We identify the genera driving turnover and confirm the versatility of this approach across spatial scales and locations. Methods: Directional moving window analyses, rotated through 360°, were used to measure spatial turnover variation in different directions between gridded cells containing georeferenced plant and mammal occurrences and environmental variables. Generalised linear models were used to compare taxic turnover results with equivalent analyses for geology, regolith weathering, elevation, slope, solar radiation, annual precipitation and annual mean temperature, both uniformly across the entire study area and by stratifying it into zones of high and low turnover. Identified breaks and transitions were compared to a conservation bioregionalisation framework widely used in Australia. Results/Significance: Detailed delineations of plant and mammal turnover zones with gradational boundaries denoted subtle variation in species assemblages. Turnover patterns often diverged from bioregion boundaries, though plant turnover adhered most closely. A prominent break zone contained either comparable or greater numbers of unique genera than adjacent overlaps, but these were concentrated in a small subsection relatively under-protected by conservation reserves. The environmental correlates of biotic turnover varied for different turnover zones in different subsections of the study area. Topography and temperature showed much stronger relationships with plant turnover in a topographically complex overlap, relative to a lowland overlap where weathering was most predictive. This method can quantify transitional turnover patterns from small to broad extents, at different resolutions for any location, and complements broad-scale bioregionalisation schemes in conservation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Concern about climate change, with the subsequent emergence of carbon markets and policy initiatives such as REDD (reducing carbon emissions by decreasing deforestation and forest degradation), have focused attention on assessing and monitoring terrestrial carbon reserves. Most effort has focused on above-ground forest biomass. Soil has received less attention despite containing more carbon than above-ground terrestrial biomass and the atmosphere combined. Our aim was to explore how well soil carbon concentration could be estimated on three continents from existing climate, topography and vegetation-cover data. Location Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, China. Methods Soil carbon concentration and leaf area index ( LAI) as well as GIS-derived climate and topography variables for 65 temperate and 43 tropical, forest and woodland ecosystems, were either directly measured or estimated from freely available global datasets. We then used multiple regressions to determine how well soil carbon concentration could be predicted from LAI, climate and topography at a given site. We compared our measurements with top soil carbon estimates from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO) harmonized world soil map. Results Our empirical model based on estimates of temperature, water availability and plant productivity provided a good estimate of soil carbon concentrations ( R2 = 0.79). In contrast, the values of topsoil carbon concentrations from the FAO harmonized world soil map correlated poorly with the measured values of soil carbon concentration ( R2 = 0.0011). Main conclusions The lack of correlation between the measured values of soil carbon and the values from the FAO harmonized world soil map indicate that substantial improvements in the production of soil carbon maps are needed and possible. Our results demonstrate that the inclusion of freely available GIS data offers improved estimates of soil carbon and will allow the creation of more accurate soil carbon maps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiverse is a tool for the spatial analysis of diversity using indices based on taxonomic, phylogenetic and matrix (e.g. genetic dissimilarity) relationships. The explosion in georeferenced biological specimen and survey data means there is an increasing need for such tools. Biodiverse supports four processes: 1) linked visualisation of data distributions in geographic, taxonomic, phylogenetic and matrix spaces; 2) spatial moving window analyses including richness, endemism, phylogenetic diversity and beta diversity; 3) spatially constrained agglomerative cluster analyses; and 4) randomisations for hypothesis testing. Biodiverse is open-source and supports user developed extensions. It can be used both through a graphical user interface and scripts. Biodiverse can be downloaded from <>. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To determine the relationship between the distribution of climate, climatic heterogeneity and pteridophyte species richness gradients in Australia, using an approach that does not assume potential relationships are spatially invariant and allows for scale effects (extent of analysis) to be explicitly examined. Location Australia, extending from 10° S to 43° S and 112° E to 153° E. Method Species richness within 50 × 50 km grid cells was determined using point distribution data. Climatic surfaces representing the distribution and availability of water and energy at 1 km and 5 km cell resolutions were obtained. Climate at the 50 km resolution of analysis was represented by their mean and standard deviation in that area. Relationships were assessed using geographically weighted linear regression at a range of spatial bandwidths to investigate scale effects. Results The parameters and the predictive strength of all models varied across space at all extents of analysis. Overall, climatic variables representing water availability were more highly correlated to pteridophyte richness gradients in Australia than those representing energy. Their variance in cells further increased the strength of the relationships in topographically heterogeneous regions. Relationships with water were strong across all extents of analysis, particularly in the tropical and subtropical parts of the continent. Water availability explained less of the variation in richness at higher latitudes. Main conclusions This study brings into question the ability of aspatial and single-extent models, searching for a unified explanation of macro-scaled patterns in gradients of diversity, to adequately represent reality. It showed that, across Australia, there is a positive relationship between pteridophyte species richness and water availability but the strength and nature of the relationship varies spatially with scale in a highly complex manner. The spatial variance, or actual complexity, in these relationships could not have been demonstrated had a traditional aspatial global regression approach been used. Regional scale variation in relationships may be at least as important as more general relationships for a true understanding of the distribution of broad-scale diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Question: Predictive vegetation modelling relies on the use of environmental variables, which are usually derived from abase data set with some level of error, and this error is propagated to any subsequently derived environmental variables. The question for this study is: What is the level of error and uncertainty in environmental variables based on the error propagated from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and how does it vary for both direct and indirect variables? Location: Kioloa region, New South Wales, Australia Methods: The level of error in a DEM is assessed and used to develop an error model for analysing error propagation to derived environmental variables. We tested both indirect (elevation, slope, aspect, topographic position) and