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The purpose of the transcendental phenomenological study was to discover the role of adaptive learning programs in closing the learning gaps in mathematics for secondary students in Georgia following the COVID-19 pandemic. The theory guiding this study was that of Bandura's theory on self-efficacy, as it highlights how an individual's experience impacts their belief in their ability to complete specific tasks. The central question in this study sought to identify the experiences of secondary math teachers who use adaptive learning programs to address learning gaps in mathematics following the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants for the study consisted of 10 to 15 middle school mathematics teachers in Southern Georgia. Through individual interviews, a focus group, and journal prompts, the study revealed the adaptive program's ability to close the learning gaps of secondary math students. Data was analyzed by systematically sorting the transcripts to identify codes for emerging reoccurring themes.

This study examined the effects of a learning environment (embodying many of De Corte et al.’s, (2004) CLIA-model components) on secondary students’ mathematical beliefs. Such mathematical beliefs have been of interest to the research community due to their expected impact on students’ willingness to engage in mathematical problem-solving. This research adopted an action research methodology using a quasi-experimental sequential explanatory mixed methods design. Data was collected using the Mathematics Related Beliefs Questionnaire (MRBQ) and a number of focus groups and individual interviews were undertaken. The sample selected (age 13-14) was from a population of convenience. There was one treatment class (N=22) and three control classes (N=45). The classroom intervention was of six months duration and was carried out by the researcher teacher in a secondary community school. Findings revealed no significant positive effects on students’ beliefs from the new learning environment about the teacher’s role in the classroom, their personal competence and the relevance to their lives and mathematics as an inaccessible subject. A more negative outcome for the fourth factor of the MRBQ scale, ‘mathematics as an inaccessible subject’, resulted for all participants (experimental and control combined) with a moderate effect of eta2=0.09. Findings from the qualitative data indicated the experimental participants found mathematics to be a difficult but useful subject. Findings, overall, revealed no significant differences between the experimental and control classes, indicating the new learning environment had not had a positive impact on the beliefs examined. Possible factors identified were the length of the intervention, the ages of participants and the socio-economic status of the majority taking part in this study. Qualitative data also indicated participants in the treatment class had found some of the activities used in the intervention to be interesting and enjoyable. Responses to the use of group work indicated participants were both willing and able to enter into communities of learners. Other results showed that participants with the highest achievement scores appeared to be the most confident learners of mathematics. Participants appeared to accept the need to have patience and perseverance when solving difficult problems but this was not translated into action in the classroom. The importance of understanding mathematics appeared to be accepted by participants. Implications for methodology, research and practice are discussed in light of these findings.

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The purpose of this intrinsic case study is to discover the approach of rural secondary students regarding their attainment and practice of digital citizenship in a learning environment that utilizes technology. The theory guiding this research study is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development as it emphasizes how individuals establish their ethics and values because digital citizenship teaches students to use the Internet in an ethical and appropriate manner. The qualitative inquiry was conducted using an intrinsic case study in a small rural secondary public school. Convenience sampling was utilized, giving way to 18 adolescent participants and 10 teachers at the school. All participants were well-versed in using technology. The data were obtained via semi-structured interviews with students and teachers, observations in classrooms, and an analysis of the Acceptable Use Policy. The collected data were analyzed, coded, and categorized into common themes pertaining to the research questions. The results indicated that digital citizenship is approached in multiple ways. The results also indicated that the participants expressed a correlation between one’s ethics and morals and their actions while using technology. The implications of the findings suggest that frequent instruction of digital citizenship occur and that students receive guidance on the use of proper ethics and morals when using technology. The implications also suggest that consequences and repercussions be explained to prevent inappropriate use of technology by adolescents.

Research shows that lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, Queer and questioning plus (LGBTQ+) youth are at high risk for bullying and violent victimization, poor mental health, alcohol and other drug use, and poor academic performance. According to the 2019 GLSEN school climate survey, LGBTQ+ students reported hearing hostile remarks, experiencing harassment and assault, feeling unsafe because of personal characteristics, and being subjected to discriminatory policies. The purpose of this narrative inquiry is to understand how secondary students experience school environments and how their teachers can be supportive and affirming of their diverse identities. The following research questions guided this study: 1) What stories do LGBTQ+ students tell about their educational experiences? 2) What strategies do LGBTQ+ students use to survive in secondary educational environments? The findings of this study revealed several themes that inform how teachers can work to develop classrooms as safe spaces for LGBTQ+ students. The implications of this study emphasize the importance of training teachers to develop strategies that affirm all students, regardless of their identities. Teachers should be familiar with a brief history of LGBTQ+ identities, should be trained in the correct, affirming language to use with LGBTQ+ students, and be willing to address macro- and microaggressions in the school environment. These implications provide guidance for teacher preparation programs and in-service professional development to develop explicit strategies to affirm diverse student genders and sexual orientations by meeting students where they are and explicitly addressing identity-based bullying.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand the lived experience of educators who sought to recognize and address academic stress in secondary students. The theory guiding this study was Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model of stress as it relates to the ways educators experience the appraisal, stress, and coping of students facing academic stress. Dweck’s growth mindset theory was applied to frame educators’ perspectives of student growth potential. The study participants consisted of 10 middle and high school educators from a suburban school district in Massachusetts. Participants were selected based on their years of experience in education and ability to provide meaningful data. Data collection consisted of interviews, a focus group, and participant letters. Moustakas’s approach to phenomenological data analysis was applied. The educator participants in this study recognized academic stress through students’ presentation and intervened with mindset strategies, coping strategies, and strategies they had developed over their careers.

