Search

Currently, there is a gap in youth-centred dance research using experimental designs, quantitative, and mixed methodologies in the UK. The gap widens in dance research on socioemotional traits and research involving ethnic minority populations. This study examines the effectiveness of dance as an agent for social emotional learning (SEL) for underprivileged ethnic minority youth using a quasi- experimental, mixed-method approach. Specifically, this study aims to investigate whether a causal link could be drawn between dance and improved self-esteem, social self-efficacy, social strengths and difficulties, and collaboration. Participants who completed community-based dance classes in London, UK over 12-weeks were compared to a non-participating control group. Quantitative assessments included the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and the Ana Fragoso Dance Collaboration Rubric. Quantitative data was analysed using statistical techniques to detect changes and estimate causal effects. Qualitative data from class observations, focus groups, and semi-structured interviews was analysed to elucidate their experiences and explain potential changes in SEL. All data were triangulated to determine the socioemotional impact of dance on participants. The global pandemic reduced the sample size and subjected the control group to differential social conditions which diminished statistical power and impacted control group results. Despite these issues, there were significant quantitative improvements in the dance group's self-esteem and total SDQ scores in comparison to the control group. The dance group demonstrated insignificant improvements in hyperactivity/inattention subscale scores. Qualitative results revealed that participants experienced expanded perspectives, positive changes in selfbelief and self-understanding, and increased focus in dance classes and school. Quantitative results for social self-efficacy improved but not significantly, and qualitative findings suggest participants gained overall confidence and saw improved abilities to socialise, make friends, overcome shyness, and perform in front of others. Apart from increased collaboration, there were no substantial quantitative or qualitative improvements in prosocial behaviours or peer problems.

Most studies focusing on the school inclusion of adolescents with visual impairments have shown numerous challenges in developing social relationships with teachers and classmates, as well as difficulties in participating in curricular and extra-curricular school activities. Previous literature has shown that these challenges may negatively affect other aspects of their school lives, such as their academic learning. However, there seems to be a limited number of studies that has attempted to provide a coherent understanding of the social dimensions of the inclusion of adolescents with visual impairments in school. Therefore, this thesis attempted to conceptualise the social inclusion of adolescents with visual impairments and consists of three empirical studies that examined the three following aspects of the social inclusion of adolescents with and without visual impairments: their school belonging, the social relationships they develop with their favourite teachers/teaching assistants and closest school friends and their participation in school activities. These three quantitative studies also investigated the predictive role of social inclusion in academic inclusion, domain-specific (individuals' perceptions of their specific abilities) and global (overall feelings that individuals develop for themselves) self-esteem and social competence. The findings of this thesis indicated that adolescents with sight impairment (low vision) may feel significantly less socially included compared to their sighted peers and peers with severe sight impairment (blindness). School belonging was found to significantly affect specific areas of self-esteem as well as global self-esteem in all three groups. The findings of this thesis also indicated that the relationship between school belonging, and self-esteem was moderated by the importance that adolescents attached to specific areas of their self-esteem. Certain negative qualities of the social relationships that adolescents with visual impairments had developed with their closest school friends were found to significantly affect their academic inclusion. This thesis highlighted the school experiences of adolescents with visual impairments and underlined the positive role of school inclusion in their academic experiences and socio-emotional development. The findings of this research added an original contribution to current literature based on empirical findings that can inform future research and practice as well as current SEND policy.

Background: Skin lightening phenomenon is a widely growing trend with serious side effects. Its history spans many decades and affects different cultures and regions globally. So far it has been marginally investigated and the full extent of its reasoning and motives are still poorly understood. Aim: to enhance the existing knowledge and increase public and professional awareness about this phenomenon through identifying the most at risk, exploring the underlying motivations, and analysing users' experiences amongst multicultural populations in clinical and non-clinical settings. Methods: a mixed method approach was developed and comprised in four interconnected studies. Study one involved a comprehensive literature review which laid out the foundation for the following studies. Study two was a quantitative cross-sectional investigation based on semi-structured questionnaire distributed among 500 participants in clinical and non-clinical settings. Data were analysed using SPSS software where descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were utilized. Study three was centered on semi-structured interviews with dermatological patients. The qualitative data obtained were analysed and coded using N Vivo software where themes and subthemes were generated. Study four focused on qualitative online data extracted from skin lightening related fora. Codes and themes were developed using N Vivo software. Results: Skin lightening use is considered as a mean to gain sociocultural benefits despite the well documented adverse effects. Colorism and prejudice against dark skin also helped fuel this practice. In addition, the role of online platforms in promoting "ideal beauty of fair skin" was a major factor driving skin lightening use. The results showed that Asian, females, 25 to 34 years old with medium coloured skin are the most likely group to use skin lightening products. Alarmingly, 51.8% of users reported side effects and 18.3% have purchased their skin lightening products online. The extracted motivational factors are sociocultural, skin conditions related, and psychological which are potentially integrated with each other. Accordingly, it was revealed that skin lightening users are more likely to have self-esteem issues. The online experience of skin lightening users emphasized the revealed motivations, side effects and ease of access to skin lightening products. Conclusion: The key issues that have been identified in this research reinforce the fact that skin lightening is a common and dangerous practice. This research identifies those most at risks and sheds new lights on the underlying risks factors associated with this behaviour in both clinical and non-clinical population. It provides some initial and unprecedented evidence to inform policy makers and regulators and help improve clinical practice in dermatology, psychology, and psychiatry. In addition, one of the goals of this research is to raise public awareness and tackle the dominance of harmful body image ideals.

Sex work can present multiple risks and challenges, potentially significantly impacting wellbeing of individuals working in this industry. Sex work includes indoor (e.g., brothels, escort, online work) and street work. Different types of working are associated with different degrees of exposure to risk and different types of risk. In addition, sex work is heavily stigmatised and different types of sex work can be more stigmatised depending on level of client interaction and other marginalised identities of workers. As a result, sex workers are often excluded from professional services. Much past research has focused on street sex work, particularly research exploring risks and tailoring appropriate support. Qualitative research has suggested among women street sex workers, desire to exit is high. However, indoor workers have reported greater job enjoyment relative to outdoor workers, and have less exposure to police and violence. Leaving sex work has been argued to be a complex process with multiple factors that can make it challenging to exit. Previous research exploring leaving sex work has often been qualitative to capture lived experiences of individuals; this is recommended in sex work research. Drawing upon qualitative literature, a meta-ethnography was used to explore how individuals who either are working or have worked across any sector of sex work experience the leaving process, and whether certain factors helped or hindered this journey. Four themes were identified: Envisaging a different future, developing an exit plan, and identity transformation were apparent stages of the leaving process, each with different facilitators and barriers within them, with feeling othered as a significant barrier to leaving throughout the journey. Non-judgemental multi-disciplinary professional support across the leaving process is recommended. Most included studies explored street-based sex work. It was highlighted further research exploring experiences of individuals in indoor work would be beneficial to further understand unique challenges for different sectors and demographics of sex work and inform tailoring of more individualised support. There has been significant growth in the online sex work sector. This sector creates potential new opportunities and challenges for amateur and experienced workers. Despite its relative ubiquity, there has been little robust research into experiences of individuals creating online adult content, particularly impact on their wellbeing. Therefore, an explorative study drew upon methodological principles of grounded theory to explore experiences of identity and self-concept navigation when selling adult content on OnlyFans, investigating impacts on wellbeing. Fifteen UK-based women content creators were interviewed, and a theoretical model was developed. The wide array of different experiences, positives, negatives, and challenges which impacted their overall self-concept was highlighted. This study emphasises importance of recognising complex, dynamic, and diverse processes individuals go through in managing multiple demands of this relatively new sector and attempting to navigate selfconcept and establish an identity; it presents unique benefits and challenges when compared to other sectors of sex work. It is important mental health professionals are aware of distinct benefits and challenges on self-esteem and wellbeing that OnlyFans presents when supporting individuals, and are amenable to the heterogeneity of this population, attempting to promote alternative narratives to individuals working in this rapidly-evolving sector.

Highly Visual Social Media (HVSM) platforms, such as Snapchat, Instagram and TikTok, are increasingly popular among young people. It is unclear what impact engagement with HVSM has on young people's mental health in comparison to Less Visual Social Media (LVSM). It is also uncertain what motivates young people to use these platforms and the impact inherent features of HVSM have on their mental health. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study was conducted, comprising of 438 questionnaires (Phase One) and nine semi-structured online focus groups (n=47, Phase Two). Participants were males and females aged 14-15 years-old from five secondary schools across Northern Ireland. Findings from Phase One showed that the greater intensity of time reported with HVSM users, the higher the levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, and self-esteem. The more the use of photographic filters across HVSM and LVSM, the higher the levels of anxiety and self-esteem. HVSM users reported a more negative emotional reaction compared to LVSM participants. Phase two found that features such as likes/comments on visuals and scrolling through a feed were associated with the role of 'passive viewer,' instigating longer lasting feelings of jealousy, inferiority, and pressure to be accepted. To combat these negative emotions, young people turn to the role of 'active contributor' by using filters, selecting highlights to post to their feed and adjusting their personas, resulting in temporary feelings of higher self-esteem, greater acceptance, and popularity. As users of HVSM are constantly switching between the role of viewer and contributor, the emotions they experience are also constantly switching between inadequacy and gratification. HVSM appears to trigger an unrelenting process of emotional highs and lows for its adolescent users, as depicted in this study's conceptual model.

This thesis explored the relationship between bisexuality and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI). This thesis consists of four chapters: 1) a meta-analysis of risk and narrative synthesis of associated variables, 2) a quantitative empirical study, 3) a qualitative empirical study and 4) a critical appraisal and reflection of the research process and associated considerations. In the meta-analysis and narrative synthesis (Paper 1), 24 papers were identified. Bisexual people had around six times the odds of engaging in NSSI compared to heterosexual people, and around four-and-a-half times the odds when compared to gay and lesbian people. When compared to any other sexuality, the overall weighted odds ratio was 3.50. From six papers included in the narrative synthesis, symptoms of anxiety and depression were most often, and most strongly, associated with NSSI for this group. This review emphasises the need for bisexual people to be studied independently of other sexual minorities when researching NSSI, given clear differences. Targeted support for bisexual people is recommended, with further research needed to investigate this behaviour for bisexual people. The quantitative empirical paper (Paper 2) was a six-week microlongitudinal online survey study. The aim of this paper was to examine if the psychological variables of self-esteem and thwarted belongingness were associated at the same point in time with NSSI urges, and if such variables were also associated with next week urges. The total sample was N=207, with participants from 25 countries taking part. Results indicated that self-esteem and thwarted belongingness were both strongly associated with NSSI urges at the same point in time. Additionally, when self-esteem was lagged in a mixed model linear regression with covariates, NSSI urges could be reliably predicted. Paper 3 reports on a qualitative investigation of bisexuality and NSSI. A subset of participants from Paper 2 were invited to take part in an online interview of their experiences of bisexuality, NSSI and the COVID19 pandemic. The total sample for this paper was N=15, and results were analysed using thematic analysis. Four themes were constructed from the data: 1) coping with a heteronormative and binary-focused world, 2) relationship between bisexuality and NSSI, 3) experiences of lockdown and 4) meaning and consequences of NSSI. Results were taken back to a subset of participants for member-checking. Results are discussed with reference to epistemic injustice and the finding that NSSI was used to manage negative reactions from others, rather than an implicit dislike of bisexuality. It is recommended that future research should explore the nuances of intersecting identities to further unpack this relationship. The final paper, Paper 4, provides a critical reflection and appraisal of the research process. This includes how the qualitative study came to be, a discussion of challenges encountered and decisions made, and an update of literature relevant to the meta-analysis, given that this paper was published in 2020.