direct (aver- age air temperature, net solar radiation, and topographic wetness index) variables for their robustness to propagated error from the DEM. Results: It is shown that the direct environmental variable net solar radiation is less affected by error in the DEM than the indirect variables aspect and slope, but that regional conditions such as slope steepness and cloudiness can influence this outcome. However, the indirect environmental variable topographic position was less affected by error in the DEM than topographic wetness index. Interestingly, the results disagreed with the current assumption that indirect variables are necessarily less sensitive to propagated error because they are less derived. Conclusions: The results indicate that variables exhibit both systematic bias and instability under uncertainty. There is a clear need to consider the sensitivity of variables to error in their base data sets in addition to the question of whether to use direct or indirect variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to develop and investigate methods for the spatial analysis of diversity based on genetic and taxonomic units of difference. We use monophyletic groups of species to assess the potential for these diversity indices to elucidate the geographical components of macro-scaled evolutionary processes.The range occupied byPultenaeaspecies in temperate and sub-tropical eastern Australia, extending from western South Australia (133° E–32° S) to Tasmania (146° E–43° S) to coastal central Queensland (148° E–20° S).We applied a series of both spatially explicit and spatially implicit analyses to explore the nature of diversity patterns in the genusPultenaea, Fabaceae. We first analysed the eastern species as a whole and then the phylogenetic groups within them. We delineated patterns of endemism and biotic (taxon) regions that have been traditionally circumscribed in biogeographical studies of taxa. Centres of endemism were calculated using corrected weighted endemism at a range of spatial scales. Biotic regions were defined by comparing the similarity of species assemblages of grid cells using the Jaccard index and clustering similar cells using hierarchical clustering. On the basis that genetically coherent areas were likely to be more evolutionary informative than species patterns, genetic indices of similarity and difference were derived. A matrix of similarity distances between taxa was generated based on the number of shared informative characters of two sections oftrnL-FandndhFchloroplast nuclear regions. To identify genetically similar areas, we clustered cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells. Measures of the mean genetic similarity of species in areas were delineated using a geographically local multi-scalar approach. Resultant patterns of genetic diversity are interpreted in relation to theories of the evolutionary relationships between species and species groups.Centres ofPultenaeaendemism were defined, those of clades 1 congruent with the spatially separated centres of clades 2 and 3. The taxonomic classification analysis defined cells with shared groups of species, which in some cases clustered when plotted in geographic space, defining biotic regions. In some instances the distribution of biotic regions was congruent with centres of endemism, however larger scale groupings were also apparent. In clade 1 one set of species was replaced by another along the extent of the range, with some connectivity between some geographically disjunct regions due to the presence of widespread species. In the combined analysis of clade 2 and 3 species the major biotic (taxonomic) groups with geographic coherence were defined by species in the respective clades, representing the geographic separation of these clades. However distinctive biotic regions within these main groupings of clades 2 and 3 were also apparent. Clustering cells using the mean genetic similarities of the species contained within each pair of cells indicated that some of the taxonomically defined biotic boundaries were the result of changes in composition of closely related species. This was most apparent in clades 1 and 2 where most cells were highly genetically similar. In clade 3 genetically distinct groups remained and were in part defined by sister taxa with disjunct distributions. Gradients in mean genetic similarity became more apparent from small to larger scales of analysis. At larger scales of analysis, regions of different levels of genetic diversity were delineated. Regions with highest diversity levels (lowest level of similarity) often represented regions where the ranges of phylogenetically distinctive species intergraded.The combined analysis of diversity, phylogeny and geography has potential to reveal macro-scaled evolutionary patterns from which evolutionary processes may be inferred. The spatial genetic diversity indices developed in this study contribute new methods for identifying coherent evolutionary units in the landscape, which overcome some of the limitations of using taxonomic data, and from which the role of geography in evolutionary processes can be tested. We also conclude that a multiple-index approach to diversity pattern analysis is useful, especially where patterns may be the result of a long history of different environmental changes and related evolutionary events. The analysis contributes to the knowledge of large-scale diversity patterns ofPultenaeawhich has relevance for the assessment of the conservation status of the genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Aim To develop an approach for assessing the spatial scale of centres of endemism among species level data. Location Australia. Methods Endemism is inherently scale dependent. Therefore, the Corrected Weighted Endemism (CWE) index used by Crisp et al. [J. Biogeogr. (2001)28:183] is extended to account for species samples in local neighbourhoods as a Spatial CWE index. This then allows an analysis of how the degree of endemism of a location (cell) changes with spatial scale. The quality of the Spatial CWE index results are assessed using three spatial randomizations at the species level with and without preserving species richness and distributional patterns. We show that CWE is equivalent to beta diversity and predict that it should show high rates of change around centres of endemism. Results Similar patterns to those found by Crisp et al. using a data set of vascular flora from Australia are retrieved, but the extent to which they are scale dependent is more easily identified. For example, the Central Australian centre discounted by Crisp et al. is identified when a three-cell radius neighbourhood is used. However, the level of endemism in this centre is no greater than in the margins of many of the coastal centres of endemism. Most of the identified centres of endemism are better than random at all scales and are increasingly so as the spatial scale increases. As predicted, the highest rate of change in Spatial CWE (beta diversity) is most often between zero- and one-cell radius neighbours in most centres of endemism. Main conclusions The explicit incorporation of geographical space in analyses allows for a greater understanding of the scale-dependence of phenomena, in this case endemism and beta diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flora of China is well known for its high diversity and endemism. Identifying centers of endemism and designating conservation priorities are essential goals for biodiversity studies. However, there is no comprehensive study from a rigorous phylogenetic perspective to understand patterns of diversity and endemism and to guide biodiversity conservation in China. We conducted a spatial phylogenetic analysis of the Chinese angiosperm flora at the generic level to