This PhD explores education rights and the notion of best practice for teaching primary and secondary students with dyslexia in Government schools in the state of Victoria, Australia. Drawing on seminal reports and research literature dyslexia is defined as a ‘disability’, aligning with human rights frameworks and the views of researchers with lived experience of dyslexia. The Australian Government has increased the right of all students to access literacy, although interpretive approaches from state governments vary widely. Victorian Government policy requires dyslexia screening for students in the first year of school, yet best practice for teaching students with dyslexia remains unclear. While an estimated 10% of students have dyslexia, government policy positions these students as having ‘additional needs’, with different education support rights to students classified as having a disability. Aligning with a social justice perspective, the research explored the education rights of students with dyslexia. The research questions did not fit neatly when adopting a reflective approach, which triggered the development of a research puzzle (Gustafsson & Hagström, 2018). The question asked in the research was why the current approach to dyslexia is used in the Victorian education system despite other possible approaches? From the outset, the research presented possibilities of deriving policy and practice understandings from exemplar schools and comparative analysis of practice from England. Disability theory broadened pre-conceived ideas about dyslexia by introducing human rights frameworks. The utilisation of a research puzzle recognised the potential to increase communicability between academic paradigms. The case study methodology explored systematic approaches to dyslexia from policy and teacher perspectives; firstly, through a single case study of Victorian state education policy; and secondly, through multiple-case studies of three Victorian Government dyslexia exemplar schools. Representations of Victorian Government policy for dyslexia were sampled from government policies for literacy, disability and dyslexia. Research sampling suggests that government policy uses discourses of ‘otherness’ which may devalue learners and understate the role of the school in providing best practice and inclusive pedagogical approaches. Victorian Government policy outlines inconsistent pathways to diagnosis and support, presenting access and equity issues for students with dyslexia. From online sampling of school websites, a small number of Victorian Government schools were identified as dyslexia exemplar schools. Data were collected from two primary and one secondary Victorian Government schools using research interviews and document analysis. Nine research interviews with principals and specialist dyslexia teachers were analysed, along with school documents, to shed light on enactment of dyslexia policy. Findings suggest that schools adopt contrasting policies and practices based on varying definitions of dyslexia. Best practice and inclusive pedagogies for dyslexia in schools were challenged by the expectations within Victorian Government policy and at broader systems level. My research highlights innovative practices developed by the exemplar schools that disrupt and challenge current models of practice. It identified tensions for inclusive practice in the Victorian education system and led to me developing a new dyslexia response model. This research is important in identifying how schools are meeting their obligations under the Disability Discrimination Act (1992) and the Disability Standards for Education (2005), hence shaping future policy and practice.

The starred paper consists of a literature review of twelve studies related to learned helplessness and provides strategies to combat learned helplessness in students in high school special education.

This Starred Paper provides article summaries and data of different types of effective math interventions to secondary students with disabilities. This research is broken down into three main interventions: Concrete-Representational-Abstract, Explicit Teaching, and Cognitive Strategies.