Evidence suggests that those who experience recurrent challenges with literacy are more likely to develop well-being difficulties, with their difficulties having an impact on their self-esteem (Burden, 2008; Jordan & Dyer, 2017; Rose, 2009). Although most students with literacy needs will receive some form of support for their learning difficulty, psychological support is rarely offered (Malboeuf- Hurtubise et al., 2017c). A mixed methods design utilising both pre- and post-intervention measures and a focus group, was used to explore the impact of a school-based mindfulness programme on well-being, self-esteem, and levels of mindfulness, with primary-aged students experiencing social behavioural and/ or emotional and well-being (SBEW) difficulties, alongside literacy difficulties. The Mindfulness in Schools Project's (MiSP), Paws b mindfulness programme, was delivered to the intervention group over four weeks, before being delivered to the waitlist control group. Measures of well-being, self-esteem and mindfulness were completed by both groups pre- and post-intervention, with participants' views of the intervention explored during a focus group. Results showed a large significant interaction effect between group and time on students' ratings of well-being, indicating that the intervention led to improvements in well-being. No significant changes in self-esteem and levels of mindfulness were measured. Thematic analysis of the focus group data showed the Paws b programme was well liked by the participants, particularly the curriculum content and the mindfulness techniques and practices. Several benefits of taking part in the intervention in relation to improved relationships, being better able to recognise and respond to emotions experienced and feelings of calm were described by the participants. The students also expressed that they would continue to use their new skills gained and that they think others would benefit from taking part in a school-based mindfulness programme.

Background Research suggests high incidence rates of body image dissatisfaction in adult populations. Poor body image has been linked to mental health outcomes including symptoms of depression and low self-esteem. As research into the negative impact of body image dissatisfaction has expanded evidence suggests a link between body image concerns and quality of life. Limited research has focused on the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and quality life, and explored the potential mechanisms that may explain this relationship (self-esteem, depression) in those seeking cosmetic procedures. Research suggests cosmetic procedures lead to improvements in psychosocial functioning. However not all studies report improvements. Criteria for individuals undergoing cosmetic procedures in public healthcare settings and private health providers differ. It is not known if such differences impact on these outcomes. Aims The study aimed to conduct a systematic review to explore quality of life, body image, general mental health and self-esteem outcomes for those undergoing surgery in the public healthcare sector and compare these to the private healthcare sector. The purpose of the second part of the study was to investigate self-esteem and depression as mediators in the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and quality of life. Method Studies were identified by searching 11 databases for research which explored psychosocial variables before and after cosmetic surgery procedures. Methodological quality of included studies was assessed. A cross-sectional, quantitative design was used in the empirical study. Data was collected with self-report forms from 404 participants seeking cosmetic surgery through two NHS Health Boards. Results Systematic review results indicated a greater number of improvements were reported in the public sector in comparison to private sector studies. However the quality of included studies was generally higher in the public sector and significant differences in study design and methodology was found across studies. Empirical results suggested that self-esteem and depression mediate the relationship between psychological, social relations and environment quality of life. Depression was found to mediate the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and physical health quality of life. Self-esteem did not mediate this relationship. Conclusions The results suggest there is a relationship between body image dissatisfaction and poor quality of life and self-esteem and depression mediate this relationship. Self esteem and depression interventions, therefore, may be suitable areas to target for those seeking cosmetic surgery procedures particularly those who may be contraindicated for surgery. Findings also suggest patients undergoing cosmetic procedures in the public sector experience greater improvements in psychosocial functioning compared to private medical settings.

This study sits within a wider research agenda, the aim of which is to develop a novel psychological therapy programme designed to target hopelessness and compromised self-esteem in young people recently diagnosed with a psychotic illness. The aspiration is to develop a programme that is experienced as accessible and engaging and perceived to be of value. It is anticipated that that process will progress through several stages and a number of iterations. The primary objectives of this specific piece of research were to undertake a first piloting of the Therapy Programme, gather evaluative feedback from participant-service users, and fine-tune the approach. The secondary objective was to explore the perceived value of the programme with regard to ‘proof of concept’. The research design combined the methodological rigour of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis with a mixed-methods focus on data, underpinned by the philosophical paradigm of critical realism. Quantitative data was collected through the completion of outcome measures pre, during and post-therapy. Qualitative data was gathered through the facilitation of semi-structured feedback interviews with participant-service-users shortly after the completion of each of their Therapy Programmes. Participants were followed-up at 2 years from the commencement of their therapy to ascertain the subsequent trajectory of their lives and to explore reflections on their experiences of the programme from a perspective of temporal distance. Eight Early Psychosis Service clients were recruited to receive the Therapy Programme. Three withdrew from the therapy. Another completed the Programme, but failed to complete all of the research requirements. One completer-participant experienced a psychotic relapse shortly before the end of therapy. The principal purposes of the research were the elicitation of critical reflections on the Therapy Programme and meaningful recommendations for its improvement. There was some evidence of reticence amongst participants regarding the expression of critical statements. Where more critical observations were expressed, they focussed primarily on the relative balance and chronological ordering of different elements. The consensus recommendation was for the ‘pure’ elements of the approach, including direct attention to the cognitive-constructs of hope and self-esteem, to proceed the consideration of more applied goals. There was a strong collective recommendation to allocate more attention to addressing unhelpful illness narratives. A Participant Handbook, written as a resource for those involved in the therapy, was positively received with regard to design. Participants, however, recommended significant change to the complexity of its content. Of the four completer-participants, three showed substantial improvements in reported hope, self-esteem and wellbeing over the period in which the therapy was delivered. Those gains were sustained at follow-up. The participant who experienced a psychotic relapse showed limited improvements on all measures at the end of the treatment period, but had progressed significantly at follow-up. In each case, reported scores on the outcome measures were supported by substantial success in negotiated life-goals. Participant feedback regarding the programme, post-therapy and at follow-up, was generally very positive, with all participants identifying causal connections between the therapy, achievement of therapy and life goals, and subsequent improved outcome scores. To accommodate a priority focus of qualitative data, participant numbers were small and there was no access to normative or comparative data for the service user population. The limitations of the sample size were compounded by a high rate of attrition. The delay to follow-up introduced additional confounding variables. As a consequence of the study-design, therefore, quantitative data can only be regarded as providing indicative evidence of reported improvements across the measures of wellbeing. It cannot be said to evidence a causal connection between therapy and identified improvements or to support statements regarding the efficacy of the approach. Finally, although participants were recruited explicitly to be collaborators in the evaluation and betterment of the Therapy Programme, reflections appeared to be somewhat biased towards a validation of the approach and critical evaluations, although present, were limited. The credibility of these observations is, further, undermined by the design-decision to have the therapist conduct the post-therapy feedback interviews. The primary objective of the research was to generate meaningful recommendations for the improvement of the Therapy Programme. That purpose was achieved. The secondary objective was to consider the programme with regard to ‘proof of concept’. Subject to the limitations detailed above, the level of improvement reported over the period in which the therapy was offered, together with the fact that those gains had not been lost at follow-up, tentatively supports an argument for further development of the programme.

This thesis explores the overall question of "What is the influence of Caribbean students' technology usage, parental background and school type on their self-efficacy?" Different domains of self-efficacy are examined to explore how they might be uniquely affected by technology usage and adolescent student background. This includes entrepreneurial and social self-efficacy, which are underexplored amongst adolescents. Academic self-efficacy is also considered because though it is commonly explored globally, it remains underexplored in the Caribbean and in relation to technology usage. Technology usage (at school for schoolwork, at home for homework and social media time and connections) is explored because of its ubiquity in modern learning contexts, alongside the lack of research on its potential effect on the self-efficacy domains in this study. Parental background (mothers' education, fathers' education and wealth), school type and academic achievement are also explored because they have been shown in the global literature to be positively associated with several self-efficacy domains but remain underexplored in the Caribbean context. Exploring technology usage, student background and academic achievement together provides a detailed model of the pathways through which they interact and potentially affect self-efficacy. To explore these issues, a mixed-methods study was adopted, using a cross-sectional questionnaire involving 585 students, as well as semi-structured interviews with 34 teachers, students and a Ministry of Education official. Qualitative classroom and school observations were also done. Data were analysed using Structural equation modelling path analyses and Analyses of variance to establish models of relationships amongst variables. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis to help explain the quantitative results. The results show various significant influences on self-efficacy. In terms of parental background, mothers' education positively influences all types of self-efficacy. Wealth influences social self-efficacy through increased time spent on social media, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy through increased social media connections. The thematic analyses suggest that a greater exposure to opportunities and ideas beyond their community may be one reason why students with more privileged parental backgrounds might have higher confidence. Technology usage also influences all types of self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy is directly and positively associated with technology usage for homework, whilst social self-efficacy is positively and directly associated with the time spent on social media and the number of connections on social media. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is directly and positively associated with the number of connections on social media. Computer use at school had no significant effect on any type of self-efficacy. The thematic analysis suggests that that lack of effect of computer use might be due to insufficient infrastructure and teacher professional development, reducing teachers' ability to competently facilitate technology use in classrooms. Finally, school 'prestige' positively influenced academic self-efficacy. The thematic analysis suggests that 'prestigious' schools had greater financial resources and lower levels of bureaucracy in implementing innovative pedagogy, which might facilitate the conditions for academic self-efficacy development. Finally, there were notable differences in the self-efficacy of boys and girls, with boys having higher. The thematic analyses suggest that the socialisation of meekness in girls and boldness in boys may be a reason. Ethnicity results also showed that African students had lower academic self-efficacy than their Indian counterparts, which the thematic analysis suggested could be because African boys are chastised by teachers at a seemingly greater rate. Notably though, African boys had the highest entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The conclusion brings together the results and identifies multiple areas for future research and policy development. Some key conclusions are that teacher professional development and infrastructure development are critical for technology use to be effective for developing student self-efficacy. Mothers' education also emerged as a key variable, which highlights that mothers should probably be a target for access to further education so that they are better equipped to support their children's confidence development. Schools could also explore having more celebrations of African culture to help African students feel more academically confident. Finally, the results of this thesis support the usefulness of domain-specific self-efficacy testing, as opposed to the testing of general self-efficacy, since clear differences were found in how each type of self-efficacy is influenced.

Background The world's population is ageing and the proportion of older people in forensic mental health settings is growing. Stereotypical views of ageing and older people can be negative and lead to discrimination. Forensic mental health patients experience multiple stigmas which may impact on wellbeing. A better understanding of wellbeing and stigma in forensic mental health is needed. Aims The first chapter in this thesis aimed to systematically review literature to identify the consequences and correlates of internalised stigma in forensic mental health. The second chapter describes a qualitative exploration of the wellbeing of older people in forensic mental health inpatient settings, from the perspective of patients (older than 55 years) and staff. Methods In chapter one, nine bibliographic databases were systematically searched for forensic/criminal mental health studies reporting on a quantitative statistical relationship between a measure of internalised stigma and at least one other variable. 13 papers were quality assessed and the data was narratively synthesised. In chapter two, 10 inpatients (age 55+) from secure forensic mental health inpatient services were interviewed and 14 staff took part in focus groups about the wellbeing of older people in those settings. Using Grounded Theory Methodology, concurrent data collection and analysis led to the construction of a theoretical model of the wellbeing of older people in this setting. Results The systematic review of literature found that higher levels of internalised stigma were related to lower self-esteem, more severe symptoms of mental ill-health and having a prior history of homelessness and incarceration. Internalised stigma was found to be lower in those who had attended a peer support group, on average, compared to non-attendees. The empirical paper constructed a substantive theory of 'Becoming a better person' and the following core categories relevant to promoting wellbeing of older people: relationships, health, knowledge and skills, social context and interests. Conclusions No definitive conclusions can be drawn from the systematic review paper due to the heterogeneity of study designs, methods and measurement tools. However, findings were in line with that of a 2010 review and recommendations regarding future research are made, including the need for a specific tool to measure internalised stigma in a forensic mental health population. The empirical paper concluded that the older people wanted to re-engage with their sense of self and past skills and interests, as well as developing new skills. A values-based approach to wellbeing in older people was recommended to enhance wellbeing through values-consistent actions by staff and patients. The model itself was grounded in data which confirmed past literature around increasing health needs with age.