identify centers of neo‐ and paleo‐endemism. Our results indicate that: (i) the majority of grid cells in China with significantly high phylogenetic endemism (PE) were located in the mountainous regions; (ii) four of the nine centers of endemism recognized, located in northern and western China, were recognized for the first time; (iii) arid and semiarid regions in Northwest China were commonly linked to significant PE, consistent with other spatial phylogenetic studies worldwide; and (iv) six high‐priority conservation gaps were detected by overlaying the boundaries of China's nature reserves on all significant PE cells. Overall, we conclude that the mountains of southern and northern China contain both paleo‐endemics (ancient relictual lineages) and neo‐endemics (recently diverged lineages). The areas we highlight as conservation priorities are important for broad‐scale planning, especially in the context of evolutionary history preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of regional scale patterns of diversity allows insights into the processes that have shaped modern biodiversity at the macro‐scale. Previous analyses studying biogeographic regionalisation across different high‐level taxa have shown similar trends at a global scale. However, incorporating phylogenetic methods when comparing biogeographic regionalisation between subgroups facilitates identification of mechanisms leading to the biogeographic distribution of specific taxa. We analysed the spatial trends of phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism of 325 species of New World bats, using updated range maps of the modern distributions. These analyses showed phylogeographic signals that reflect the different evolutionary histories of these families. Zoogeographical zones were detected based on range‐weighted phylogenetic turnover. Values of high phylogenetic diversity and endemism were distributed differently across families, suggesting niche conservatism, but a general latitudinal trend of diversity was evident across taxa. Overall, two main bioregions were shared across New World bat taxa (Nearctic and Neotropical), with two additional subregions (Andean and La Platan). We found strong support for an additional transitional zone in the Pacific coast of South America for Emballonuridae and Molossidae. Differences in regionalisation across families indicate that niche conservatism, in situ diversification and dispersal ability are major drivers for the regionalisation of New World bats, within a dual‐centre of diversification scenario. We also found strong inter‐familial support for an independent Caribbean biogeographic region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New World bats represent over one third of global bat species and encompass the widest adaptive radiation among bats. Modern bat diversity in the Americas resulted from a mixture of migrations and colonisations of different taxa throughout the Cenozoic. Traditionally, these taxa are conceived as either South or North American, based on the location of their centres of diversification. To better understand the spatial and temporal processes behind modern biogeographic patterns of New World bat fauna, we investigated phylogenetic diversity (PD) and endemism (PE) for 325 American bat species using distribution maps and a species‐level phylogenetic supertree of bats. Randomisation tests were used to evaluate the statistical significance of our results, and to derive a categorical analysis of neo‐ and palaeo‐endemism (CANAPE) to deconstruct significant endemism into its different components. PD and PE showed different patterns than those previously reported for New World bats based on traditional measures of diversity. We found multiple centres of significant endemism across the New World for most bat families, extending the hypothesis of dual centres of diversification, previously proposed for Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae and Mormoopidae, to Molossidae and Vespertilionidae. Our results indicate that Central America and southern North America played important roles in the diversification of New World bats, as did the Andes in the diversification of Vespertilionidae in South America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: A key ecological debate is whether ecosystem functions are distinctly influenced by biological diversity across broad scales. Although recent work has emphasized the importance of links between ecosystem functions and measures of ecological specialization as proxies of biodiversity, few studies have analysed macroecological relationships empirically in diverse environments. We tested whether gross primary productivity (GPP) in the Australian Wet Tropics (WT) was distinctly related to community‐level measures of the ecological specialization of component tree species across climate space, after accounting for climate drivers. Location: Wet Tropics, Australia. Time period: 1976–2012. Major taxa studied: Nine hundred and forty‐eight WT tree species. Methods: Using all geographically valid herbarium records for WT trees, we quantified the realized climatic niche widths using continental surfaces for maximum temperature of the warmest period and total annual rainfall. The median realized niche width for all tree species occurring at 510 sites was used to approximate ecological specialization within communities. To separate climatic effects on GPP, we applied a novel analysis using the difference in GPP and the difference in median community realized niche width between site pairs with similar climatic conditions. Linear models were then run on the difference in GPP between site pairs (response) and the difference in climatic niche widths (predictor). Results: For climatically similar sites in drier areas, GPP was higher in sites composed of species with narrower temperature niches (average R2 = 0.087, average t‐statistic = −3.45). Conversely, for climatically similar sites in drier areas, GPP was lower in sites composed of species with narrower rainfall niches (average R2 = 0.171, average t‐statistic = 5.06). Main conclusions: Wet Tropics sites with more thermal specialists had higher productivity, whereas sites with more moisture specialists had lower productivity. These findings suggest that physiological specialization across climate space can influence primary productivity at broad scales, but in inconsistent ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The largest digitized dataset of land plant distributions in Australia assembled to date (750,741 georeferenced herbarium records; 6,043 species) was used to partition the Australian continent into phytogeographical regions. We used a set of six widely distributed vascular plant groups and three non-vascular plant groups which together occur in a variety of landscapes/habitats across Australia. Phytogeographical regions were identified using quantitative analyses of species turnover, the rate of change in species composition between sites, calculated as Simpson's beta. We propose six major phytogeographical regions for Australia: Northern, Northern Desert, Eremaean, Eastern Queensland, Euronotian and South-Western. Our new phytogeographical regions show a spatial agreement of 65% with respect to previously defined phytogeographical regions of Australia. We also confirm that these new regions are in general agreement with the biomes of Australia and other contemporary biogeographical classifications. To assess the meaningfulness of the proposed phytogeographical regions, we evaluated how they relate to broad scale environmental gradients. Physiographic factors such as geology do not have a strong correspondence with our proposed regions. Instead, we identified climate as the main environmental driver. The use of an unprecedentedly large dataset of multiple plant groups, coupled with an explicit quantitative analysis, makes this study novel and allows an improved historical bioregionalization scheme for Australian plants. Our analyses show that: (1) there is considerable overlap between our results and older biogeographic classifications; (2) phytogeographical regions based on species turnover can be a powerful tool to further partition the landscape into meaningful units; (3) further studies using phylogenetic turnover metrics are needed to test the taxonomic areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop wild relatives (CWR) are an important agricultural resource as they contain genetic traits not found in cultivated species due to localized adaptation to unique environmental and climatic conditions. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) measures the evolutionary relationship of species using the tree of life. Our knowledge of CWR PD in neotropical regions is in its infancy. We analysed the distribution of CWR PD across Colombia and assessed its conservation status. The areas with the largest concentration of PD were identified as being in the northern part of the central and western Andean mountain ranges and the Pacific region. These centres of high PD were comprised of predominantly short and closely related branches, mostly of species of wild tomatoes and black peppers. In contrast, the CWR PD in the lowland ecosystems of the Amazon and Orinoquia regions had deeply diverging clades predominantly represented by long and distantly related branches (i.e. tuberous roots, grains and cacao). We categorized 50 (52.6%) of the CWR species as 'high priority', 36 as 'medium priority' and nine as 'low priority' for further ex‐situ and in situ conservation actions. New areas of high PD and richness with large ex‐situ gap collections were identified mainly in the northern part of the Andes of Colombia. We found that 56% of the grid cells with the highest PD values were unprotected. These baseline data could be used to create a comprehensive national strategy of CWR conservation in Colombia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious wildlife diseases have enormous global impacts, leading to human pandemics, global biodiversity declines and socio-economic hardship. Understanding how infection persists and is transmitted in wildlife is critical for managing diseases, but our understanding is limited. Our study aim was to better understand how infectious disease persists in wildlife populations by integrating genetics, ecology and epidemiology approaches. Specifically, we aimed to determine whether environmental or host factors were stronger drivers of Salmonella persistence or transmission within a remote and isolated wild pig (Sus scrofa) population. We determined the Salmonella infection status of wild pigs. Salmonella isolates were genotyped and a range of data was collected on putative risk factors for Salmonella transmission. We a priori identified several plausible biological hypotheses for Salmonella prevalence (cross sectional study design) versus transmission (molecular case series study design) and fit the data to these models. There were 543 wild pig Salmonella observations, sampled at 93 unique locations. Salmonella prevalence was 41% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 37-45%). The median Salmonella DICE coefficient (or Salmonella genetic similarity) was 52% (interquartile range [IQR]: 42-62%). Using the traditional cross sectional prevalence study design, the only supported model was based on the hypothesis that abundance of available ecological resources determines Salmonella prevalence in wild pigs. In the molecular study design, spatial proximity and herd membership as well as some individual risk factors (sex, condition score and relative density) determined transmission between pigs. Traditional cross sectional surveys and molecular epidemiological approaches are complementary and together can enhance understanding of disease ecology: abundance of ecological resources critical for wildlife influences Salmonella prevalence, whereas Salmonella transmission is driven by local spatial, social, density and individual factors, rather than resources. This enhanced understanding has implications for the control of diseases in wildlife populations. Attempts to manage wildlife disease using simplistic density approaches do not acknowledge the complexity of disease ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: There is a wealth of research on the way interactions with pollinators shape flower traits. However, we have much more to learn about influences of the abiotic environment on flower colour.We combine quantitative flower colour data for 339 species from a broad spatial range covering tropical, temperate, arid, montane and coastal environments from 9.25ºS to 43.75ºS with 11 environmental variables to test hypotheses about how macroecological patterns in flower colouration relate to biotic and abiotic conditions.Both biotic community and abiotic conditions are important in explaining variation of flower colour traits on a broad scale. The diversity of pollinating insects and the plant community have the highest predictive power for flower colouration, followed by mean annual precipitation and solar radiation. On average, flower colours are more chromatic where there are fewer pollinators, solar radiation is high, precipitation and net primary production are low, and growing seasons are short, providing support for the hypothesis that higher chromatic contrast of flower colours may be related to stressful conditions.To fully understand the ecology and evolution of flower colour, we should incorporate the broad selective context that plants experience into research, rather than focusing primarily on effects of plant–pollinator interactions. See also the Commentary on this article by Verloop et al., 228: 1701–1703. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Australian freshwater fish fauna is very unique, but poorly understood. In the Australian Monsoonal Tropics (AMT) biome of northern Australia, the number of described and candidate species has nearly doubled since the last attempt to analyse freshwater fish species composition patterns and determine a bioregionalisation scheme. Here, we utilise the most complete database of catchment‐scale freshwater fish distributions from the AMT to date to: (a) reanalyze spatial patterns of species richness, endemism and turnover of freshwater fishes; (b) propose a biogeographic regionalisation based on species turnover; (c) assess the relationship between species turnover and patterns of environmental change and historic drainage connectivity; and (d) identify sampling gaps. Biogeographic provinces were identified using an agglomerative cluster analysis of a Simpson's beta (βsim) dissimilarity matrix. A generalised dissimilarity model incorporating eighteen environmental variables was used to investigate the environmental correlates of species turnover. Observed and estimated species richness and endemism were calculated and inventory completeness was estimated based on the ratio of observed to estimated species richness. Three major freshwater fish biogeographic provinces and 14 subprovinces are proposed. These differ substantially from the current bioregionalisation scheme. Species turnover was most strongly influenced by environmental variables that are interpreted to reflect changes in terrain (catchment relief and confinement), geology and climate (runoff perenniality, stream density), and biotic responses to climate (net primary productivity). Past connectivity between rivers during low sea‐level events is also influential highlighting the importance of historical processes in explaining contemporary patterns of biodiversity in the AMT. The