The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to determine what motivates secondary students to enroll in virtual academies. Students at the Tennessee Virtual Academy (TeViA) were contacted via email to determine participation interest in this study. Students that chose to participate from TeViA were asked to complete a reflective journal and participate in a semi-structured interview at their residence. In vivo coding and initial coding were conducted on the reflective journals and semi-structured interviews. In vivo coding was also conducted on observation notes before theming of the data. The theory guiding this study was Ryan and Deci’s Self-Determination Theory directed by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Identifying motivating factors of secondary students that enroll in virtual academies directly relate to the Self-Determination Theory in that social and environmental factors contribute to one’s intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Results of the data analysis point to that more than one factor, intrinsic or extrinsic, motivated the majority of secondary students to enroll in virtual academies with parents being a large influence. The research utilized van Manen’s hermeneutic phenomenological research theory in defining unique themes in determining what motivates secondary students to enroll in a virtual academy. After theming the data, five unique themes evolved from this study with a large amount of wasted time in a brick-and-mortar school converging as the most noted theme that motivated secondary students to enroll in a virtual academy.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What do teachers currently believe and do that is considered to foster students’ metacognition? 2. How might teachers conduct a collaborative inquiry into building capacity for developing metacognition in their students? 3. What recommendations can be made about a Professional Development framework that is collaborative, meaningful and sustainable? ABSTRACT: There is a growing body of evidence in support of explicit metacognition instruction as a means of supporting the learning and development of secondary school students. The common appreciation for the value of metacognition is not reflected in practice, however, and there exists a need for professional development programmes to support teachers in explicitly bringing this into the classroom. A review of the literature identified the aspects of professional development that are most likely to promote meaningful and sustainable changes in practice. This theory was used to inform the development of a professional development programme for eight participant teachers from a co-educational Auckland secondary school, justified by the influence that individual teachers have on student outcomes. Qualitative data from focus groups, semi-structured interviews, an online document, and questionnaires, were gathered on the experience of these participants as they inquired into fostering their students' metacognitive capacity over a period of two and a half school terms. The results indicate that a critical, collaborative inquiry is an effective means of shifting assumptions, beliefs, and practices of teachers over time, however this does not occur uniformly. Providing encouragement for autonomy and support, together with opportunities to synthesise research and models of best practice, empowers teachers to enact changes and challenge assumptions. Whilst the developed programme was focused on fostering metacognition, a distillation of the research findings confirmed that teachers benefit from explicitly developing their own metacognitive awareness regardless of the context of the professional development which they are undertaking, reinforcing the value of a lifelong learner disposition.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are school Middle Leaders’ and Kāhui Ako Within School Leaders’ perceptions of the purpose of ‘teaching as inquiry? 2. What are school Middle Leaders’ and Kāhui Ako Within-School Leaders’ perceptions of the nature of teaching as inquiry? 3. What are school Middle Leaders’ and Kāhui Ako Within-School Leaders’ perceptions of the practice of leading ‘teaching as inquiry? 4. What are school Middle Leaders’ and Kāhui Ako Within-School Leaders’ perceptions of the and challenges and benefits of leading ‘teaching as inquiry? ABSTRACT: ‘Teaching as inquiry’ has been established as a pedagogical model in the New Zealand Curriculum for more than a decade. It is promoted as a highly effective process for professional development and for improving student learning outcomes, particularly in addressing issues of equity. However, it has been ineffectively implemented in schools. This study investigated the perceptions of Middle Leaders and Kāhui Ako Within-School Leaders regarding the purpose and nature of ‘teaching as inquiry,’ the nature of its leadership and its challenges and benefits. Data were collected using online surveys and focus group interviews within eight schools in one Waikato Kāhui Ako. Leaders saw the purpose of ‘teaching as inquiry’ as improving teaching and as improving student learning outcomes. It was seen to follow cyclical, iterative steps and promote adaptive pedagogical practice. Leaders used a variety of strategies to lead it and preferred to develop relational trust instead of following compliance-based accountability processes. There were tensions identified, including confusion over which roles held the primary responsibility to lead ‘teaching as inquiry;’ time limitations that existed within other complex and competing professional expectations; challenges in dealing with resistance from other staff and the visibility and credibility afforded to leader’s roles and the implications of their ‘teaching as inquiry’ processes. These challenges were linked with a perceived lack of professional development opportunities that focussed on leadership. The benefits of ‘teaching as inquiry’ were seen to be the opportunity to collaborate and connect with other teachers and leaders’ autonomy, enjoyment and ultimately retention in the teaching profession. It is recommended that the capacity for collaborative inquiry is strengthened at national, local and individual levels.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are the secondary school leader’s perceptions of the transition for students from secondary to tertiary education? 2. What are the tertiary transition challenges for secondary students from a tertiary institution leadership perspective? 3. In which ways could secondary to tertiary transition be improved? ABSTRACT: The number of our young people transitioning from secondary to tertiary education in New Zealand continues to decline despite multiple interventions, policies and programmes put in place. This study focusses on the current trends in secondary to tertiary transition by investigating the perceptions of this transition from the perspectives of senior secondary and tertiary leaders. The research was conducted in four Auckland secondary schools and one Auckland institute of technology. Four senior leaders from the secondary schools and three senior leaders from the tertiary institution were interviewed in semi-structured interviews to gather qualitative data to identify current transition trends across both sectors. The study highlights the significant contributions across both sectors in the provision of secondary to tertiary transition programmes. Three central themes emerged from the research: the importance of collaboration, the value of pathway programmes and teams and the barriers created by policy versus practice. These themes and the feedback received from the leaders interviewed provided a set of recommendations. The recommendations place a focus on: the establishment of an Advisory Panel including the various stakeholders from across each party involved in this transition, the establishment of dedicated transition pathway teams in both secondary and tertiary institutions and the call for our secondary schools to collaborate, sharing knowledge and resources across their wider community.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. In the context of my school environment, what are young women’s perceptions of how resilience is nurtured in their own school community? 2. What are young women’s perceptions of aspects of schooling that impact negatively on their resilience? 3. What factors promote resilience among young women? 4. How can my school respond to and support the nurturing of resilience in young women? ABSTRACT: Interest in resilience, as a response to widespread adolescent challenges, has gained prominence and traction in research. With a focus on developing resilience in young women in the secondary school context, this project addresses the growing concern around youth mental health in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Schools have a vital role in empowering young people to understand and protect their emotional health, and in fostering robust, supportive and positive connections with others whom young people can rely on when faced with adversity. The current study explored young women’s perspectives on resilience and aimed to identify ways schools can strengthen their own practices to support the development of resilience for young women in the secondary school setting. The research participants were Year 10 and 11 female students aged between 14 and 16 years, from a large, urban mainstream secondary school in Aotearoa, New Zealand. This age group is a crucial time for adolescents as they move into their senior schooling years and experience the pressures of academic expectations and personal development. The study drew on the tradition of practitioner research and embraced a holistic perspective and approach, which is gaining momentum and popularity in the field of youth wellbeing research. The methods used to collect qualitative data were interviews and a focus group. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the data. This study revealed that young women’s emotional resilience is multifaceted and complex. Findings show that a support group of people needs to be built around every young woman for them to feel resilient and thrive. Resilience was found to be influenced and shaped by relationships with others; teachers, friends and school health care professionals; trust; and a sense of belonging. Recommendations and suggestions of ways forward have been developed with direct reference to the school involved in this study. However, the findings and recommendations may be of interest to other secondary schools in Aotearoa, New Zealand that seek to strengthen their practices to support the development of resilience for young women in their school community.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are the beliefs and experiences of students who have recently transitioned from secondary to tertiary education in one New Zealand polytechnic? 2. What are the beliefs and experiences of students who are likely to transition from secondary to tertiary education to this polytechnic? 3. What strategies could be suggested to improve secondary to tertiary transitions? ABSTRACT: There has been a steady decline of students enrolling straight from secondary school into tertiary study in recent years. This decline has prompted emphasis to be placed on the transition process between secondary schools and tertiary institutes. However, there is never one simple explanation behind how they came to make their decisions. These decisions are complex and multifaceted, and without interventions can result in students not completing the transition process or successfully transitioning into tertiary study. The literature reveals a wide range of influences and barriers, but no clear understanding of the student’s perspective. This study set out to investigate the student perspectives of secondary to tertiary transitions; to examine influences on the decision making process; and to make recommendations for institutions and secondary schools to consider when engaging with students who are about to transition out of secondary school and into tertiary education. An interpretive approach was adopted for this study which used qualitative data about the experiences and perspectives of secondary school and tertiary students. To collect the data two focus groups were held, the first focus group had seven secondary school students from one West Auckland secondary school. The second focus group had seven first year tertiary students from my own institute. The study found similarities and differences between the responses of secondary school students and first year tertiary students concerning the transition from secondary school to tertiary education. Both groups placed an emphasis on parents and the highly influential role they play in the decision making process. While both groups spoke of pathways and the importance they played in the journey, the secondary school students spoke of open pathways and the tertiary students focused more on structured pathways and support. Both groups highlighted key barriers to transition, with focus placed on how to recognise and remove them. This study recommends that more importance be placed on the student voice and that there is a need for closer collaboration between secondary schools and tertiary institutions.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are the teachers’ perceptions regarding students’ smartphone use at school? 2. What are the parents’ perceptions regarding students’ smartphone use at school and at home? 3. What are the perceptions of parents and teachers regarding the school’s practice in managing smartphone use? ABSTRACT: In recent years, smartphones have become an inevitable device used by young people in schools because of the smartphones’ portability and versatility. However, middle school students as a special group are not mature so they are easily attracted by network information which could lead to the excessive use of smartphones and cause many problems. Thus, the topic of smartphone use by middle school students and school’s management practice related to this is a topic that is of interest to both parents and teachers. This research was conducted to explore the views of parents and teachers regarding smartphone use by students in one Beijing middle school in China. Using a qualitative approach, six teachers and six parents from this middle school participated in two focus group interviews respectively for this study. The three key research questions guiding this study were: What are the teachers’ perceptions regarding students’ smartphone use at school? What are the parents’ perceptions regarding students’ smartphone use at school and at home? and What are the perceptions of parents and teachers regarding the school’s practice in managing smartphone use? Findings from this research reveal that it is an inevitable trend for students to own a smartphone however, it is also seen that overusing smartphones will lead to negative influences on students’ physical health and behaviour. Therefore, managing smartphone use has become a concern for teachers and parents, and simply banning phones in school may not be the best solution. This research highlights the need for a partnership between the Ministry of Education, school leaders, teachers and parents to develop and implement a comprehensive programme of managing smartphone use by middle school students effectively, which is contextual, practical, supportive and underpinned by theoretical knowledge.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are the pedagogical factors that make it difficult for NZ secondary school teachers to develop KB pedagogy within their classes? 2. What social factors are involved in developing KBC in a NZ secondary school classroom? 3. Which actions from teachers contribute positively to the development of a KBC in NZ secondary school classrooms? ABSTRACT: It is widely argued in education literature that pedagogy needs to change in order to meet the demands of life in the 21st century, and to adequately prepare our ākonga for life in a knowledge society (Gilbert, 2007). Knowledge Building Communities (KBC) are acknowledged as a pedagogical approach that is well suited for preparing learners to be connected, critical thinkers (Bolstad et al., 2012). This study examines several secondary school teachers’ experiences of developing KBC, contextual changes, actions taken to address these challenges, and their views around what would support further development of knowledge building (KB) in their classes. This research aims to understand the imperatives behind KB, to evaluate the challenges involved in developing KB in New Zealand (NZ), and to make recommendations for strengthening the development of KBC in NZ secondary classrooms. In this practitioner research, I conducted seven interviews with secondary school teachers from a range of locations, and, subsequently, held one focus group interview with five of the teachers from the initial interviews. These methods were used to draw upon teachers’ personal experiences of developing a KBC, their perceptions of what supported the development of KB, identifying what made KB particularly challenging in a NZ context and their views on what would support the development of KB in the future. Key findings included the necessity of professional support, the importance of developing a learning environment that is conducive to KB, the need to reframe the foci of student assessment and how it is conducted, and the importance of developing communities at both a teacher and student level. As change is a fundamental feature of developing KBC in NZ schools, several challenges and complexities were highlighted through teachers’ opinions and experiences of developing KBC, and their views about what would support the development of KBC. This research has implications for schools and teachers. Schools should make efforts to minimise unnecessary external pressures. Furthermore, teachers will need to make significant shifts in their practice to develop KBC and professional support is essential for facilitating the shift to KB pedagogy. Where this is not available within their own school, teachers will need to seek out like-minded practitioners to work together as a KBC. The recommendations of this study are that the challenges in developing KBC could be mitigated by: accessing professional learning communities focused on developing KB pedagogy, the development of a local repository of practices conducive to KB, and alignment with local and national pedagogical initiatives to leverage the development of KBC.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What is the philosophy behind multi-age teaching at secondary school level? 2. What are the challenges and advantages for teachers and students in a multiage class? 3. What strategies enable the effective use of multi-age classes? ABSTRACT: Multi-age education is characterised by intentional grouping of students from more than one year level. These types of classes frequently occur in primary schools, and this is where the majority of the research is focussed. Secondary schools specialist subjects are beginning to adopt a multi-age approach, but there is little research into the use of multi-age classes as a method of teaching at this level. This study explores the landscape of multi-age teaching in secondary school design and visual communication classes, from the perspectives of both teachers and students. A qualitative methodology was employed for this research and used data gathering methods of semi-structured interviews and a focus group. Five semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers who had experience teaching multi-age classes in a specialist subject area at secondary school level. A focus group was conducted with a group of students who were part of a multi-age DVC class to discuss their experiences in this type of class. The key findings of this study highlight the benefits and challenges of multi-age teaching in a secondary school specialist subject context. The findings were established through the students’ and teachers’ views and opinions of their personal experiences of being part of a multi-age class. The findings also explored advice that experienced teachers would give to teachers who were new to multi-age teaching. The recommendations of the study focus on advice for teachers who are interested in implementing a multi-age DVC classroom. The advice covers the areas of class size, planning, student–teacher relationships, and the teacher as a teacher.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What aspects of communication between school-leavers, employers and educators support work readiness for school-leavers? 2. How can schools and employers work together to increase school-leaver work readiness? 3. How can the school-to-work transition opportunities be improved for the benefit of school-leavers in my school? ABSTRACT: Schools and employers occupy very different environments and communication regarding young employees’ skills can be problematic. This study aims to explore the school-towork transition in a semi-rural New Zealand environment, and how this transition might be enhanced to better prepare school-leavers for work. Practitioner Research is the guiding methodology. The data gathering methods used to collect qualitative data were questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Five schoolleavers, five educators and five local employers completed questionnaires around their perspectives of the current school-to-work transition process in the community of study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three school-leavers, three educators and three local employers in order to gather more detail on their own experience of the school-to-work transition process, and to provide an opportunity for them to voice how they think the process could be improved, particularly in regards to better communication between stakeholders involved in the process. The key findings of the study are that local educators and employers care deeply about the future careers of young people from this community and want to improve communication around work-readiness, that employers prefer students to have life skills above having standardised academic credentials, and that there are programmes already in existence in New Zealand to support the transition of students along these lines, which could be adapted to suit a local setting. Recommendations are that educators and employers should collaborate to help young people develop life skills, through career-integrated school programmes and by providing experiential learning in the workplace. A transition facilitator should be nominated from the school to act as a communication mediator between educators, employers, students and school leavers. Students in Years 11, 12 and 13 should have a personal work-ready plan and should organise evidence of their work-ready skills in a digital application that can be updated during and after they leave school.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: How can architecture be designed to be more engaging in educating the fields of science and technology? How can this be done through architecture expression avoiding a repository response? ABSTRACT: This research project is an investigation into how the architecture of educational facilities, primarily the science centre, can contribute towards enhancing the learning experience. It is a response to existing scientific educational facilities that lack the strength in generating the key components in education such as interaction and inquiry. It is specifically aimed at reinvigorating the science centre experience by showcasing scientific and technological advances in order to reintroduce the principals of STEM in a more exciting, eventful and explanatory way to all age groups. Science is a complex subject that calls for various teaching methods, one of the most effective, as research shows is a hands-on, interactive and engaging approach. Vital to this concept are the out of school science learning environments that provide a captivating science experience such as museums and science centres. The research project firstly reviews existing science museums globally and concludes that the external image of the building should convey a nature of its purpose rather than acting as a shed for its exhibits. Project aims include the incorporation and celebration of the sciences and technologies to inform and educate the community in a public educational and recreational facility. A site was selected in Auckland’s city center that was strategically located linking the ‘University of Auckland’ and the ‘War Memorial Museum’. Through analysis of the site the project seeks to respond with a series of buildings interconnected with public routes that are accessible at all times. Each building will provide a unique experience related to its own scientific field. The buildings will address the key scientific fields of ecology, astronomy, natural history, marine science and geology using architecture. A key interest of my research includes how disruptive technologies may reduce resource consumption and improve quality of life for future urban societies. The project will seek to integrate these innovative technologies that are likely to be essential in the future.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What key values and strategies do Samoan and Tongan parents identify as supporting educational achievement for their children, with specific reference to boys? 2. What factors external to schools do Samoan and Tongan male students describe as influences on their academic achievement in secondary education? 3. In what ways do these external factors impact on academic and longer-term achievement of Samoan and Tongan males? 4. How can these factors be utilised to increase their impact on academic achievement of Samoan and Tongan males? The literature review for this study raised a serious concern that Pasifika males had poor achievement levels in New Zealand secondary schools. Although there was an improvement in the past decade, male Pasifika secondary students as a group, still lagged far behind their Pakeha or Asian counterparts. This research investigated the gap that still exists for Pasifika secondary school males. The aims of this study led to the four research questions that investigated the influences leading to positive educational outcomes for Samoan and Tongan males in New Zealand secondary education. An interpretive paradigm was adopted with a qualitative methodology. Multiple methods of interviews, focus groups and talanoa interviews provided the most appropriate research design to collect data related to the phenomenon of influences on Pasifika male secondary students. These three methods allowed the researcher to investigate a range of different perspectives with three cohorts (recent male Pasifika secondary school leavers, male Pasifika university graduates and Pasifika parents) to provide triangulation. Bourdieu’s (1977) theory of cultural capital was used as a relevant theoretical framework to explore the influences on the academic achievement of male Pasifika secondary students. These students operate within a number of different fields, including church, family, school and friends which all have the potential to provide positive influences during their secondary school education. It is the relationship between these different fields that can support male Pasifika secondary students to succeed academically. The findings showed that male Pasifika secondary students who had achieved academic success understood the sacrifice their families had made by migrating to New Zealand. For the participants of this study, strong influencing role models were provided by peers, school and family, while high expectations from home and school were seen as a positive motivating force. It was perceived as important for parents to understand the time commitment required to achieve at the highest levels of achievement and for families to allow their boys the space and time to study. A fai e te fia alu vave, alu naó oe, afai e te fia alu mamao o faátasi If you want to go fast go alone, if you want to go far go together (Samoan Proverb)