The Scottish Community Payback Order (CPO) came into force in February 2011, and was envisaged as a sentence that combined punishment, reparation and personal change. However, research into the CPO has been limited, and there has yet to be an in-depth examination of the CPO in practice: how those involved communicate and interact with one another, thereby realising the CPO's operation. This research project is a naturalistic exploration of the communicative interactions between the three key stakeholders of the CPO - social work officers, offender clients and the beneficiaries of unpaid work - in order to develop an understanding of the day-to-day social realities these interactions construct. This project has two objectives. The first is to explore the internal, subjective meanings that each stakeholder interpretively attributes to stimuli within the context of the CPO and which motivate their resultant actions. The second, subsequent, objective is to use these understandings to analyse how the intermingling of stakeholders' meanings through their interactions produces a shared social reality between them. These objectives are achieved through two exemplifying case studies: observing the frontline interactions between officers/clients and clients/beneficiaries in the CPO's supervision and unpaid work requirements respectively. By utilising a hybrid ontological approach that combines social constructivism and symbolic interaction with discourse analysis as an analytical medium, this project explores the actions and interactions of these stakeholders - the experiences and perspectives that shape them, and their consequences in shaping the CPO's day-to-day operations. These observations are supplemented by qualitative, ethnographic interviewing, wherein the same participants provide their own guidance on how they perceive and understand their place and interactions within the CPO. In exploring the interactions that take place both in supervision and unpaid work, this project's findings offer an insight into how the CPO operates in practice. Supervision emphasised a client-driven model of change, with supervisors taking considerable effort to develop an individualised understanding of clients in order to facilitate and encourage clients' own motivation and agency to change. On the other hand, however, even collaboration between clients and their supervisors struggled to overcome the toxic, criminogenic environments in which clients lived, and which hindered and/or undermined their sincere efforts to meaningfully change their lives. Unpaid work, on the other hand, achieved a positive, inclusive atmosphere between clients and the organisations/staff which benefited from their work. Under the correct conditions, unpaid work projects could foster a new self-identity for clients, founded in a sense of worth and contribution. However, unpaid work also struggled with its own identity: a lack of public involvement, and a fictional normalisation of clients, resulted in an obfuscation of clients' social needs (needs which unpaid work was in a position to address). As a result, unpaid work could also be a mindless series of unsatisfying 'odd jobs' with little personal or practical value for clients. These findings have considerable implications, both for government policy and the academic community. At the most basic level, this project presents a more complex picture of the CPO than its policy depiction, with little to no 'payback' to 'communities' occurring in practice. But on a deeper level, these findings highlight not only the benefits of a client-centric, agency-fostering approach to engaged intervention, but the necessity of a broad perspective in supporting offender clients in their efforts to desist. The fostering of social capital is essential for the realisation of even short-term desistance from crime, and extends beyond a client's immediate personal network to the stakeholders encountered as part of their CPO, and even further into the environments in which they live.

A large body of research exists attributing the construct of self-confidence to a range of individual and organisational workplace outcomes. However, a synthesis of the evidence base exploring the existence, impact and efficacy of self-confidence interventions in the workplace had not yet been completed. Hence, as the first phase of this doctorate, a systematic literature review was undertaken to identify, collate and critically assess related scholarly research. Despite the everyday and common use of the term by the general population, academically, the construct of self-confidence remains misunderstood and confused, particularly with regards to its interrelationships with the constructs of self-efficacy and self-esteem. Whilst some researchers assert that self-confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy are synonymous, others point to conceptual differences between these three constructs. Therefore, for the purposes of this Systematic Literature Review, the decision was made to explore all three constructs under the umbrella term of self-confidence. An initial search of four academic databases identified 10,537 titles linking self-confidence to workplace interventions. Of these, nine published empirical papers met the inclusion criteria. Despite the variable quality of the papers and the heterogeneity in the design and implementation approach used, some initial evidence to support to the benefit of related training and non-training self-confidence interventions in the workplace was identified (with at least one of the dependent variables demonstrating a statistically significant change in seven of the nine studies reviewed). In terms of work-related performance outcomes, these included improvements in: organisational commitment; job satisfaction; selection interview performance; psychological capital and leadership capabilities. However, due to the heterogeneous nature of the intervention designs used, no firm conclusions could be drawn as to which interventions are the most effective at developing employee self-confidence. In their most recent survey, the International Coaching Federation (ICF) established that “increased self-confidence” (ICF, 2017 p.9) was the second most commonly cited reason individuals gave for pursuing executive coaching. With evidence suggesting that executive coaching is an effective mechanism in the enhancement of self-confidence, the link between the two fields is firmly established. However, the growing field of executive coaching is not without its issues, with the lack of standardisation of practitioner approach having been recently highlighted as a key area of concern. Hence, in direct response to the challenges raised by Grover and Furnham (2016 p.36) for prospective researchers to “engage multidisciplinary audiences” to develop “best practice guidelines”, the second phase of this doctorate, sought to converge the field of executive coaching with that of self-confidence to produce a framework of guidance for use by executive coaches supporting employees with low self-confidence. A four-staged Delphi study methodology, involving a panel of 38 multidisciplinary experts, was applied over a period of six months. Three separate aims were achieved simultaneously. Firstly, experts consensually amalgamated the two fields of executive coaching and selfconfidence; secondly, a relevant and focused framework of guidance for use by an executive coach in the support of employees with low self-confidence was created; and thirdly, a foundational evidence base for use as helpful precursor to more sophisticated analytical and predictive future research was also developed.

This study is an exploration of students who study part-time to achieve a Master of Education award in the context of continuing professional development. Particularly interesting to this study is identity development and the effects on confidence/self-esteem as MA Education Students' cope with the interacting dimensions of personal, professional and study contexts. The research found a triangle of tensions between professional, personal and developing postgraduate identities to be at the heart of transitions into becoming a postgraduate student. Students' investments of finance, time, cognitive effort and reprioritisation of lifestyle is made without guarantee of return. They experience low professional self-concept; they are daunted by self-doubts about meeting the demands of master's study; troubled by imposter feelings and preoccupied by their professional identities. However, confidence and self-esteem improve as study progresses and by harnessing personal qualities, and some support networks, students overcome barriers to achieve positive outcomes, which for some can be transformative. An interpretivist methodology has been adopted using a case study approach with data collected from MA Education students at one post-1992 university. Twenty-five students were included in: two focus group interviews (each of five participants); five individual interviews and ten students participated in a series of four sets of email questions posed at regular points in one year of their degree. Braun and Clarke's (2013) approach to thematic analysis was adopted and themes emerged inductively. There are several recommendations arising for both practice and policy. For practice all aspects of curriculum design and delivery must be mindful of the professional and personal qualities, not just student academic competencies, which contribute to masterliness. However, programme and module specific induction must include strategies to encourage students' envisioning of their possible selves as student in order to grow their confidence and self-esteem as students. Lecturers must be mindful about the motivations behind part-time, higher level study for continuing professional development and the factors which constrain deep learning. Recommendations for wider policy relate to urging government and educational leaders to validate the value of educationalists, of all types. This should be achieved by fully resourcing accredited master's study in both practical and financial ways.

Perfectionism has been suggested as one of the main causes of music performance anxiety (MPA). Past research examining the relationship between perfectionism and MPA has not examined the factors underlying the development of these conditions. The present research addressed this gap by adopting a mixed methods study in three phases (qualitative-quantitative-qualitative) to investigate (i) the role that self-concept plays in musicians’ perfectionism and MPA, (ii) the way perfectionism affects the cognitive and physiological aspects of MPA, and (iii) the manner in which relationships with parents and teachers can influence musicians’ self-concept, perfectionism and MPA profiles. The interview findings (Phase 1) suggested that maladaptive perfectionism and non-constructive thinking styles contributed to MPA, and the attitudes of parents and teachers influenced musicians’ identity and development, and their career choices. These findings served as the foundation for administering a questionnaire (Phase 2) to professional and student musicians (N = 233). Results showed that positive self-concept with high self-esteem and musical self-image decreased MPA. The findings also revealed that musicians’ low confidence levels about their playing, experiencing distress and frustration to imperfections during practising and performance, and being dissatisfied with the quality of their performance, can increase MPA. Further, results disclosed that teachers’ autonomy supportive instruction styles contribute to the prevention of MPA and maladaptive perfectionism. The findings of the in-depth interviews (Phase 3) suggested that focusing on the self and one’s preconceived ideas of achieving perfection creates tension, exacerbating the experience of MPA. In contrast, focusing ‘outside’ one’s self and aiming for perfection only in the practice room creates a sense of composure on stage which keep MPA levels low. These findings lay the foundation for educational policy and practice which will approach developing musicians in autonomy supportive ways, and raise their awareness for positive aspects of their competence, performance standards and evaluation.

The thesis focuses on the relationship between self-esteem, self-criticism, self-reassurance and suicidality. Paper one describes a systematic literature review and meta-analyses of the available research on self-esteem and suicidality. The review aimed to examine the relationship between self-esteem and suicidality, and whether there were any key moderators or mediators of this relationship. The findings indicate that there is an overall moderate negative relationship between global self-esteem and suicidality with an r=-0.42. Where studies examined levels of contingent self-esteem (i.e. self-esteem based upon external factors such as academic achievement and appearance) there was a stronger relationship with suicidal ideation and behaviours. Implicit self-esteem was measured by one study, which showed no relationship to suicide, however the combination of high implicit and low explicit self-esteem was significantly related. The review illustrated the need for further investigation of the relative contingency of self-esteem to suicidality, along with differences in implicit and explicit self-esteem and suicidality. Further longitudinal and experimental studies are also warranted to explore causality. Paper two describes an investigation into the role of self-criticism, specifically feelings of inadequacy and self-attacking, self-reassurance and suicide risk. A total of 101 participants from mental health inpatient and community mental health settings completed questionnaires for this study. Results indicated that self-attacking was significantly associated with suicide risk, when hopelessness and depression were controlled for in the analysis. Entrapment, hopelessness and self-attacking were significant predictors of suicide risk, above depression, which was non-significant. Inadequacy was not a significant predictor of suicide risk. Self-reassurance, whilst negatively related to both self-attacking and inadequacy, did not moderate the relationship between self-attacking, inadequacy and suicide risk. The theoretical, clinical and research implications, along with limitations are discussed within this paper. Paper three provides a critical reflection of papers one and two, including an exploration of the challenges of defining and measuring self-esteem, self-criticism and suicide. Personal reflections and recommendations for good practice in future suicide research are included in this paper.