inclusion of 49 newly discovered species and candidate species only reinforced known focal points of species richness and endemism in the AMT. However, a number of key sampling gaps remain that need to be filled to fully characterise the proposed bioregionalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Animal color phenotypes are invariably influenced by both their biotic community and the abiotic environments. A host of hypotheses have been proposed for how variables such as solar radiation, habitat shadiness, primary productivity, temperature, rainfall, and community diversity might affect animal color traits. However, while individual factors have been linked to coloration in specific contexts, little is known about which factors are most important across broad taxonomic and geographic scales. Using data collected from 570 species of birds and 424 species of butterflies from Australia, which inhabit an area spanning a latitudinal range of 35° and covering deserts, tropical and temperate forests, savannas, and heathlands, we test multiple hypotheses from the coloration literature and assess their relative importance. We show that bird and butterfly species exhibit more reflective and less saturated colors in better‐lit environments, a pattern that is robust across an array of variables expected to influence the intensity or quality of ambient light in an environment. Both taxa display more diverse colors in regions with greater net primary production and longer growing seasons. Models that included variables related to energy inputs and resources in ecosystems have better explanatory power for bird and butterfly coloration overall than do models that included community diversity metrics. However, the diversity of the bird community in an environment was the single most powerful predictor of color pattern variation in both birds and butterflies. We observed strong similarities across taxa in the covariance between color and environmental factors, suggesting the presence of fundamental macroecological drivers of visual appearance across disparate taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation We generated a novel database of Neotropical snakes (one of the world's richest herpetofauna) combining the most comprehensive, manually compiled distribution dataset with publicly available data. We assess, for the first time, the diversity patterns for all Neotropical snakes as well as sampling density and sampling biases. Main types of variables contained We compiled three databases of species occurrences: a dataset downloaded from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), a verified dataset built through taxonomic work and specialized literature, and a combined dataset comprising a cleaned version of the GBIF dataset merged with the verified dataset. Spatial location and grain Neotropics, Behrmann projection equivalent to 1° × 1°. Time period Specimens housed in museums during the last 150 years. Major taxa studied Squamata: Serpentes. Software format Geographical information system (GIS). Results The combined dataset provides the most comprehensive distribution database for Neotropical snakes to date. It contains 147,515 records for 886 species across 12 families, representing 74% of all species of snakes, spanning 27 countries in the Americas. Species richness and phylogenetic diversity show overall similar patterns. Amazonia is the least sampled Neotropical region, whereas most well-sampled sites are located near large universities and scientific collections. We provide a list and updated maps of geographical distribution of all snake species surveyed. Main conclusions The biodiversity metrics of Neotropical snakes reflect patterns previously documented for other vertebrates, suggesting that similar factors may determine the diversity of both ectothermic and endothermic animals. We suggest conservation strategies for high-diversity areas and sampling efforts be directed towards Amazonia and poorly known species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sparassodontans are a diverse but now extinct group of metatherians that were apex predators in South America during most of the Cenozoic. Studying their decline has been controversial mainly due to the scarcity of the fossil record, and different methodological approaches have led to contradictory hypotheses. In an effort to explore questions about their extinction, we developed a novel multi-model statistical approach to analyse all of the currently available data at a continental scale. Using multiple regression analysis and new advances in beta diversity analysis, we used all currently available fossil data at a continental scale to test four competing hypotheses to account for the decline of sparassodontans: competition with placental carnivorans, competition with avian phorusrhacids, non-competitive ecological interactions, and environmental fluctuations. Our results show that the sparassodontan extinction was a gradual process with species disappearing throughout the Cenozoic. Multiple regression analysis supported non-competitive ecological interactions as the best extinction model. Native South American ungulates, African migrants (caviomorph rodents and platyrrhine primates) and didelphimorphians were the groups with the highest statistical significance. Sparassodontan beta diversity increased between South American Land Mammal Ages after the Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Our results demonstrate that ecological modelling techniques illuminate aspects of extinction processes whilst mitigating the limitations of the fossil record. Our study suggests that non-competitive ecological interactions could have been the main driver for sparassodontan extinction rather than, as commonly assumed, a result of competition and/or abiotic fluctuations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models (SDMs) frequently project substantial declines in the spatial extent of climatically suitable habitat in response to scenarios of future climate change. Such projections are highly disconcerting. Yet, considerable variation can occur in the direction and magnitude of range changes projected by different SDM methods, even when predictive performance is similar. In this study, we assessed whether particular methods have a tendency to predict substantial loss or gain of suitable habitat. In particular, we asked, “are 14 SDM methods equally likely to predict extreme changes to the future extent of suitable habitat for 220 Australian mammal species?”. We defined five non-mutually exclusive categories of ‘extreme’ change, based on stability or loss of current habitat, or the dislocation of current and future habitat: a) no future habitat (range extinction); b) low stability of current habitat (≤10% remains); c) no gain of habitat in new locations; d) all future habitat is in new locations (i.e. completely displaced from current habitat); and e) substantial increase in size of habitat (future habitat is ≥100% larger than current). We found that some SDM methods were significantly more likely than others to predict extreme changes. In particular, distance-based models were significantly less likely than other methods to predict substantial increases in habitat size; Random Forest models and Surface Range Envelopes were significantly more likely to predict a complete loss of current habitat, and future range extinction. Generalised Additive Models and Generalised Linear Models rarely predicted range extinction; future habitat completely disjunct from current habitat was predicted more frequently than expected by Classification Tree Analysis and less frequently by Maxent. Random Forest generally predicted extreme range changes more frequently than other SDM methods. Our results identify trends among different methods