Australian education policy in the 21st century has given rise to the provision of programs that seek to enhance participation and learning outcomes for disadvantaged or underrepresented groups in education. This study aimed to determine what university–school “bridging activities” offer to the agency of young people with regard to their developing imagined futures. This thesis draws on the work of Bourdieu,G.H.Mead, and Habermas to position its critical analysis of the subjectivity of young people as they construct their future possibilities. Qualitative data were gathered from active engagement with young people in years nine and ten through classroom projects and visits to universities. The analysis of data has drawn on the process of bracketing as a way to focus on the experience and then clustering the data in order to facilitate interpretation. Findings from this research show how young people contribute to the construction of their imagined futures and how aspirations can be enhanced through reflexively informed agency. The frame of reference young people use to position their learning and career goals is both enhanced and restricted by their past and current life experiences and their capacities to explore the possibilities, expectations and opportunities which contribute to one’s sense of self and agency. Those who constitute schools and universities would welcome the accounts given in this study as they mark the subjectivities that inform and influence a young person’s sense of possibility. Additionally, this study has examined the contexts and opportunities for universities and school partnerships to impact student habitus and enhance personal agency around aspirations. The data constituted by this study indicate that it is only when the school and the university collaborate upon their respective understandings of personal and institutional knowledge that young people can engage with navigating the emerging forks in life trajectories.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 1. What are the current practices of pastoral care in New Zealand secondary schools? 2. What are senior leaders’ expectations of tutor teachers in New Zealand secondary schools? 3. What are the successes and challenges of a tutor teacher in a pastoral care role? ABSTRACT: The social, emotional wellbeing of students today is as of great a concern as their academic achievement. In New Zealand secondary schools, special arrangements are made for pastoral care. The purpose of this research was to examine the role of the tutor teacher in two secondary schools and to examine the expectations and challenges of this role. The role of the tutor teacher is frequently cited as an important role in the care of secondary school students yet there is no current research on the role of a tutor teacher in the secondary sector in New Zealand. Therefore, this research will contribute to the knowledge of pastoral practices in a New Zealand setting. This qualitative research comprised document analysis of pastoral care documents such as pastoral care curriculum documents and school website information on pastoral care. Eight semi-structuredThe findings established that although both schools deemed pastoral care important, only School Two resourced and led their tutor teachers to fulfil the role adequately. Subsequently the quality of pastoral care provided for students in School One was completely dependent upon the individual teacher’s motivation to provide pastoral care for their students. interviews were conducted at two New Zealand secondary schools with a Dean and two tutor teachers at each school and a deputy principal at one school. In conclusion, pastoral care is important for students, but schools need to ensure that their teachers are sufficiently resourced and trained to provide such care. Further research on the practices of tutor teachers in a variety of schools is required to extrapolate the findings of this research.