This thesis comprises two papers presenting findings that contribute to the understanding of self-confidence at work and the development of the construct. "Self-confidence through the lens of authenticity: A systematic review" presents findings from a conceptual and methodological review of measures of self-confidence and considers their use in workplace settings. It concludes that current measures have a number of methodological limitations and conceptually do not comprehensively measure the construct of self-confidence. Self-esteem and self-efficacy appear as thematically distinct constructs in the review, yet are used interchangeably with self-confidence in the literature. Self-esteem and self-efficacy feature in the review as being important components of self-confidence yet it was concluded to be a wider construct than either alone. Further qualitative work was identified as being required to understand this. In "Self-confidence at work; the development of a dynamic conceptual model", it is acknowledged that current approaches to understanding self-confidence in the workplace are static and focus on personal attributes, cognitive and motivational aspects over physiological experiences whilst paying insufficient attention to diversity. A model was developed using an embodied methodology that sought to address limitations in current approaches. The model captures the dynamics of loss of confidence and building a confidence performance and identifies the role mindset plays. Through incorporating experiences of self-confidence from a diverse population and giving due consideration to embodiment in our methodology, this study suggests that self-confidence is a broad, dynamic and social construct.

As a consequence of interrogating pupil progress data, the primary school in this study identified apparent inequalities in the rates of progress in Reading and Mathematics made by male and female pupils in Key Stage Two cohorts. To address this school improvement issue, the Key Stage Two pupils and the staff who worked with them, were surveyed in order to establish a starting point for action. The surveys indicated that low-achieving female pupils in the school perceived themselves, and were perceived by staff as having low levels of self-esteem and confidence, which were impacting upon their ability to access the learning and impeding their educational progress. A search of the literature on barriers to learning and the range of approaches and initiatives which have been employed to address these, alongside a consultation process with female pupils though a focus group, resulted in identification of the need for the provision of an intervention which would address the issue. Outcomes from an internally–provided school intervention pilot programme resulted in the adoption of a participatory action-research model which allowed the pupils to contribute to the design, implementation and evaluation of a single-sex therapeutic intervention, facilitated by a drama practitioner. Through the use of drama and mask techniques the practitioner provided a safe, non-judgemental environment which enabled participants to feel accepted, to express their feelings, to lead activities, to take risks and to develop a wider friendship circle. The intervention was widely commended, with staff and parents/carers reporting a perceived increase in levels of confidence, expanded friendship circles and stronger peer relationships and improved active engagement in learning in the mixed-gender classroom environment. Qualitative data, in the form of individual video evaluations of the intervention indicated the learning which had resulted from participation, most strongly evidenced by the positive comments elicited from the participants both in terms of the techniques employed in the intervention and the outcomes achieved: “…At first you’re the one underneath the mask… Then the mask becomes you… The masks helped me feel more confident …When we did the mask it was like a confidence builder – made you speak your mind and gave you the words to express your feelings better – like if your excited or happy you had the words to say that…this project helped all our group…’cos we’ve learned to be more confident in ourselves and I just feel a lot better…”

Poles comprise the largest group of migrants in Scotland. The Scottish Government’s plan has been to attract and retain them to counter the issues of Scotland’s aging population and insufficient labour force, as well as to promote cultural diversity and tolerance (Scottish Government, 2013). However, research on Polish migrants’ experiences suggests that there is a discrepancy between the rhetoric of retaining migrants in a tolerant and inclusive society and the reality, in which Poles tend not to integrate with the local communities and to work below their skill-set and education level (Kobialka, 2016). This is clearly detrimental to the aforementioned government goal of ensuring their emotional and financial well-being and sense of belonging. The existing, and predominantly sociolinguistic, research attributes these issues almost exclusively to the migrants’ “little knowledge of English” (Weishaar, 2008: 1252), whilst overlooking findings from social psychology that suggest that there is more to a person’s ‘relationship’ with the language than just proficiency. These findings suggest that one’s self-concept, or the sum of beliefs about him/herself, is strongly connected to language and may influence his/her everyday decisions and behaviour (Rubio, 2014). Thus, this current study investigated the experiences of Polish migrants in Scotland from this under-researched perspective, focusing on the relationship between the migrants’ self-concept and the English language, referred to as English Language Identity (ELI), as a concept potentially playing a central part in the migrants’ experiences. Gaining an understanding of the migrants’ ELI was believed to be crucial, in order to determine ways of preparing future learners of English to face their potential migration experience with confidence and high self-esteem. In this longitudinal mixed methods study, 20 Polish migrants were interviewed twice and they each submitted electronic journals, in which they reflected on their language-related experiences. Additionally, the findings were validated through a structured questionnaire completed by 378 respondents in the final stage of the study. The data analysis revealed that the participants’ ELI was a dynamic relationship manifested during social encounters in which they made evaluations of how successfully they managed to express their ‘desired self’, or self-concept, and based these evaluations on their perceptions of the ‘ascribed selves’. The perceived communication failure or success, resulting respectively from discrepancy or match between these selves, influenced the participants’ self-esteem, which, in turn, had an impact on their future behaviour and a range of decisions, including the decision of whether or not to remain in Scotland. This dynamic interplay between the desired and ascribed selves that essentially defined the participants’ ELI was influenced by their self-assessed English competence, beliefs about other people’s perceptions of migrants and their general beliefs about the language and its speakers. The latter, based on the assumption that Native English Speakers (NESs) are linguistic experts and ‘owners’ of the language, influenced the participants’ understanding of communication success/failure and of linguistic ‘correctness’, as well as their self-assessed English competence. These findings, coupled with findings from the fields of social psychology, sociolinguistics and English Language Teaching (ELT), were used to make suggestions for English language classrooms and for general pedagogy in Poland and Scotland to reconsider its content, in order to foster the learners’ self-growth, build their self-esteem and prepare them to recognise and address various forms of prejudice and stereotyping.

Purpose: A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to test key predictions of the widely-studied ‘paranoia as defence’ model (more formally known as the ‘attribution–self-representation cycle’) proposed by Bentall, Corcoran, Howard, Blackwood, and Kinderman (2001), as applied to people with psychosis with persecutory delusions. A novel case series was also conducted to examine the feasibility and acceptability of collaborative psychological assessment and formulation of impaired treatment decision-making capacity (TDMC) among patients with psychosis, and produce preliminary data on safety and efficacy. Methods: With regard to the systematic review and meta-analysis, people with psychosis with persecutory delusions were compared to healthy controls, people with depression and people with psychosis without persecutory delusions (and, if specified, grandiose delusions) on a number of outcomes: externalising attributional bias, explicit self-esteem, implicit self-esteem and discrepancy between implicit and explicit self-esteem. Correlations between paranoia severity and each of these outcomes and self-esteem instability were also examined. In regards to the case series, a formulation of impaired TDMC for 5 patient participants was developed and shared with 13 clinician participants. Acceptability, utility, working alliance and safety were assessed through pre and post self-report and interview measures. Results: Sixty-three studies were included in the meta-analysis and systematic review, of which 33, 36, 10, 10 and 4 were used to test hypotheses on externalising attributional bias, explicit self-esteem, implicit self-esteem, implicit-explicit self-esteem discrepancy and selfesteem instability, respectively. Key model-consistent findings included the following: people with psychosis with persecutory delusions had a greater externalising attributional bias compared to all the other groups and a greater implicit-explicit self-esteem discrepancy than people with depression, and paranoia severity was positively correlated with externalising attributional bias and self-esteem instability. Key model-inconsistent findings included the following: people with psychosis with persecutory delusions had lower explicit self-esteem than healthy controls, and paranoia severity was negatively correlated with explicit self-esteem. There were also some model-inconclusive findings. Regarding the case series, 3 of the patient participants collaborated in the development of their formulation. They found the intervention safe and acceptable, following which they provided a much richer understanding of the factors that may impair their TDMC (Cohen’s d = 2.16). Two patient participants only partially adhered to the intervention protocol, but a psychological formulation was still feasible to produce and no adverse effects were reported. Clinician participants provided a much richer understanding of the factors that may impair the patient participants’ TDMC (Cohen’s d = 1.36; 95% CI = 0.63 to 2.07) after the presentation of the case formulations. Increases in knowledge, confidence and positive attitudes regarding supporting the TDMC of patients were observed. They strongly believed that the formulations cohered with their knowledge of the patient participants and were comprehensive and accurate. Conclusions: The findings of the systematic review and meta-analysis support a ‘weak’ version of the paranoia as defence model, which suggests persecutory delusions are only partially effective at protecting low implicit self-esteem from reaching awareness. The findings of the case series suggest that patients with psychosis, and their clinicians, can be engaged in a collaborative psychological assessment and formulation of factors that may impair their TDMC. Initial data from the case series also suggests this process is acceptable, safe and helpful.

Setting and monitoring progress on personal goals has potential advantages for helping people achieve their goals. However, it may also have disadvantages for both goal progress and personal well-being if people start to focus on progress and external outcomes (e.g. academic grades) more than internal processes (e.g. interest in the subject). Self-compassion has been suggested as a trait that may help people cope with set-backs, maintain intrinsic motivation and achieve their goals. It may therefore be particularly helpful in overcoming some of the disadvantages of setting and monitoring personal goals. Self-compassion has previously been theoretically differentiated from self-esteem, with self-esteem seen as more contingent on positive self-judgements and success, suggesting that self-compassion may have additional benefits for maintaining individuals’ intrinsic motivation. The aim of this study was therefore to test whether self-compassion exercises are more helpful than self-esteem exercises in the context of setting and monitoring goals. This was tested using a between group experimental design with two conditions: self-compassion and self-esteem. Ninety-four university students were randomly assigned to one of the conditions and followed a four-week goal setting and monitoring programme in relation to both an academic and social goal. The data showed that both inductions resulted in an increase in state self-compassion and self-esteem. There was no difference between the conditions in achievement of either goal over the four weeks. There was also no difference between conditions in the weekly association between poor progress and negative affect or change in goal commitment and autonomous motivation over the four weeks. However, the self-compassion condition was rated as more pleasant than the self-esteem condition. The results suggest that the self-compassion exercises used may be more acceptable than the self-esteem exercises used but they are not better than the self-esteem exercises for enhancing goal pursuit. The study suggests that further research is needed to distinguish the motivational effects of self-compassion and self-esteem.

At the core of this thesis are two pieces of empirical work. The first is a case study of a multicultural day nursery in a deprived area of an inner-city London Borough. The purpose of the case study was to explore perceptions of ethnicity, and prospects for identity enhancement. Research methods included filming of interactions between staff and 22 children aged 1.5-5years, interactions between the children and interviews with 11 staff members. The social context of this nursery's operation is placed within the context of political changes in the Borough, and the evolution of the national Sure Start centres. The second is the issue of ethnicity and self-esteem among 11-18 year olds which are examined in detail, as well as the multiplicity of factors, including child abuse, which may depress self-esteem in children and adolescents from all ethnic groups. The literature examined shows that "race" appears to be no longer a negative factor in self-esteem development. These ideas are explored in data from 2,025 students aged 11-18, attending English secondary schools, using the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES). The face validity of this scale is established through correlation with reliable and valid mental health measures, and the RSES was found to have structural validity across age and gender groups. Results showed (as did American and international research) that boys had significantly higher levels of self-esteem than girls. Using a validated measure of physical and sexual abuse I found that up to 10 percent of girls (varying by age group) had experienced severe and prolonged physical or sexual abuse (sometimes both). When experience of abuse was controlled for, gender differences in self-esteem failed to reach statistical significance. This finding has not been reported in any previous research, and provides an alternative to convoluted and seemingly untestable post hoc theories that have been advanced to account for gender differences in self-esteem. The English schools sample showed that self-esteem had no significant variation between ethnic groups within males. In females, those of African-Caribbean origin had significantly higher levels of self-esteem than their female peers. The third strand of this thesis involves placing the results within the changing context of equality, education and ethnicity in the period 1968 to 2008, showing change and evolution in the progress of "race relations" and "multiculturalism" in British society, and focuses on specific episodes in this history. The overarching issue of equality is addressed in terms of power and alienation, and the "unmasking" of powerful forces which oppress the lives of children and adolescents, using a critical realist model of analysis.