with respect to tendency to predict extreme range changes. These are of significance for climate-impact assessments, with implications for transferability of models to novel environments. Our findings emphasise the need to explore and justify the use of different models and their parameterisations, and to develop approaches to assist with optimisation of models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Ecosystem functions such as productivity may be influenced not only by the biological diversity at each location (α-diversity) but also by the biological turnover between locations (β-diversity). We perform a continental-scale test of the strength and direction of relationships between gross primary productivity (GPP) and both α- and β-diversity. Location Continental Australia. Methods Species occurrence records were used to quantify the taxonomic α-diversity of vascular plants in approximately 11,000 1 km × 1 km grid cells across Australia, and to calculate the average β-diversity within a 10-km radius around each cell. The magnitude and variability of monthly, MODIS-derived remotely sensed GPP (2001-12) were summarized for continental Australia, as were rainfall and temperature over the same period. Generalized additive models were then used to test whether the magnitude or variability of GPP were distinctly influenced by either biodiversity measure, over and above the influence of environmental conditions. Results Precipitation and temperature explained large proportions of deviance in the magnitude (75.6%) and variability (38.3%) of GPP across the Australian continent. GPP was marginally more strongly related to species richness than it was to species turnover. However, neither diversity measure provided substantial increases in the explanatory power of GPP models over and above that of environment-only models (always < 1%). Main conclusions The relationship between primary productivity and taxonomic α- and β-diversity was weak for the Australian flora. Our findings question the generality of key assumptions, predictions and results in the literature regarding the strength of empirical relationships between productivity and biodiversity across multiple biological levels (α-, β- and γ-diversity) at macroecological scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conserving different spatial and temporal dimensions of biological diversity is considered necessary for maintaining ecosystem functions under predicted global change scenarios. Recent work has shifted the focus from spatially local ( α-diversity) to macroecological scales ( β- and γ-diversity), emphasizing links between macroecological biodiversity and ecosystem functions ( MB- EF relationships). However, before the outcomes of MB- EF analyses can be useful to real-world decisions, empirical modeling needs to be developed for natural ecosystems, incorporating a broader range of data inputs, environmental change scenarios, underlying mechanisms, and predictions. We outline the key conceptual and technical challenges currently faced in developing such models and in testing and calibrating the relationships assumed in these models using data from real ecosystems. These challenges are explored in relation to two potential MB- EF mechanisms: 'macroecological complementarity' and 'spatiotemporal compensation.' Several regions have been sufficiently well studied over space and time to robustly test these mechanisms by combining cutting-edge spatiotemporal methods with remotely sensed data, including plant community data sets in Australia, Europe, and North America. Assessing empirical MB- EF relationships at broad spatiotemporal scales will be crucial in ensuring these macroecological processes can be adequately considered in the management of biodiversity and ecosystem functions under global change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in computing power and infrastructure, increases in the number and size of ecological and environmental datasets, and the number and type of data collection methods, are revolutionizing the field of Ecology. To integrate these advances, virtual laboratories offer a unique tool to facilitate, expedite, and accelerate research into the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. We introduce the uniquely cloud-based Biodiversity and Climate Change Virtual Laboratory (BCCVL), which provides access to numerous species distribution modelling tools; a large and growing collection of biological, climate, and other environmental datasets; and a variety of experiment types to conduct research into the impact of climate change on biodiversity. Users can upload and share datasets, potentially increasing collaboration, cross-fertilisation of ideas, and innovation among the user community. Feedback confirms that the BCCVL's goals of lowering the technical requirements for species distribution modelling, and reducing time spent on such research, are being met. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed dispersal is a key process in plant spatial dynamics. However, consistently applicable generalizations about dispersal across scales are mostly absent because of the constraints on measuring propagule dispersal distances for many species. Here, we focus on fleshy-fruited taxa, specifically taxa with large fleshy fruits and their dispersers across an entire continental rainforest biome. We compare species-level results of whole-chloroplast DNA analyses in sister taxa with large and small fruits, to regional plot-based samples (310 plots), and whole-continent patterns for the distribution of woody species with either large (more than 30 mm) or smaller fleshy fruits (1093 taxa). The pairwise genomic comparison found higher genetic distances between populations and between regions in the large-fruited species (Endiandm globosa), but higher overall diversity within the small-fruited species (Endiandm discolor). Floristic comparisons among plots confirmed lower numbers of large-fruited species in areas where more extreme rainforest contraction occurred, and re-colonization by small-fruited species readily dispersed by the available fauna. Species' distribution patterns showed that larger-fruited species had smaller geographical ranges than smaller-fruited species and locations with stable refugia (and high endemism) aligned with concentrations of large fleshy-fruited taxa, making them a potentially valuable conservation-planning indicator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The idea that species are generally more colourful at tropical latitudes has held great appeal among biologists since the days of exploration by early naturalists. However, advances in colour quantification and analysis only now allow an objective test of this idea. We provide the first quantitative analysis of the latitudinal gradient in colour on a broad scale using data from both animals and plants, encompassing both human-visible and ultraviolet colours. Location Australia. Methods We collected spectral reflectance data from 570 species or subspecies of birds, adult forms of 424 species or subspecies of butterflies and the flowers of 339 species of plants, from latitudes ranging from tropical forests and savannas at 9.25° S, to temperate forests and heathlands at 43.75° S. Colour patch saturation, maximum contrast between patches, colour diversity and hue disparity between patches were calculated for all species. Latitudinal gradients in colour were analysed using both regression analyses and comparisons of categorically temperate and tropical regions. We also provide phylogenetically independent contrast analyses. Results The analyses which compared the colour traits of communities and the phylogenetically independent contrasts both show that species in the tropics are not more colourful than those at higher