Writing is a crucial skill that people need to successfully communicate thoughts and information. Writing proficiently is essential to function in many activities of every day life, including school, the workplace, relationships, and the community at large. In school, students are regularly asked to demonstrate their academic knowledge through written communication. The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of a strategy instruction approach, GO 4 IT…NOW!, in an inclusive secondary Language Arts classroom. Specifically, this was a descriptive study using multiple probes across participants to assess the quality of participants’ writings after implementing GO 4 IT…NOW! strategy instruction. All students demonstrated strong improvement in paragraph writing skills after the implementation of the GO 4 IT…NOW! strategy. Limitations, future directions, and implications for practice are provided in the discussion.

The present quasi-naturalistic study used socio-cultural theory (Wertsch, 1998), picture theory (Mitchell, 1994) and the use of historical agency as a second-order concept (Lee & Ashby, 2000; Seixas & Morton, 2013) as a way of examining the historical thinking of high school seniors as they investigated second-wave feminism. Existing literature reflects the ways in which students understand historical agency (Barton, 1997; Winter, 2001; Peck, Poyntz, & Seixas, 2011), but has yet to examine its use as a conceptual tool to dissect controversial issues in history, such as feminism. The main research question was: in what ways do high school seniors employ historical agency as an analytical lens in examining second wave feminism? Supporting research questions included: (1) In what ways do high school seniors make sense of historical agency as a tool for taking informed action? (2) How do high school seniors use historical context to evaluate individual, collective or institutional choices and their consequences? (3) How do high school seniors define gender and feminism in the context of examining the struggle for women’s political, social and/or economic equality? Data included students’ responses to a questionnaire, notes and audio-recording transcripts from a historical thinking exercise that used historic photographs, and audio-recordings and transcripts of semi-structured interviews. Results indicated that participants understand the complexities surrounding historical agency including an actor’s choice and their challenges. Participants were also able to use historical agency as a conceptual tool to investigate gender, controversial issues, and change over time. Still, participants struggled with historical context and causation and relied heavily upon a narrative of progress. Further consideration of students’ use of historical agency might offer new insight into supporting a more inclusive history curriculum that highlights historical agency and women’s history in more authentic ways.