The purpose of this quantitative, quasi-experimental study was to determine the difference in self-esteem scores among high school students who participated in artificial intelligence counseling and those who did not when controlling for pretest scores. Student self-esteem is significant because it influences their work effort, class participation, and social interactions; therefore, research on the effect of artificial intelligence counseling is significant in exploring affordable and effective counseling methods to increase student self-esteem. The researcher used a convenience sample of 74 high school students from a private school in northern Maryland. Participants were evenly distributed into one treatment group and one control group. The study lasted for four weeks during the first quarter of the 2024 academic year, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used as the instrument to measure student self-esteem. Data analysis was conducted using a one-way analysis of covariance. The analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between the scores of high school students who participated in artificial intelligence counseling and those who did not when controlling for pretest scores. The study contributes to the advancement of the field by providing results for a high school population with the use of AI as a tool for counseling and its connection to student self-esteem. Future research should include using a larger sample, increasing the diversity of students used in the study, and extending the duration of the study.

Technology and social media use are steadily becoming the preferred way to form and maintain relationships. A large majority of young adult populations investing time and energy into dating applications to meet romantic partners. Research has identified that there are many benefits, but also many risks, to using technology. It is important to identify the potential negative outcomes that dating app users may face and inform mental health professionals who can create proper preventive measures and treatment plans when working with clients. This study addresses the gap in the literature about some of the potential relationships between negative mental health states and frequency of using dating apps, as well as examining the potential differences gender plays on these relationships. This quantitative research study was completed using an online survey. The final results of 80 participants were analyzed using correlations and t-tests to examine the differences between high and low app users in reported self-esteem and burnout as well as differences between genders inn self-esteem and burnout. Dating app use had a significant positive correlation with self-esteem, and significant difference in means was identified between high and low app users as well as between genders when it came to reported self-esteem. There were no significant correlations or differences found as it related to the variable of burnout. Future research should continue exploring the impact that frequency of dating app use has on mental health outcomes as well as further study the variable of burnout as it relates to use of swipe-based applications.

There is considerable evidence that parenting influences the development and growth of children. Research on the psychological effects of parenting styles on children has traditionally neglected some cultures, such as the Latino community. The proposed study explored Latino parenting (authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive) styles and how they affect children's wellbeing. This quantitative study used correlational analysis to examine the relationships among aggression, self-esteem, and parenting styles among Hispanic adolescents. The study sample consisted of 77 participants. Snowball sampling (technique used in which research participants are asked to identify other potential participants) and social media platforms were used to acquire a convenience sample of participants. Participants were male and female who met the inclusion requirements for this study. Results from the statistical analysis indicated a significant negative correlation was found between aggression and authoritarian parenting, as well as a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and authoritarian parenting. Results also found a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and authoritative parenting, but no significant correlation was found with permissive parenting, The findings also failed to support the hypothesis that there would be a correlation between aggression and either authoritative or permissive parenting. Further research is needed to explore the cultural differences and their implications for parenting styles and adolescent development within diverse communities.

Experiencing prejudice is a reality faced by members of stigmatized groups in their daily lives; thus, researchers have long been interested in what this experience entails. Prejudice can serve a self-protective role allowing members of stigmatized groups to protect their self-esteem by attributing negative feedback to prejudice. Prejudice can also be detrimental, as the threat of being evaluated according to negative stereotypes about one’s group can be threatening for members of stigmatized groups. The current research aimed to examine attributions to prejudice as a potential mechanism which may cause prejudice to be simultaneously protective of one’s self-esteem and a threatening experience. Across three studies we examined the relation between attributions to prejudice and both threat and self-esteem. We predicted that attributions to prejudice would lead to increased social identity threat, and that these same attributions to prejudice would be protective of self-esteem. We found consistent evidence for the former prediction in all three studies, and consistent evidence for the latter prediction in Studies 2 and 3. Furthermore, in Study 3 we identified a negative consequence of attributions to prejudice leading to increased social identity threat – social withdrawal. The evidence suggests that while attributions to prejudice can serve a protective role for self-esteem, they have the parallel cost of increasing threat.

Background: Chronic pain conditions particularly fibromyalgia (FM) are an important issue considering the demand that they place on health services and the negative impact on an individual’s well-being. Research regarding what impact FM may have on the various domains of health related quality of life is sparse. In addition, research identifying predictors relating to a person’s self-concept on pain outcomes such as quality of life and disability is scarce in a chronic pain population. Self-esteem has been linked to psychological adjustment in various chronic diseases (Chong et al, 2009) and is suspected to be a vulnerability factor in FM (Johnson et al., 1997; Michielsen et al., 2006). Research on self-compassion found that it is a significant predictor of increased psychological adjustment in people with chronic medical conditions (Wren, Somers, & Wright, 2011). The majority of research on self-compassion has been conducted in non-clinical samples. Identifying the predictive values of self-esteem and the self-compassion subscales (self-warmth and self-coldness) in relation to pain outcomes are useful provided they can be enhanced and utilised to inform intervention. Aims: This research portfolio had two aims, to systematically review and carry out a meta-analysis with the literature investigating the impact of FM on health related quality of life using the Short Form-36 version one and to investigate whether self-warmth, self-coldness and self-esteem act as predictors of quality of life and disability for individuals with chronic pain. Method: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies which assessed the impact of FM on health related quality of life was undertaken. Sensitivity and subgroup analyses were conducted to address the level of heterogeneity in the studies. The empirical study comprised of a cross-sectional design in which 60 individuals with chronic pain were recruited from three NHS sites based in Fife and Lothian and a pain self-management group in Fife to complete six validated psychometric questionnaires: Self Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), Brief Pain Inventory- Short Form (Cleeland, 1991), Pain Disability Questionnaire (Anagnostis, Gatchel, & Mayer, 2004), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (Zigmond and Snaith, 1983) and Quality of Life Scale (Burckhardt, Woods, Schultz, & Ziebarth, 2003). Systematic Review Results: In total, 18 studies met the inclusion criteria of the systematic review and demonstrated that the health related quality of life of individuals with FM was lower compared to healthy controls on all eight subdomains of the SF-36 particularly Physical Role. It was found that Social Functioning was the subdomain least affected when comparing participants with FM to healthy controls. Empirical Project Results: Quality of life was lower than previous research with females reporting a higher level of quality of life than males. It was found that after controlling for demographic and clinical variables, self-warmth was the only significant predictor for quality of life but not on levels of disability. Neither self-coldness nor self-esteem were significant predictors on scores of quality of life or disability. Conclusion: The above studies expand literature on the nature of chronic pain and its outcomes such as health related quality of life. The meta-analysis evidenced that HRQoL was lower in individuals with FM than in healthy controls. The association between symptom severity and quality of life requires further investigation in FM. Psychological interventions targeting the development of self-warmth attributes and skills may have a beneficial effect in improving quality of life for people with chronic pain. While the systematic review highlighted that FM has a more significant impact physically rather than mentally in relation to quality of life, both studies highlighted the need for interventions to target the psychological adjustment of people with chronic pain conditions.

This thesis provides an ethnography of the final year at an emerging middle-class private high school in the Northeast of Brazil. It draws on 15 months of fieldwork, including participant observation in the classroom wherein I followed students whilst they prepared for vestibular (the university entrance exam). Students' movements through Fortaleza, one of the world's most unequal cities, produced knowledge about the kind of person that one could and should be in the future. Private schooling appeared to provide a route for students to realise that metaphorical (and perhaps physical) movement. Vestibular served as a sort of rite of passage that could transform (emerging middle-class) youth into (middle-class) adults. Students and teachers characterised vestibular as a luta (fight) that could be won with enough training, flexibility and commitment. Good or high self-esteem was needed to overcome laziness and endure this luta and, thus, teachers and students worked on producing better self-esteem through affective work. Dreams (aspirations for the future) also played a critical role: the school encouraged students to engage in time work, to imagine appropriate future(s) into which students could channel their energies in the present. This version of individual power differed from the political and economic power structures portrayed in the classroom. Students grew indignant as, through curriculum and pedagogy, they came to understand that they were oppressed and that Brazil was underdeveloped and not quite modern. The university entrance exam served as a national meritocratic ritual that portrayed Brazil as becoming modern with governable and governing citizens. Students resisted these assertions and/but their cynicisms belied hope for better imagined futures. Using the classroom as container, this thesis presents a portrait of people and ideas in formation during a post-Lula era.

This thesis explores the relationship between motor difficulties and wider educational, social and emotional outcomes. The first two sections have been prepared in accordance with author guidelines of the journals proposed for submission. The first paper presents a systematic review of the literature examining the effects of poor motor skills on self-esteem (global and/or domain specific) in children and adolescents. Four databases were searched for articles focusing on motor skills and self-esteem in children and adolescents. 26 potentially relevant studies were identified and from the 26, eight studies met the inclusion criteria. A synthesis of the studies reveals that there appears to be a relationship between motor skills and self-esteem, however this relationship is complex and likely to vary depending on age, gender and co-morbidity. Implications for EP practice are discussed. The second paper is an exploratory product evaluation of the Manchester Motor Skills Programme (MMSP). A mixed methodology was used to explore outcomes for four KS2 children with motor skills difficulties who participated in the MMSP. The children's motor skills, social skills, academic outcomes and self-esteem were assessed using standardized measures pre and post intervention and at follow up. Semi-structured interviews and a focus group were used to elicit the views of pupils, the class teacher and the group leader. Results indicated improvements in some motor skill domains which were sustained at follow up. Qualitative data highlights perceived improvement in children's social skills, confidence, and use of meta-cognitive strategies. Further research is needed into outcomes of the MMSP on children's social skills and self-esteem. The third paper discusses the dissemination of the research, providing a summary of the research development implications from the research at, the research site and at a wider Local Authority level. A strategy for promoting the dissemination and impact of the research will be discussed.