latitudes. Rather, the cross-species analyses indicate that species further away from the equator possess a greater diversity of colours, and their colours are more contrasting and more saturated than those seen in tropical species. These results remain consistent regardless of whether the mean or the maximum of coloration indices are considered. Main conclusions We demonstrate that birds, butterflies and flowers display similar gradients of colourfulness across latitudes, indicating strong ecological and evolutionary cohesion. However, our data do not support the idea that tropical latitudes contain the most colourful species or house the more colourful biological communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying geographical areas with the greatest representation of the tree of life is an important goal for the management and conservation of biodiversity. While there are methods available for using a single phylogenetic tree to assess spatial patterns of biodiversity, there has been limited exploration of how separate phylogenies from multiple taxonomic groups can be used jointly to map diversity and endemism. Here, we demonstrate how to apply different phylogenetic approaches to assess biodiversity across multiple taxonomic groups. We map spatial patterns of phylogenetic diversity/endemism to identify concordant areas with the greatest representation of biodiversity across multiple taxa and demonstrate the approach by applying it to the Murray-Darling basin region of southeastern Australia. The areas with significant centers of phylogenetic diversity and endemism were distributed differently for the five taxonomic groups studied (plant genera, fish, tree frogs, acacias, and eucalypts); no strong shared patterns across all five groups emerged. However, congruence was apparent between some groups in some parts of the basin. The northern region of the basin emerges from the analysis as a priority area for future conservation initiatives focused on eucalypts and tree frogs. The southern region is particularly important for conservation of the evolutionary heritage of plants and fishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of study: Have Gondwanan rainforest floral associations survived? Where do they occur today? Have they survived continuously in particular locations? How significant is their living floristic signal? We revisit these classic questions in light of significant recent increases in relevant paleobotanical data. • Methods: We traced the extinction and persistence of lineages and associations through the past across four now separated regions-Australia, New Zealand, Patagonia, and Antarctica-using fossil occurrence data from 63 well-dated Gondwanan rainforest sites and 396 constituent taxa. Fossil sites were allocated tofour age groups: Cretaceous, Paleocene-Eocene, Neo-gene plus Oligocene, and Pleistocene. We compared the modern and ancient distributions of lineages represented in the fossil record to see if dissimilarity increased with time. We quantified similarity-dissimilarity of composition and taxonomic structure among fossil assemblages, and between fossil and modern assemblages. • Key results: Strong similarities between ancient Patagonia and Australia confirmed shared Gondwanan rainforest history, but more of the lineages persisted in Australia. Samples of ancient Australia grouped with the extant floras of Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Fiji, and Mt. Kinabalu. Decreasing similarity through time among the regional floras of Antarctica, Patagonia, New Zealand, and southern Australia reflects multiple extinction events. • Conclusions: Gondwanan rainforest lineages contribute significantly to modern rainforest community assembly and often co-occur in widely separated assemblages far from their early fossil records. Understanding how and where lineages from ancient Gondwanan assemblages co-occur today has implications for the conservation of global rainforest vegetation, including in the Old World tropics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leaf area index ( LAI), a measure of canopy density, is a key variable for modelling and understanding primary productivity, and also water use and energy exchange in forest ecosystems. However, LAI varies considerably with phenology and disturbance patterns, so alternative approaches to quantifying stand-level processes should be considered. The carbon isotope composition of soil organic matter (δ13 CSOM) provides a time-integrated, productivity-weighted measure of physiological and stand-level processes, reflecting biomass deposition from seasonal to decadal time scales., Our primary aim was to explore how well LAI correlates with δ13 CSOM across biomes., Using a global data set spanning large environmental gradients in tropical, temperate and boreal forest and woodland, we assess the strength of the correlation between LAI and δ13 CSOM; we also assess climatic variables derived from the World Clim database., We found that LAI was strongly correlated with δ13 CSOM, but was also correlated with Mean Temperature of the Wettest Quarter, Mean Precipitation of Warmest Quarter and Annual Solar Radiation across and within biomes., Synthesis. Our results demonstrate that δ13 CSOM values can provide spatially explicit estimates of leaf area index ( LAI) and could therefore serve as a surrogate for productivity and water use. While δ13 CSOM has traditionally been used to reconstruct the relative abundance of C3 versus C4 species, the results of this study demonstrate that within stable C3- or C4-dominated biomes, δ13 CSOM can provide additional insights. The fact that LAI is strongly correlated to δ13 CSOM may allow for a more nuanced interpretation of ecosystem properties of palaeoecosystems based on palaeosol 13 C values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared to species turnover, patterns of phylogenetic turnover provide extra information about the spatial structure of biodiversity, for example providing more informative comparisons between the biota of sites which share no species. To harness this information for broad-scale spatial analysis, we present phylo-GDM, a technique for interpolating the spatial structure of phylogenetic turnover between sampled locations in relation to environment, based on generalised dissimilarity modelling (GDM). Using a database of over 150 000 location records for 114 myobatrachid frog species in Australia, linked to a species-level phylogeny inferred from 2467 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA, we calculated species and phylogenetic turnover between pairs of sites. We show how phylogenetic turnover extended the range of informative comparison of compositional turnover to more biologically and environmentally dissimilar sites. We generated GDM models which predict species and phylogenetic turnover across Australia, and tested the fit of models for different ages within the phylogeny to find the phylogenetic tree depth at which the relationship to current day environment is greatest. We also incorporated explanatory variables based on biogeographic patterns, to represent broad-scale turnover resulting from divergent evolutionary histories. We found that while the predictive power of our models was lower for full phylogenetic turnover than for species turnover, models based on the more recent components of the phylogeny (closer to the tips) outperformed species models and full phylogenetic models. Phylo-GDM has considerable potential as a method for incorporating phylogenetic relationships into biodiversity analyses in ways not previously possible. Because phylogenies do not require named taxa, phylo-GDM may also provide a means of including lineages with poorly resolved taxonomy (e.g. from metagenomic sequencing) into biodiversity planning and phylogeographic analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To map spatial patterns of species richness, species endemism and species turnover of the eucalypts; to propose a biogeographical regionalization of eucalypts based on species turnover; and to identify the environmental correlates of these patterns. Location Australia and Malesia. Methods We analysed 798 eucalypt species ( Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus) with distributions across Australia and Malesia using square cells with a resolution of 100 × 100 km. Species richness, endemism and species turnover were calculated. Phytogeographical regions were identified using an agglomerative cluster analysis derived from a matrix of pairwise Simpson's beta (βsim) dissimilarity values. Eleven environmental variables were used to analyse the environmental correlates of species turnover. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ( NMDS) of the βsim, Getis- Ord Gi* hotspot spatial statistics and an ordination of the βsim - NMDS were used to investigate the environmental drivers at the continental level and for each of the phytogeographical regions. Results We identified three centres of species richness and fourteen of endemism, of which several are newly identified. The main centres of species richness agree with previous studies. Six major eucalypt phytogeographical regions are proposed based on the species turnover: monsoon, tropical/subtropical, south-east, south-west, Eremaean north and Eremaean south. These findings are supported by significant environmental differences of the NMDS vectors and the Gi* statistics. The environmental drivers of species turnover are broadly consistent with the continental patterns of summer and winter rainfall below and above the Tropic of Capricorn. Main conclusions The proposed phytogeographical regions are similar to the Australian biomes. Climate is the main driver of the phytogeographical regions, varying from region to region. Comprehensive bioregionalization frameworks and phytogeography updates, as proposed here, are fundamental for enhancing our understanding of the spatial distribution of biodiversity and therefore benefit global biogeography and help planners to identify regions of high conservation relevance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Identify patterns of change in species distributions, diversity, concentrations of evolutionary history, and assembly of Australian rainforests. Methods: We used the distribution records of all known rainforest woody species in Australia across their full continental extent. These were analysed using measures of species richness, phylogenetic diversity (PD), phylogenetic endemism (PE) and phylogenetic structure (net relatedness index; NRI). Phylogenetic structure was assessed using both continental and regional species pools. To test the influence of growth-form, freestanding and climbing plants were analysed independently, and in combination. Results: Species richness decreased along two generally orthogonal continental axes, corresponding with wet to seasonally dry and tropical to temperate habitats. The PE analyses identified four main areas of substantially restricted phylogenetic diversity, including parts of Cape York, Wet Tropics, Border Ranges, and Tasmania. The continental pool NRI results showed evenness (species less related than expected by chance) in groups of grid cells in coastally aligned areas of species rich tropical and sub-tropical rainforest, and in low diversity moist forest areas in the south-east of the Great Dividing Range and in Tasmania. Monsoon and drier vine forests, and moist forests inland from upland refugia showed phylogenetic clustering, reflecting lower diversity and more relatedness. Signals for evenness in Tasmania and clustering in northern monsoon forests weakened in analyses using regional species pools. For climbing plants, values for NRI by grid cell showed strong spatial structuring, with high diversity and PE concentrated in moist tropical and subtropical regions. Conclusions/Significance: Concentrations of rainforest evolutionary history (phylo-diversity) were patchily distributed within a continuum of species distributions. Contrasting with previous concepts of rainforest community distribution, our findings of continuous distributions and continental connectivity have significant implications for interpreting rainforest evolutionary history and current day ecological processes, and for managing rainforest diversity in changing circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Plant height is a central part of plant ecological strategy. It is strongly correlated with life span, seed mass and time to maturity, and is a major determinant of a species’ ability to compete for light. Plant height is also related to critical ecosystem variables such as animal diversity and carbon storage capacity. However, remarkably little is known about global patterns in plant height. Here, we use maximum height data for 7084 plant Species × Site combinations to provide the first global, cross-species quantification of the latitudinal gradient in plant height. 2. The mean maximum height of species growing within 15° of the equator (7.8 m) was 29 times greater than the height of species between 60° and 75° N (27 cm), and 31 times greater than the height of species between 45° and 60° S (25 cm). There was no evidence that the latitudinal gradient in plant height was different in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere ( P = 0.29). A 2.4-fold drop in plant height at the edge of the tropics ( P = 0.006) supports the idea that there might be a switch in plant strategy between temperate and tropical zones. 3. We investigated 22 environmental variables to determine which factors underlie the latitudinal gradient in plant height. We found that species with a wide range of height strategies were present in cold, dry, low productivity systems, but there was a noticeable lack of very short species in wetter, warmer, more productive sites. Variables that capture information about growing conditions during the harsh times of the year were relatively poor predictors of height. The best model for global patterns in plant height included only one term: precipitation in the wettest month ( R2 = 0.256). 4. Synthesis. We found a remarkably steep relationship between latitude and height, indicating a major difference in plant strategy between high and low latitude systems. We also provide new, surprising information about the correlations between plant height and environmental variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Our aim was to develop a quantitative proxy for environmental adversity (abiotic stress) in temperate Eucalyptus and Nothofagus forest and woodland ecosystems. 2. Samples and measurements were collected at 42 sites across a rainfall gradient in southern Australia, an elevation gradient in south-eastern Australia, and a longitudinal transect (temperature gradient) in Patagonia, Argentina. 3. We compared the ability of (a) abiotic variables (14 soil and 21 climatic variables) and (b) the stable carbon isotope (δ13C) values of soil organic matter (SOM), to predict variation in leaf area index (LAI; a forest productivity variable). 4. The δ13C of SOM (soil aggregates) explained more variation (57%) in LAI than multivariate statistical models that integrated information on many abiotic variables. W* (a climatic water balance model) was also a powerful predictor variable, explaining 37% of the variability in LAI. 5 Synthesis. The stable carbon isotopic signature of soil aggregates is a powerful explanatory variable that may help us to quantify environmental adversity (abiotic stress) in temperate forest and woodland ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]