This study sought to determine the impact digital readers had upon the meaning-making behaviors of secondary students as they read a canonical text on digital readers as part of a traditional high school English curriculum. A secondary purpose of the study was to determine how students’ screen-based literacy practices did or did not intersect with their in-school practices. In addition, the study examined how the teacher made pedagogical decisions related to implementing the digital readers during a unit studying Frankenstein as part of a traditional English class course of study. Employing a descriptive case study design (Merriam, 2009; Stake, 1995), this qualitative study sought to explore how interacting with the unique features of a digital reader within a school context can affect secondary students. The case of this study was defined as one secondary language arts teacher and a class of her students. The 16 students participating were all high school seniors nearing the final weeks of school.In order to understand the phenomenon of interest more fully, 11 students participated in individual interviews. In addition to semi-structured interviews of the teacher and students, data collection included transcribed observational notes, responses to two questionnaires, and pertinent artifacts. Inductive data analysis was ongoing during data collection (Merriam, 2009) through use of the constant-comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Data analysis revealed four findings: (a) students’ use of the digital readers significantly altered the transactional nature of a reading event; (b) implementing digital readers allowed students’ greater agency than conventional print text; (c) students defended a traditional autonomous model of literacy at school; and (d) situational factors inherent to schools challenged the teacher’s implementation of digital literacy practices. Scholars have begun to examine the social, cultural, and political contexts encapsulating literate acts and the intrinsic meaning of these events (Perry, 2012). As a result, researchers continue to grapple with their understanding of what literacy means and how it can be defined in the new world of digitally-based communication. Ultimately, results of this study deepen these bodies of research confirming earlier findings.

Vocabulary is vital for success in secondary content area curricula and students with learning disabilities often have limited vocabulary knowledge which inhibits their success in secondary-level content area classes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an explicit algebra vocabulary intervention with graphic organizers on vocabulary knowledge and skills in algebra for students with learning disabilities in high school Algebra I. A single-case repeated acquisition design with pre- and posttest measures was used to determine the effects of the intervention for students with learning disabilities who received special education services. The study included 10 students who received Algebra I instruction in general education and additional support in a resource setting. The researcher-implemented vocabulary intervention occurred in the resource setting on alternating days for 30-40 minutes per session across four weeks. Students learned four new vocabulary words during each session through explicit vocabulary instruction and completion of graphic organizers. Results indicated that students with learning disabilities were able to learn the vocabulary and were able to apply the knowledge of the vocabulary to algebra problems. However, students did not maintain the new learning on maintenance measures, although mean scores for the maintenance measures were higher than mean pretest scores across the intervention. Project participants and the special education teachers familiar with the intervention reported positive perceptions of the effectiveness and feasibility of the vocabulary intervention.

This mixed-method study examined the effects of the use of the Vocabulary Think Chart in seventh-grade science students’ understanding of scientific vocabulary. Participants included 89 students who attended the only three regular Earth Science classes in the study site. Participants were assigned to the treatment and comparison group according to the teachers’ wish on how they wanted to participate in the study. The experimental group received one week long preparation on the use of the Vocabulary Think Chart, followed by five weeks of using the strategy independently. Results of the study did not show a significant change on students’ scientific vocabulary understanding and raised questions about vocabulary instruction in science classes. Discussion of the results revolves around the Treatment Teacher’s influence in the study, time of intervention, and number of participants.

Motivation, willingness to read, and ability to enjoy reading are dimensions of readingfound in any literacy activity. While research supports the notion that most teenage readers areless motivated than they were when they were younger, current trends indicate they do find timeto read for pleasure when they want to do so. Connections between students and books can bestudied in more detail when popular book series are chosen and utilized by the students to engagein reading. If phenomenological literacy events are better understood, educators will be betterprepared to motivate student readership in their students.Thus, the goal of this study was to answer the following question: What characteristicsof literary elements of a book series most motivate secondary school students to engage inreading? A total of 57 students (30 males, 27 females) completed the study by responding to aresearcher-generated Literary Elements of Book Series (LEBS) inventory. Twelve differentitems were included on the inventory to determine student preferences for book series:characters, plot, theme, location, types of conflict, time period, type of story, marketing tools,titles for their own series, tone of conclusion and outcome of story. Most items had options fromwhich students could select a response or select the “other” category and write in their ownresponse.The commonalities found in responses overall all show that the gender of the participantdid not greatly influence the choices made as males and females often gave the same responsesand student-generated answers. The findings and discussion found in this study revealedexpected results based on current research while yielding some surprising trends in studentpreferences regarding reading motivation.

This study examined the perceptions of secondary students and teacher quality during their years in high school. The study sought to compare responses among males and females and among ethnicities to determine if there were differences in perceptions of teacher quality with respect to student-teacher relationships, instructional methods, and justice and fairness. Surveys were given to students from eight public high schools in a southeastern region of Georgia. Demographic questions were included in the survey to delineate responses by gender and ethnicity. This study generated data from 663 students to determine student perceptions of teacher quality in the areas of justice and fairness, instructional methods, and teacher-student relationships. Data were organized and evaluated using statistical software to produce the written results. The results for student and teacher relationships and justice and fairness indicated there were no significant differences among ethnicities or genders; however, when Instructional Strategies were evaluated for ethnicity and gender differences, ANOVA results for ethnicity revealed significant differences among the four ethnic groups. High agreement was found on the items in which students indicated that they had adequate time for questions and note-taking in class, teachers provided strategies to help them retain information, teachers expected students to use a variety of resources to complete class projects, and teachers provided detailed rubrics for specific grade requirements. These findings lead one to believe that students want to know the expectations for success in the classroom and value the teachers that provide them with concrete details.

This research addresses secondary students’ misconceptions in ecology topics, namely food webs, photosynthesis and respiration, evolution and natural selection, and climate change. These topics are all covered several times in the secondary curriculum, but studies show that students frequently enter universities with incorrect ideas or misconceptions in these areas, showing that they are not being targeted effectively in middle and high school. The research starts with an introduction about misconceptions, including information on students’ cognitive development and structure, conceptual change, constructivism and other effective teaching strategies, and ties to the Ohio Science Content Standards and the National Science Education Standards. Each of the four topics is then researched in detail, with background information about the topic and common student misconceptions and then implications for teaching. The implications for teaching sections include numerous strategies to use in the classroom to address these misconceptions. The research culminates with a chapter on diagnosing misconceptions and writing effective assessments for diagnosis. Eight formative assessments are included, two for each topic studied. This work was written with the classroom in mind and the hopes that much of this information and these teaching strategies can be used in the classroom to improve student learning and bring about conceptual change.