Youth sport is acknowledged as an ideal setting for promoting positive youth development. In particular, youth sport participation has been linked to life skills development and psychological well-being. The coaching climate has been proposed to play a role in facilitating such positive outcomes. Nonetheless, few measures exist to examine life skills development through sport and it is unclear how positive youth development may be facilitated by the coach. Using existing and newly developed measures, this thesis examined how the coaching climate is related to life skills development and psychological well-being in youth sport participants. Phase 1 of this programme of research investigated Benson and Saito’s (2001) conceptual framework for youth development theory and research within sport. Study 1 examined a model whereby the coaching climate is related to life skills development (personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting, and initiative); which, in turn, is related to participants’ psychological well-being (self-esteem, positive affect, and satisfaction with life). Data from 202 youth sport participants suggested that an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to all four life skills. Further analysis revealed that the development of personal and social skills mediated the relationships between coach autonomy support and all three indices of psychological well-being. However, the validity of the scale used to measure life skills was brought into question during this study. Therefore, the studies which follow developed and validated a new scale which could accurately assess eight key life skills young people learn through sport. Phase 2 of this programme of research involved developing and validating a scale which measures life skills development through sport. Study 2 outlines the initial development of a scale which would assess whether young people learn the following life skills through sport: teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving and decision making. This study involved defining each of the eight life skills, deciding what components made up each life skill and developing items which could assess each life skill. The initial item pool was reviewed by 39 academics, with between two and seven experts assessing the items for each of the eight life skills. Using the ratings and comments provided by experts, the first version of the Life Skills Scale for Sport (LSSS) was developed. Study 3 reduced the number of items contained within the LSSS from 144 to 47 items using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and descriptive statistics. For this task, 338 youth sport participants completed the LSSS. EFA results supported the unidimensional factor structure of each of the eight subscales. Each subscale also displayed adequate internal consistency reliability. Study 4 examined the factor structure of the LSSS using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with an independent sample of 223 youth sport participants. After the removal of four emotional skills items, seven of the eight subscales and the revised 43-item scale displayed adequate model fit. Results supported both the convergent and discriminant validity of the LSSS and each of the eight subscales displayed adequate internal consistency reliability. Study 5 assessed the test-retest reliability of the LSSS with an independent sample of 37 youth sport participants. Each participant completed the scale on two occasions which were two weeks apart. Results revealed that time 1 and time 2 scores were relatively unchanged over this two-week period, providing evidence of test-retest reliability. Phase 3 of this programme of research involved re-testing Benson and Saito’s (2001) framework. Study 6 retested the coaching climate – life skills development – psychological well-being model from Study 1 using the LSSS. Data from 326 youth sport participants suggested that an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to young people learning teamwork, goal setting, time management, emotional skills, interpersonal communication, social skills, leadership, and problem solving and decision making. The total amount of life skills a young person developed through sport was positively related to their self-esteem, positive affect and satisfaction with life. Again, the factor structure and reliability of the scale was supported. The findings from this PhD research suggest that the coaching climate plays an important role in young peoples’ development through sport. Specifically, an autonomy supportive coaching climate was positively related to life skills development and psychological well-being in youth sport participants. This thesis also provides researchers with a valid and reliable measure of life skills development through sport. Future research using the LSSS should examine other factors (e.g., peer relationships) which may promote positive youth development through sport. Additionally, future studies can use the LSSS to examine the efficacy of existing programmes (e.g., the SUPER programme) which teach life skills through sport. Such research will help guide coaches and sports programmes efforts to promote positive youth development through sport.

The effect of exercise programmes on psychosocial characteristics, namely self-esteem, of people with visual impairment (VI) is limited. Martial arts practice has been found to improve global self-esteem among different age groups and among people with different abilities, but not for people with VI. This presents a notable gap in the research literature on people with VI. This thesis conducted three studies with the aim of investigating whether martial arts practice improves self-esteem in people with VI, including martial arts mechanisms and strategies for self-esteem improvement. Study one (n = 5) investigated the effect of a martial arts (karate) 10-week programme on the exercise and self-esteem model components (EXSEM) in young adults with VI (age range 19-40 years) following a non-concurrent multiple baseline approach. Visual inspection and graphical approach analysis showed that four participants improved their global self-esteem. Physical self-worth improved for all five participants. Exercise self-efficacy was improved in three participants whereas the other two had high exercise self-efficacy before participation in the karate programme. Exercise self-efficacy and physical self-worth maintained higher scores than the baseline for all five participants for 3 months upon completing the programme. The 3-month follow up results of global self-esteem were lower than the baseline scores for two participants whereas the other three participants achieved higher global self-esteem scores than the baseline scores. Study 2 (n = 12) aimed to identify the mechanisms for self-esteem improvement from the perspective of martial artists with VI following a narrative approach. Results identified two main factors that contributed in the improvement of self-esteem found in this group. Firstly, social self-esteem impacted global self-esteem as instructors unconditionally accepted the martial artists with VI, motivated them and created relationships based on trust. In addition, participants reported that team work in the dojo, trustful relationships among martial arts peers, and feeling respected impacted their social self-esteem. The resultant was improved global self-esteem of the martial artists with VI. The second factor identified showed that global self-esteem improvement was related to intellectual self-esteem, as the martial artists increased their self-achievement awareness and body and spatial awareness and thus helped martial artists in achieving their maximal potential. Study 3 (n = 6) aimed to provide strategies that martial arts instructors utilize to improve self-esteem of their students with VI using an interpretative phenomenological approach (IPA). Participants reported that the first step for global self-esteem improvement of martial artist with VI was social inclusion which needed to be rooted in a personal perception about the abilities of individuals with VI. Most of the strategies that were utilized by the instructors were focused either on social relationships, for example peer tutoring, or martial arts philosophy such as teaching real situations. Furthermore, instructors reported that improvement of the other cognitive and psychological characteristics, namely body awareness and self-confidence improvement, positively affected global self-esteem of individuals with VI. Supporting the multidimensional hierarchical construct of self-esteem, this thesis reports a positive influence of martial arts styles on social self-esteem, physical self-worth, intellectual self-esteem, and consequently global self-esteem in people with VI. Therefore, it is recommended that instructors focus on these three domains to improve global self-esteem of people with VI.

This phenomenological research was intended to explore the impact that obesity has on the mental health of soldiers in the U.S. military. The U.S. military has stringent physical fitness standards that must be met by each soldier regardless of sex. These standards can be challenging to maintain. Obesity is an increasing issue in the United States, and soldiers are not immune. Research regarding the physical issues that occur from obesity has been performed, but this study aimed to explore the behavioral or mental health effects that obesity can have within the military community. This study explored the following questions: In what ways does obesity impact the career of a service member? How do service members describe the impact that obesity has on their self-confidence and self-efficacy at work and at home? How does obesity impact service members socially within the military community? A literature review of the existing research was performed, participants were interviewed, and observations within the military community were analyzed for emerging themes. This transcendental phenomenological study has helped fill research gaps regarding the mental health impact that obesity has on service members. The study aimed to explore the mental impact obesity has on service members in the United States. Data was collected through literature review, face-to-face interviews, and observations.

This anonymous quantitative quasi-experimental pre-post-test study was designed to determine differences in students' self-esteem, the performance of prosocial behaviors, and teachers' perceptions of the overall classroom climate after participating in Read to Dogs (RTD) programs in elementary and middle schools in East Central, New Jersey. Students with reading difficulties have higher incidences of low self-esteem and self-concept, depression, and anxiety that result in internalizing and externalizing behaviors that impact the classroom climate for all students socially and academically. Student participants completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and teacher participants completed the grade-appropriate version of the Elementary Classroom Climate Assessment Instrument-General (CCAI-E-G) or the Classroom Climate Quality Analytic Assessment Instrument (CCAI-S-G) prior to and at the completion of the study period. The results support that participation in RTD programs leads to increases in self-esteem, the performance of prosocial behaviors, and teachers' perceptions of the overall classroom climate. An inverse relationship was discovered: as students' self-esteem increased, they reported performing more social behaviors while experiencing less stress and difficulty getting along with other students. Each student's self-esteem and behaviors impact the overall classroom climate, which impacts all students as well as achievement. Recognizing the connections between self-esteem, the performance of more prosocial behaviors, less stress, the improved classroom climate, and achievement leads to better outcomes for all students. Areas of future research include larger sample sizes, a control group, and possibly expanding the research to include math or public speaking anxieties.

This study examined how social media screen time related to self-esteem, anxiety and depression in university students. This study used the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to measure self-esteem and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) to measure anxiety and depression. Overall social media screen time was measured using screen time monitoring features on smartphones. Results found non-significant relationships between social media screen time, self-esteem, anxiety and depression. Self-esteem was negatively associated with anxiety and depression; higher self-esteem scores were associated with lower anxiety and depression scores. These findings contribute to our understanding of the media interactions of college students. In addition, this study indicated that social media screen time and self-esteem are independent factors for anxiety and depression symptoms. Further investigation is needed to establish an association between social media screen time and mental well-being of young adults.

Abstract: Adolescents aged 10-19 represent about 16 percent of the world’s total population (UNICEF, 2023). Global statistics show rising numbers of adolescents who experience mental health challenges such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and psychosomatic health complaints. A growing body of research has recognized the relationship between adolescents’ mental health and aspects of their school environment. Some studies have shed light on the role of the school as a protective factor while others have been concerned that schools prioritize academic demands over adolescents’ mental health. However, it is still unknown what aspects of the school environment protect adolescents from mental health problems versus those that increase their risk. Thus, the main purpose of this paper was to examine whether adolescents’ perceptions of school support predicted their depression, self-esteem, anxiety, and psychosomatic health complaints, after controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, and grade. Data were collected in 2015 from an online survey with 4,380 students from grade 3 through 12 from 14 schools in a rural district in the Southeastern United States. We used several one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) to examine differences in mean scores of depression, anxiety, self-esteem and psychosomatic health complaints of adolescents by gender, race/ethnicity, and school grade. Linear and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine whether adolescents’ perceptions of school support predicted their depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and psychosomatic health complaints, controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, and grade. Results showed that adolescents’ perceptions of school support significantly predicted their depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and psychosomatic health complaints when controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, and grade. Findings of this study highlight the need for practices to increase social support to all students especially those who may be at risk for mental health problems. Keywords: Depression, Anxiety, Self-esteem, Psychosomatic Health Complaints, School Support.

Abstract: Autistic youth commonly participate in Group Social Skills Interventions (GSSIs) as social-communication difficulties are a core component of their diagnosis. In these groups, autistic youth spend many weeks gaining knowledge about neurotypical social expectations. However, the evidence for GSSIs to improve social competence is modest and inconsistent, and there is questionable meaningful impact on their daily lives outside the treatment setting. Autistic adults, as well as some researchers, suggest that behavioral interventions that are based on normative expectations, including GSSIs, are part of the normalization agenda, and may have long-term negative effects on mental health. How participation in a GSSI affects well-being, including self-esteem, is largely unexplored. Taking lessons learned from the autistic community who have raised concerns about potential harmful effects of early versions of behavioral interventions and who call to celebrate autistic differences, this study explores the impact of participating in a GSSI on the self-esteem of autistic youth. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten autistic youth to explore how participating in a GSSI within the last year influenced their self-esteem. Drawing on critical disability theory and through an inductive approach guided by Interpretive Description and Thematic Analysis, three major themes were identified: (1) Explicit and Implicit Teachings, (2) Balancing Authenticity and Camouflaging: Impact of PEERS on Self-Esteem, and (3) Navigating the Self. A call for clinicians and researchers to consider a more nuanced, sensitive approach to managing social differences in autistic youth is discussed.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the relationships between the constructs of self-compassion (SC), self-esteem (SE) and recovery in psychosis. It is presented to the reader as three separate papers. 1) A systematic literature review exploring the relationships between SE and the positive symptoms of psychosis, 2) an empirical study investigating SC, SE, recovery in psychosis and positive psychotic symptoms and 3) a critical appraisal and personal reflection of the processes involved in conducting the research. Paper one presents a systematic review of the existing literature that explores the relationships between SE and the positive symptoms of psychosis. Thirty-four articles were identified which met the strict criteria. The evidence was mixed and much of it inconclusive. There was some support for the relationship between SE and delusions, in particular paranoia. The evidence for hallucinations was much less conclusive. Recommendations for future research were suggested as were potential clinical implications which arose from the review. The empirical study presented in paper two explores the relationships between SE, SC and recovery in psychosis, and aimed to assess whether SC was a unique predictor of recovery in psychosis, over and above the impact of SE (using cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis). Further exploratory analysis was conducted to ascertain whether specific positive symptoms of psychosis were related to SC and SE. At baseline, the results indicated that SC did not contribute unique variance in recovery from psychosis over and above that attributable to SE. Longitudinally, SC at baseline was not related to recovery at follow up. Exploratory analysis revealed levels of SE and SC were significantly different in groups who had a presence or absence hallucinations, but not delusions. Methodological strengths and limitations, clinical implications and ideas for future research discussed. Paper three provides the reader with a critical reflection of the processes involved in the undertaking of the two papers presented. Implications for clinical practice are discussed as well as directions for future research.

Research demonstrating the positive effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) has led to a growing interest in the use of mindfulness across a range of populations and psychological difficulties. This thesis explores the feasibility and benefits of mindfulness in relation to self-esteem and psychosis. Paper one is a systematic review exploring the relationship between mindfulness and self-esteem. The review had two main aims: to synthesise and critically appraise studies exploring the association between mindfulness and self-esteem, and studies investigating the impact of MBIs on self-esteem. Thirty-two studies were identified and quality assessed to guide interpretation of results. All cross-sectional studies found significant positive correlations between dispositional mindfulness and self-esteem, whilst improvements in self-esteem were found in the majority of MBI studies. Despite largely positive findings, the review highlighted the need to interpret these with caution due to methodological weaknesses. Priorities for research were identified, with further investigations needed to assess the impact of mindfulness as an intervention for low self-esteem. Paper two is an empirical paper investigating the feasibility of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) for psychosis. Sixteen participants, with experience of psychosis, completed an 8-week MBCT group. A repeated measures design was used to explore psychological wellbeing and clinical outcomes following MBCT, including clinical functioning, mindfulness, psychotic symptoms, recovery, beliefs about self, others and voices; and to provide a preliminary exploration of changes in the way a person construes their self, others and their experience of psychosis, following MBCT, using repertory grids. Findings from this feasibility and pilot study were promising, indicating that MBCT groups for psychosis are feasible. Preliminary outcome data highlighted potential areas of change for further investigation in a large scale controlled trial, with possible improvements in participants’ self-reported ability to act with awareness and in recovery, and with some evidence of changes in construing following MBCT. The study demonstrated the feasibility and potential benefits of MBCT groups for people experiencing psychosis, and provided a platform for future research. Paper three is a critical reflection of the papers presented and the research process as a whole. Areas of strengths and weaknesses are highlighted, with an evaluation of the decisions made throughout. The implications for clinical practice are discussed as well as areas for further research.

The typical clinical presentation of depression is defined primarily from a Western perspective and may have limited cross cultural applicability. Yet, these descriptions characterise practice and diagnosis in Libya. Therefore, a study was conducted to identify symptoms of depression and cultural factors in Libya. Following a pilot study with 83 British non-clinical participants, a study was carried out in Libya using standardised questionnaires, with depression (BDI-II) as the dependent variable, sex as fixed factor, and individualism (IND), collectivism (COL), familism (FAM), social support (MSPSS) and self-esteem (RSE) as covariates. The sample comprised 169 Libyan non-clinical participants all scales were back translated for Arabic versions, and sufficient reliability and validity conditions were achieved. ANCOVA showed a significant effect on depression of gender (females > males) after controlling for all covariates. Self-esteem was an independent negative predictor of depression. Secondly, a qualitative study was conducted to gain insights into the experience and perceptions of depression in a Libyan clinical sample. Fifteen female and seven male out-patients were interviewed and iterative thematic content analysis was used to identify key emphases on an inductive basis. Six super-ordinate themes encompassed: symptoms; recognition of depression; treatment choices; stigma; sources of support; and perceived causes of depression. Social withdrawal, feelings of guilt, loss of the “old” self, loss of weight, sleeping disturbance and somatic symptoms were the reported symptoms. Religion was cited the most effective coping strategy. Formal psychiatric interventions were accepted but taking antidepressants was not favored. Little distinction was made between serious mental illness and less serious conditions. Explanations for depression encompassed familial relationships, professional roles and other cultural factors. There were notable gender differences regarding social support, expected behaviour and the posited causes of depression, which reflect the differentiated male and female roles in Libyan society.

Background: Improvements in cystic fibrosis (CF) treatment over the last two decades have brought large increases in life expectancy. As a result, researchers have become more interested in the long-term quality of life and psychological wellbeing of adults with CF. Introduction of segregation policies to prevent cross-infection have added a new dimension to life with CF; patients are discouraged from meeting face-to-face and this impacts on access to peer support. Systematic review: A systematic search of the published literature since 1990 identified 10 journal articles describing research with adolescents and adults with CF, their mental health needs and social support or functioning. Quantitative papers indicated an inverse relationship between mental health and social support or social functioning. Objectives: The internet has become increasingly used for social networking and accessing social support resources. This thesis aimed to explore the psychological wellbeing of adults with CF who make use of online social support and the themes emerging within online discussion forums. Method: Study 1 is a quantitative survey carried out online which assesses the quality of life, mental health and self-esteem of 74 adults with CF. Study 2 uses framework analysis to provide a qualitative exploration of posts made by participants on an online discussion forum. Results: Moderate levels of quality of life and comparably high levels of self-esteem were found. Thirty per cent of the sample population scored above threshold for clinical levels of mental health difficulty. Significant correlations indicated that poorer self-esteem was associated with poorer quality of life and greater mental health difficulty. Six themes emerged from the discussion forum posts including CF treatment, daily living and occupation, health exacerbations, psychosocial processes and issues and the future. Conclusions: Self-esteem and mental health scores were similar to previous research. However, quality of life was noted to be considerably lower when compared to other research samples. This was thought to be influenced by the overrepresentation of females in the current sample but may also be reflective of the group of people with CF who make use of online resources. Results are discussed in relation to clinical implications, limitations and directions for future research, including the efficacy of internet groups in improving wellbeing and consideration of possible developments in technology to promote socialisation in the CF population.

Self-compassion is receiving increasing interest from psychologists and researchers due to its potential role in wellbeing and mental health however, self-compassion as a unique construct has not been validated. This research utilised pilot studies in order to develop an operational definition of self-compassion, separate from other similar constructs. A multi-trait multi- method approach to construct validation was utilised to assess self-compassion‟s discriminant and convergent validity in relation to the constructs of self-esteem and compassion for others in a community sample of 307. Self-compassion was then evaluated for its role in mental health and wellbeing when assessed against the two comparison constructs. Results demonstrated discriminant validity to both comparison constructs but convergent validity only in regards to self-esteem, providing partial support for the construct validity of self- compassion. As hypothesised support was found for self-compassion as a unique predictor in regards to wellbeing, but its role could not be determined for mental health. The results are discussed in terms self-compassion‟s functional relationships with comparison constructs and therapeutic utility. Recommendations for the direction of future research are discussed.

The growth of consumerism has meant that individuals are increasingly using possessions as a means of developing their personal identities and forming social connections. Specifically, the consumer culture has seen the increase of brands and branded goods as marketers attach emotional attributes to them. Thus, brands have become communicative symbols which display, amongst other things, the owner's values, beliefs and social status. As a result, consumers are attempting to form their identities, social connections and self-worth by consuming (often branded) possessions which they feel are representative of their self or ideal self and will increase their chances of social acceptance. However, psychological studies in consumer behaviour suggest that the increasing propensity to seek inner happiness and social bonds through external means (consumption), has led consumers to be less satisfied with their lives and hence decreases psychological well-being; the focus on external rewards has reduced the importance that individuals place on personal development and intrapsychic developments.This study investigates the relationship between the consumption culture, branding and British adolescents, with a comparison between high and low-income teenagers. Adolescents are particularly prone to assuming consumer orientations (and hence the consequences thereof) due to their stage in identity development, their need for social acceptance and the fact that they are a very profitable market segment. As a result, teenagers are encouraged to turn to consumption for developing their personal and social identities, as opposed to more traditional means such as personal skill development. Although limited studies have investigated adolescent consumption, little attention has been paid to low-income adolescents who are prone to reduced self-worth but have a restricted consumption scope and thus cannot consume their self-worth in the same 'normal' ways as their peers. In light of previous studies, it was necessary to first develop a new measure of self-esteem which included the vital role of possessions (and specifically brands) in feelings of self-worth amongst adolescents. The scale-development process revealed the functional importance of self-esteem as a marker of social inclusion and hence shed light on the reason for the importance that adolescents place on specific brands; they are a promise of fitting-in. A valid and reliable 23-item, self-report measure of self-esteem is presented. Subsequent to developing the new scale, the research provided empirical support for a model of the psychological characteristics of adolescent consumption (including self-esteem). The result is a 'Vicious Cycle' model of consumption which suggests that there is a relationship between the factors which contribute to a consumer orientation and the likely effects of having such an orientation. For example, the model suggests that reduced self-esteem may contribute to consumerism and a consumption orientation may contribute to a reduction in self-esteem. Furthermore, the comparison between high and low-income teenagers showed that low-income teenagers were significantly more materialistic than their high-income counterparts thus supporting the suggestion that low-income teenagers are more prone to consumerism than their high-income counterparts. With reference to the detailed links presented in the Vicious Cycle model, the author proceeds to explore the efficacy of extant consumerist-curbing strategies and highlight the need for more effective methods if we wish future generations to develop in to more than simply shoppers.

For many years, educators, psychologists and parents have expressed concern about the apparent deterioration of pupil motivation and performance after children move to secondary school. This study used a longitudinal design to examine the transfer process from the perspective of a group of 393 children (195 boys, 198 girls) as they moved from 19 primary schools to four secondary schools in Fife. Children’s self-perceptions of school commitment, school belonging, school participation, self-esteem and global wellbeing were evaluated four times over a 13 month period, twice before transfer in the final year of primary school and twice after transfer in the first year of secondary school. Information was also collected about family and home life, emotions, lifestyle and school on each occasion. The data was analysed using multilevel modelling in order to examine how each of the five outcome variables changed over the time of the study, and how they related to a series of independent variables. It was anticipated that changes in these outcomes may have occurred immediately after the move to secondary school, perhaps followed by an improvement six months later after they had adapted to changes and settled in to their new schools. The results showed that, contrary to expectations, all outcomes except school participation recorded an improvement at wave 3, immediately after the transfer to secondary school. However, there was some evidence that after an initial ‘honeymoon period’, children perceived certain aspects of school in a less positive light and by wave 4 there was a decline in all outcomes except for the perception of self-esteem, which continued to improve. Since wave 4 was only a few months after transition, a significant change in children’s views is seen quite quickly after transfer. It is not clear whether this represents a return to a more realistic level or if this signals the beginning of a more prolonged negative attitude towards school and education in general. The general conclusion is that the process of transfer to secondary schools is well managed, but it might be helpful for induction programmes to prepare children for the changes in teaching and learning methods that might be encountered, and perhaps other types of programme might be beneficial during the first year.