The purpose of this study is to analyze legislation and case law regarding sexual relationships between American secondary school students and their teachers. Chapter one provides an introduction to the study, and chapter two reviews relevant literature. In chapter three, codes of criminal and administrative law are reviewed to determine which sexual relationships between educators and students are permissible and prohibited in each state. Federal statutes, including Title IX of the Rehabilitation Act of 1972 and § 1983 of Title 42 of the United States Code, are reviewed to determine how federal law applies to sexual relationships between teachers and students.Next, case law is reviewed to determine how state and federal courts have ruled regarding sexual relationships between teachers and students. While the primary focus of the dissertation is sexual relationships between teachers and students, case law related to sexual relationships between students and other school employees is reviewed as well. In chapter four, the dissertation reviews state and federal court cases in which employees terminated for engaging in sexual relationships with students filed suit against their former employers or state boards of education alleging wrongful termination or other adverse employment action. In chapter five, the dissertation reviews state and federal court cases in which students who engaged in sexual relationships with educators filed suit alleging various rights violations by the school district. In chapter six the study analyzes the trends of the judicial rulings. Generally, in wrongful termination claims, courts tended to support schools if they provided due process to terminated employees. In student suits against school districts alleging Title IX or § 1983 violations, courts tended to support schools that did not display deliberate indifference to actual knowledge of sexual harassment or display a custom or policy that promotes harassment. Finally, the study provides a primer for school administrators. The primer discusses warning signs of sexual harassment, offers tips for school administrators to prevent sexual relationships between employees and students, and gives guidance to school administrators to respond properly when such relationships come to light.

The number of linguistically and culturally diverse students entering public schools is increasing (Echeverria, Short & Powers, 2006; Williams, 2001) and mainstream teachers are responsible for making content comprehensible for these students (Clegg, 1996; Georgia Department of Education, 2008); however, test scores and graduation rates indicate that English language learners (ELLs), across the nation, are consistently underperforming on content based assessments and failing to complete high school (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 2006; Cruz & Thornton, 2009) . Using a constructivist lens and the concept of the instructional dynamic (Ball & Forzani, 2007), this dissertation presents the experiences of the mainstream teacher and 5 ELLs enrolled in an inclusive, single semester, secondary mainstream US Government course. Through vignettes created from observations, interviews, reflections and document analysis, this semester long qualitative case study presents the experiences of the mainstream teacher and ELLs. Constant comparative analysis of data revealed three themes (1) returning to the past; (2) navigating the classroom; and (3) preparing for the future. Continued analysis revealed five assumptions held by both the mainstream teacher and the ELLs which shaped the experiences of the participants within this mainstream classroom: (1) all members of this classroom were capable of achieving success through work; (2) achieving present success was directly linked to lessons learned from the past; (3) facilitating success means seeking to understand and interact with others (4) being a “team player” offers protection from uncomfortable situations; and (5) teachers and students expect content classes to prepare students for the future. The findings of this study capture the complexity of the mainstream classroom and imply that the success of the mainstream teacher and ELLs alike depend upon increasing appropriate professional development which maximizes the instructional knowledge of mainstream teachers, generating a supportive and collaborative school and classroom environment for teachers and students and ensuring the implementation of a relevant and immediate curriculum.

This research sought to add to a body of knowledge that is severely underrepresented in the scientific literature, reading comprehension in secondary students. Chapter 1 examines the current state of literacy in the nation’s public schools and the consequences that arise if students leave high school with inadequate reading skills. It discusses the neurological processes involved with reading and posits that independent silent reading (ISR) combined with scaffolding techniques may prove to be an effective method for addressing reading comprehension. The review also analyzes the components believed to be essential to reading, including vocabulary development, prior knowledge and background information, inferencing and prediction, and cognitive and metacognitive strategies. It argues that technological tools may have the potential to address these components within the framework of ISR. Chapter 2 details the experiment that tested these hypotheses. The study implemented an ISR program across a 5-month semester in a public high school and included 145 participants from nine 10th grade literature classes. The control group took part in no ISR, one treatment group participated in weekly ISR read from a textbook, and another treatment group participated in weekly ISR read from a computer module designed to address the components of reading comprehension. Students were measured on multiple achievement and motivational assessments. Results indicated that students from the ISR groups made greater gains than the control group in total reading ability, reading comprehension, end-of-course reading scores, and success/ability attribution, but no differences emerged on the vocabulary assessment. The computer module ISR group performed similarly in most respects to the textbook ISR group, but students in the computer module ISR group increased in their reading motivation and scored better on the individual reading assignments, suggesting the cognitive tools assisted them in understanding specific material at hand. This research offers much needed data on secondary students’ reading achievement and motivation, and provides evidence for one method, ISR, that has the potential to address development in these areas.

A multiple baseline across subjects design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of repeated writing, self-graphing of total words written (TWW), and feedback on the writing fluency of high school students with disabilities. In one experimental group, the individual components of self-graphing, repeated writing, and feedback were introduced cumulatively. In the second experimental group, participants moved directly from baseline condition to repeated writing with self-graphing and feedback. Results were mixed within and across groups. High variability was observed across participants and phases. Self-graphing of TWW was associated with an improvement in quantity and quality in two of three participants in Group One. Repeated writing was associated with an improvement in quantity with a decline in quality in all participants in Group One. Feedback was associated with a decline in quantity and an improvement in quality in two participants in Group One; a third participant showed the same effect but only one writing was conducted with feedback. A decline in quantity and an improvement in quality were also observed in one of four participants in Group Two. Indicators of social validity for the intervention were positive from participants and responding teachers and parents. Qualitative independent evaluations of overall writing quality failed to demonstrate improvement between pre and post-intervention responses as well as between first and second writings with self-graphing and feedback.