Well-being incorporates psychological, social and moral development, the capacity to enter into and sustain satisfying relationships and limit distress and maladaptive behaviour. The benefits of physical activity and dangers of a sedentary lifestyle to health outcomes, e.g. cardio-vascular disease, obesity, diabetes and psychological well-being are well documented children. Due to methodological and measurement problems, research addressing the relationship between psychological well-being and physical activity are inconsistent and weak. This series of studies aimed to overcome the problems of previous research and investigated the relationship between children’s psychological well-being and habitual physical activity. Previous research has highlighted an association between children’s physical activity and individual psychological well-being constructs. However, Masse et al. (1998) argued that psychological well-being should contain the measurement of both positive (e.g. self-esteem) and negative (e.g. depression) psychological states. Subsequently, Parfitt and Eston (2005) identified an association between children’s total physical activity and psychological well-being (anxiety, depression, self-esteem). Limitations of previous studies include the type of physical activity measures used and the measurement of only global self-esteem, which itself is multidimensional. The purpose of this research was to extend and expand on the limitations of the Parfitt and Eston’s (2005) study. Psychological measures included both global, domain and sub-domain measurements of self-esteem, with accelerometry providing estimates of total daily physical activity and time spent in sedentary through to vigorous intensity activity. Study One assessed relationships between psychological well-being and physical activity using the same psychological constructs as Parfitt and Eston (2005), but with physical activity intensity included. Results highlighted an association between self-esteem and time spent in very light activity. Study Two assessed the current data’s applicability with the proposed models and theories related to self-esteem. It was concluded that the current data provided an adequate fit with the proposed models and theories of self-esteem. Study Three introduced the domain and sub-domain constructs of self-esteem and a more valid measure of physical activity. Results highlighted associations at the global, domain and sub-domain levels with predominately time spent in very light and vigorous intensity activity. Very light intensity activity was associated with negative effects while vigorous intensity activity was associated with positive effects. It was hypothesised that if these cross-sectional relationships also existed longitudinally, then an intervention study changing the time children spend in very light and vigorous intensity activity may be beneficial to children’s psychological health. With the relationship between children’s psychological well-being and physical activity clearly highlighted, Study Four assessed the direction of this relationship and aimed to inform a potential intervention study. Longitudinal data were collected over a 12-month period and multi-level modelling was used to analyse the direction of the relationship. Results highlighted a potential indirect effect of time accumulated in very light and vigorous intensity activity on psychological well-being, which reinforced the previous cross-sectional studies. Furthermore, a reciprocal effect was identified between physical activity and the physical self-worth domain. It was concluded that interventions decreasing time spent in very light and increasing vigorous intensity activity may be beneficial to children’s psychological well-being. Study Five aimed to have an impact on children’s psychological well-being, by reducing the time children spent in very light intensity activity, through an increase in daily step counts. Although the intervention decreased the time children spent in sedentary behaviour, there was no influence on psychological well-being. However, there were several methodological limitations that affected the intervention, limiting the conclusions that can be drawn from this study, including a small sample size providing available data for analysis. The results of this thesis show a relationship between children’s psychological well-being and habitual physical activity intensity exists. Further research manipulating the time children accumulate in very light (reduction) and vigorous (increase) intensity activity, can potentially impact positively on the psychological well-being of a normal population of children.

The UK currently has the highest number of premature births (babies born before 37 weeks gestation age and below 2.5kg) in Europe affecting around 70,000 babies and their caregivers each year. Consequently many interventions have been created to support the development of the preterm newborn and minimise the complications of prematurity. Many of the interventions developed have been predominantly tactile and have almost exclusively focused upon their effect upon the baby and not, for example considered the effect that this type of intervention might have upon the parents; specifically the mother, when they are the ones who perform the therapy. In fact there is a severe lack of systematic studies investigating the latter. Hence, the aim of this thesis was to search for research-based evidence on the benefits of environmental support to both babies (e.g. increased weight gain or awake periods) and their mothers (e.g. higher perceptions of themselves as a mother) during hospital confinement and within the context of Neonatal Health Psychology (NNHP). For this reason, the main hypothesis investigated whether mothers’ cognitions and emotions; specifically Maternal Self-Efficacy, Self-Esteem and Attachment, would be affected by environmental mediators in the form of structured or non-structured tactile sensory nurturing interventions. The empirical work reported in this thesis is divided into 3 distinct phases. Firstly, as their was no appropriate measure of maternal Self-Efficacy for mothers of hospitalised preterm neonates the main aim of Phase-1 was to develop and validate an appropriate measure. Using a prospective survey method and a mixed design (between/within and correlational) a total of 160 mother-preterm dyads (pooled from 2 cohorts; cohort 1, N=100; cohort 2, N=60) were recruited. The results demonstrated that the Perceived Maternal Parenting Self-Efficacy (PMPS-E) tool had good initial psychometric properties (including internal/external reliability and construct validity) for its use with mothers of relatively healthy hospitalised preterm neonates. Secondly, in order to investigate mothers’ perceived maternal parenting self-efficacy beliefs further Phase-2 examined whether the type of feeding a mother chose to give to her baby mediated her self-efficacy beliefs. The results suggested that breastfeeding a preterm neonate during hospital confinement may adversely affect mothers’ perceptions of their efficacy in all aspects of parenting. Finally, using an experimental method Phase-3 tested the main hypothesis of this thesis and used a randomised cluster control trial (RCCT) design to allocate 60 mothers and their preterms equally to one of three cluster groups; consisting of either structured (e.g. TAC-TIC therapy or Using a Toy) or non-structured (Placebo/Control) tactile sensory nurturing interventions. The main findings illustrate that tactile sensory nurturing interventions do mediate maternal cognitions and emotions, preterm weight gain and behavioural state. In particular, mothers who performed TAC-TIC demonstrated significantly higher self-reported perceptions in their self-efficacy, self-esteem and attachment, which was attributed to the fact that these babies spent increased amounts of time in an alert and responsive behavioural state, and gained more weight throughout the study period. Thus, the work presented throughout this thesis has implications for Neonatal Health Psychologists and other Health Care professionals’ practice within neonatal units, the use of Neonatal Health Psychology as a framework to study the preterm neonate and their family, and also the way in which both mothers and their hospitalised preterm neonates are supported during hospital confinement.

Pageantry has existed in society for hundreds of years and is still prevalent within society today. Pageant contestants voluntarily compete in systems to hear what judges have to say about their intellect, talent, and poise. However, the opinions of the judges seem to not be the true influential voice in a pageant queen’s life. Previous research has reported that it is the people closest to us that have the most positive or devastating impact on the way we view ourselves. The question this study sought to answer was, “How have the opinions of others had an impact on the self-image of pageant women?” This study compiled 14 questions that were crafted through the lens of the communication theory, the looking-glass self. After interviewing 11 former pageant queens, the data was then analyzed through Creswell’s six-step process. The results found that family, coaches, directors, fellow pageant contestants, and the pageant industry were the most influential voices in a pageant queen’s life over the course of her reign. The opinion of the judges was not an opinion listed by any of the interviewees to have had a lasting impact on their self-image. These findings implicate how we speak to our inner circle and how they speak about us has the greatest level of influence over the negative or positive formation of one’s self-concept.

The current study aims to contribute to knowledge by examining the effects of high school and college relative standings on the self-esteem and academic self-concepts of Texas college students. Texas is a special context for high school students where class rank is especially salient. Currently, high school graduates within the top 6% of their graduating class are automatically admitted to the University of Texas at Austin, as required by Texas law (House Bill 588). Given this admission policy that emphasizes high school graduation rank, social comparisons and relative standings are particularly important for Texas high school and college students. Social comparison and the big fish little pond (BFLP) effects are related psychological processes that are thought to influence the self-esteem and academic self-concepts of students. Social comparison effects are those that result when individual students compare themselves to other individual students. The BFLP effect, on the other hand, represents comparisons of the ranks of individual students within their social groups. Based on social comparison and BFLP theories, students’ class rank and perceived relative standings within peer groups are relevant to their self-esteem and academic self-concept. This study tested 11 hypotheses about high school factors, relative standings, and college self-evaluations outcomes. The results showed that college students who perceived themselves to rank relatively higher in peer groups and who had higher socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds reported better self-esteem and academic self-concepts. In addition, an indirect association was found between high school graduating class rank and college self-evaluations that was mediated by perceived college relative standing. Students from smaller high school graduating classes were found to have better self-esteem in college. Students who took more AP classes in high school were found to perceive themselves standing relatively higher in college. The current study also considered the influence of social media use on the effect of high school experiences on college self-esteem and academic self-concepts. Social media tie strength with high school peers and friends was expected to amplify the effects of high school factors on college outcomes. Consistent with this view, students who reported stronger social media ties with high school peers and friends had better self-evaluations in college. Social media tie strength also amplified the school size effect: Students from smaller high school had better self-esteem in college when they maintained strong ties with high school contacts on social media. Finally, the current study examined different combinations of high school and college relative standings using Latent Profile Analysis (LCA) in order to determine if groups of students varied in terms of their high school background, and also in terms of their self-esteem and academic self-concept in college. Results found students who ranked high in their high school graduating class, but low in college reported worse college self-esteem and academic self-concept than students in other latent groups. These students also reported lower SES on average.

Perfectionism has consistently gained attention in the literature over the last several decades (Stoeber & Otto, 2006) and recent research indicates that perfectionism in individuals is on the rise (Curran & Hill, 2019). From academic pursuits among students (e.g., Rice et al., 2015) to professional performance (e.g., Bravata et al., 2019), perfectionism affects a wide range of individuals and specific areas of their lives. Perfectionism has been linked to several negative consequential physical and mental health outcomes (Molnar et al., 2020; Eley et al., 2020) including depression (e.g., Chai et al., 2020), self-esteem (e.g., Cokley, et al, 2018), and the imposter phenomenon (e.g., Wang et al., 2019). While there have been several studies that have examined the relationship of perfectionism and depression (e.g., Wang et al., 2019; Park et al., 2010), the research has not fully considered the influence of the imposter phenomenon and self-esteem on this relationship. This study replicated and extended the moderation model presented in Wang et al. (2019) and investigated the relationship between depression and perfectionism and whether imposter phenomenon and self-esteem moderate the relationships between these variables in a three-way interaction. Results showed that, contrary to the study hypothesis, a three-way interaction of perfectionism by self-esteem by the imposter phenomenon on depression was not significant. This study can inform helpful interventions, which may reduce or prevent depressive symptoms and could result in more effective treatment and efficient symptom reduction for with some perfectionistic clients.

This thesis examined self-concept from both a theoretical and applied perspective. It is written as a series of research papers, each of which investigates a specific aspect of this topic. These papers are preceded in Chapter 1 by a comprehensive review of the most relevant research in this area of empirical investigation. The most significant development in self-concept research over recent years has been the shift from a unidimensional model to a multidimensional model that is hierarchically organised. However, this hierarchical structure has received weak empirical support. The study in Chapter 2 revisited this hierarchical model and found stronger support for it than has been hitherto available from previous studies. The acceptance of a multidimensional model of self-concept has inevitably raised key questions regarding the relationship between global and specific domains. In particular, the question as to whether the contribution of a specific domain to global self-concept may be larger when its perceived importance is greater has been the subject of a number of studies. However, there has been little or no support for the importance hypothesis from many of these studies. In Chapter 3, the importance hypothesis was again tested with alternative regression models. The results of this study provided varying levels of support but did not conclusively disprove the conclusions of previous studies. Despite the absence of conclusive proof, the findings nevertheless challenge recent thinking on the limited role of the importance hypothesis and highlight the possible therapeutic value of addressing the importance of domains as a means of enhancing self-concept. The final study in Chapter 4 was designed to access the personal perspectives of participants with regard to the impact of stressful life experiences on selfconcept. This study also evaluated the effectiveness of a personalised intervention programme to facilitate the enhancement of self-concept in the context of the importance hypothesis, and the results provided contrasting levels of support for its effectiveness. The thesis concludes in Chapter 5 with a review of the theoretical and applied implications of the various studies together with implications for future research.