While many educators recognize the need for multicultural education in today's diverse schools, some teachers have struggled with how to meaningfully center culture in their teaching practices. This dissertation examines what happens when issues of race and culture are productively taken up in secondary classroom discussions. Eighth grade students of various racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds were the focus of the research, a year-long qualitative study of English and Social Studies classes with two white teachers where students did work related to race, culture, power, and privilege. To begin, I show how two middle school teachers structured a critical multicultural curriculum. I then explore in greater depth how students responded to this curriculum, particularly a unit called the "Race Discussions." Finally, I closely examine an interaction that occurred during this unit to illustrate the complexities and difficulties of teaching, learning about, and researching matters of race, culture, power, and identity. Findings reveal that as students worked through units defining culture, studying cultural conflicts, and understanding cultural resolution, many of them were able to come to a greater understanding of themselves as racial and cultural beings and of the institutional forces that influence our society. Trends emerged across racial groups; as evidenced in their class participation, interviews, and work samples, African American and bi/multiracial students tended to respond positively, valuing the chance to discuss race and racism with their white peers and share personal stories of discrimination. The reactions of Latino, Asian American, and white students were more varied, ranging from resistance to the idea of white privilege; to feelings of exclusion and guilt; to a sense of racial awakening, including the acceptance of responsibility and empowerment to act. The efforts of these teachers and their students contributes to a growing and important research and teaching dialogue around the successes and dilemmas of critical multicultural practice, helping us to consider how we may--that we must--enact this work in our own ways, in our own classrooms.

There are many different kinds of auditory training programs available for use by children who are deaf or hard of hearing. However, there are only a few that are appropriate to be used by high school students and even fewer still that relate to the student's academic courses. An auditory training curriculum for deaf and hard of hearing high school students was developed relating to a New York State regents course in biology using the CardMaster 2020 from Califone. Fifteen key vocabulary words from three biology units were chosen for use in this curriculum. Five of these fifteen words were not practiced by the students but served as a control. The ten vocabulary words that were to be practiced were also placed in ten sentences to be listened to and written down. All vocabulary words and sentences were recorded onto magnetic cards that were listened to using the CardMaster 2020, a magnetic card reader. Participants were able to improve their scores from the pre-test to the posHest after they practiced listening to the magnetic cards.

The teaching of literature in New South Wales secondary schools has shifted significantly in the period 1990-2001, influenced both by the newer literary theories and by the belated application to the teaching of Shakespeare of active approaches designed to encourage students to think dramatically, think theatrically when approaching playscripts. This essay explores the way in which the author's research papers and the pedagogical materials that they have generated have supported and indeed to some extent been instrumental in bringing about these changes. Beginning with an overview of literature teaching in secondary schools 1990, the essay identifies the questions which have driven the research over the past decade: 1/. Can Reader-Response Theory be made explicit to junior and middle secondary students? Would such knowledge be of value to them? 2/. Are there other aspects of modern literary theory that are worth exploring with secondary students? 3/. Can young readers be encouraged to reflect on their processes of response? Is such an endeavour worthwhile? 4/. How can the teaching of Shakespeare be improved? The last question led the author, during the period of candidature, to explore the puzzling question of why the pedagogy of teaching Shakespeare had lagged so far behind the methods employed in the teaching of other literature, and thus to an historical enquiry covering the teaching of Shakespeare over the past hundred years. At the same time, the author has been concerned to refine some of his teaching methods in order to encourage senior students to explore the plays from, for example, feminist, new historicist and post-colonial perspectives.

This study examined the implementation of the least restrictive environment (LRE) provision of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) for secondary students with learning disabilities on Guam. The research questions for the study addressed the following areas: (a) perceptions of the definition of LRE, (b) factors influencing the implementation of LRE, and (c) determination of LRE in relation to the national trends and literature. This research utilized the qualitative method of collecting and analyzing data that included interviews and review of written documents. Parents and school personnel from the secondary schools, involved in the implementation of the least restrictive environment, were interviewed to obtain their perception of the definition of LRE and the factors influencing its implementation. The responses of the interviews were triangulated with information from randomly selected Individual Education Programs (IEPs) and placement rates for secondary students with learning disabilities from the 1995–96 to the 1999–2000 school years. A summary of the responses by school personnel to the question related to the definition of LRE resulted in the following: (a) least restrictive environment refers to the needs of the child, (b) least restrictive environment refers to ensuring access to education for the child, (c) least restrictive environment addresses both access to the general education classroom as well as the individual needs of the child, and (d) least restrictive environment refers to the rights of the child to an education. School personnel also identified seven factors as having an influence in its implementation: (a) IDEA requirement of 1997 related to access and progress in the general curriculum, (b) federal policy, (c) DOE structure and educational delivery system, (d) advocacy, (e) due process and litigations, (f) preparation of individuals involved with the implementation of LRE, and (g) values and beliefs. With the parents, the majority of them indicated they were not familiar with the term least restrictive environment. For the parents, the following were identified as having an influence on the implementation of LRE: (a) the distribution of funds, (b) advocacy, (c) due process and litigations, (d) preparation of individuals responsible for the implementation of LRE, and (e) values and beliefs. School personnel and parents identified the administrator and the consulting resource teacher (CRT) as the individuals most influential in ensuring the implementation of LRE. A review of the IEPs for the past five years revealed that students with learning disabilities have been placed in more restrictive settings as compared with the national average. IEP committees often did not consider the continuum of placement or, when they are considered, the continuum begins with the resource room. IEPs lacked evidence to support the placement into more restrictive settings due to unsatisfactory results in the general education classroom even with the provision of supplementary aids and services to meet the individual needs of the child. In conclusion, it is evident that school personnel and parents responsible for the implementation of the least restrictive environment (LRE) requirement of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) do not have a clear understanding of the LRE requirement. In addition, the review of the IEPs and placement rates revealed that Guam secondary schools indicated a preference towards the placement of secondary students with learning disabilities in more restrictive settings. This implies the need for training for school personnel.

One purpose of this study was to determine whether any differences in immediate achievement or retention existed between students using manipulatives and students not using manipulatives. Also addressed in this study is whether or not the use of manipulatives is more beneficial for girls than boys and whether the use of manipulatives is more beneficial for low-ability students than for high-ability students. Students selected for this study were from a large suburban school district in Texas. The students were from eight intact classes, four of which were designated as the experimental group and the other four as the control group. The sample consisted of one hundred eighty-seven students. All students were tested with a test developed by the researcher. This same test was administered as a pretest, posttest, and retention test. The following supplemental data were also gathered on the students: mathematics scores from the California Test of Basic Skills and scores from the mathematics section of the Texas Educational Assessment of Minimum Skills test. Analysis of the data revealed no statistical difference in the mean scores of students instructed with or without manipulatives when the test was administered immediately after instruction. Nor was there any statistical difference in the mean scores when the test was administered two months after instruction. There was no statistical difference in the mean gain scores from the pretest to the posttest between boys and girls or between high- and low-achieving students. Nor was there any statistical difference between the mean gain scores from the pretest to the retention test between boys and girls or between high- and low-achieving students. It is recommended that further studies be conducted to investigate achievement and retention of students using manipulatives at the secondary level. It is also recommended that variables other than achievement be studied to determine the effects of manipulatives on secondary students.