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This portfolio is comprised of four parts: A literature review, a research report, a critical appraisal of the research and a service evaluation. The literature review investigated adult Child Sexual Exploitation (CSE) globally, analysing factors contributing to people's offending behaviour. Twelve studies were included. There were variable definitions of CSE and a paucity of high-quality research. Results indicated common psychological themes such as cognitive distortions, group stages and ways of operating, and systemic issues like socio-economic conditions and subcultural norms that are a catalyst for CSE. The research analysed interviews with sixteen serving prisoners convicted of group CSE in the UK. Data was analysed using a constructivist, grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2014). Multiple adverse life experiences and criminal versatility were common. Those offending against children did so because of a pervasive sexual interest, which was the main function of their group involvement. Conversely, for people offending against teenagers, group involvement satisfied a need for kinship. CSE was part of a lifestyle that included sex as a transaction. The offending was incidental to group membership. The critical appraisal analysed strengths and limitations of the research. The interviews produced rich data. The painstaking analytical approach and methodological rigour made the analysis insightful and thorough. The project's practical applications were apparent. Some participants were under-represented; females, high-level organised groups and the un-convicted. These should be considered preliminary findings and future research should seek to clarify whether they are representative. The service evaluation analysed the success of a mentor scheme for serving prisoners supporting peers attending Offending Behaviour Programmes. Thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2013) revealed their motivations were altruistic and mutually beneficial. They gained positive, sometimes transformational benefits from supporting others. This is consistent with desistance literature about the need to be valued in order to be rehabilitated (Maruna, 2001; Garcia, 2016).

Experiences of shame are strongly correlated with diminished social relations in individuals of all ages. Difficult and traumatic early childhood situations and experiences such as partner abuse, sexual violence in situations with differences in status commonly lead to shame. Difficult family situations and traumatic situations also frequently result in cognitive distortions, flawed thinking which often continues through adulthood. This study evaluated the experiences of shame, satisfaction of social relations, and cognitive distortions of young adults ages 18-25 years of age. Participants included 88 young adults recruited from social media sites and email contacts. Self-report measures were used to evaluate the level of these factors in participants, including before- and after-measurements to determine results on changes in levels of shame and cognitive distortions from a psychoeducational intervention on learning about cognitive distortions. Pearson’s r tests were carried out to determine the relationships between the variables, with paired t-tests carried out to determine the effect of the psychoeducational intervention on levels of shame and on cognitive distortions. Results of these tests showed a strong positive relationship between shame and cognitive distortions in young adults and a negative relationship between cognitive distortions and relationships, with no relationship found between levels of shame and relationships. The paired t-tests found significant changes in both cognitive distortions and levels of shame, following a brief intervention focused on learning about cognitive distortions. The value of this study will include the way in which learning about cognitive distortions can reduce shame in individuals and perhaps result in improved relationships in young adults.

ADHD symptoms are associated with dysfunctional automatic thoughts that increase avoidance, impairment, and distress; however, little is known about factors that increase the likelihood of these thoughts. The current study developed an Experimental Vignette Measure of Automatic Thoughts for ADHD (VMATA-E), which was used to test how task-specific factors (Immediacy, Aversiveness, and History of Failure) and ADHD Status influenced automatic thoughts. This study systematically manipulated components of the vignettes, using a 23-1 between-subjects fractional factorial design. After randomization to an experimental condition, 320 participants read three brief vignettes and rated automatic thoughts in response to each one. EFA was used to develop the measure, convergent validity was examined via correlations. MANOVAs were used to examine main effects of task-specific factors and interaction with ADHD status. The VMATA-E demonstrated a three-factor structure which supports the stability of negative (NAT), rationalizing (RAT), and adaptive (GOAT) thoughts found in prior work. Task-specific factors of Immediacy and Aversiveness were found to have effects on NAT and GOAT. Compared to non-ADHD participants, individuals with clinically significant ADHD symptoms reported higher levels of dysfunctional automatic thoughts and lower levels of adaptive automatic thoughts (i.e., GOAT), even after controlling for prior mood disorder diagnoses. In contrast to expectations, there were no interactions between ADHD status and any task-specific factor. The findings of the current study have theoretical and practical implications for research on the role of automatic thoughts in ADHD-related impairment.

Cognitive-behavioral approaches for treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults emphasize the role of dysfunctional cognitions in reinforcing and exacerbating distress and impairment. However, research supporting theorized connections between ADHD symptoms, maladaptive schemas, negative automatic thoughts (NAT; e.g., “I’m stupid;” “It’s pointless”), overly-positive avoidant thoughts (OPAT; e.g., “I have plenty of time—I’ll do it later”), and impairment is limited. The current study sought to evaluate the cognitive behavioral framework for adult ADHD in a community sample of 141 emerging adults (M age = 19.84; 85.5% White; 72.1% female; 20% reported ADHD diagnosis), while controlling for relevant covariates (age, sex, and self-reported symptoms of anxiety and depression). Participants completed a series of self-report measures online. Hierarchical stepwise regressions was used to (a) test theorized relationships between ADHD symptoms, maladaptive schemas, and dysfunctional automatic thoughts and (b) examine how ADHD symptoms, maladaptive schemas, and dysfunctional automatic thoughts are related to impairment. ADHD symptoms and two maladaptive schemas (Insufficient Self-Control and Dependence/Incompetence) jointly predicted OPAT. ADHD symptoms and Insufficient Self-Control were positively associated with OPAT, whereas Dependence/Incompetence was negatively associated. The final model predicting NAT was also significant, with two maladaptive schemas (Insufficient Self-Control and Failure to Achieve) being positively associated with NAT. ADHD symptoms and NAT were positively related to impairment. These findings are consistent with the CBT framework for ADHD and underscore the importance of considering the unique thoughts and beliefs held by clients seeking treatment for ADHD-related impairment.

Although stalking has been recognized as social problem for the last twenty years, few studies have examined the treatment needs or effectiveness with these persistent offenders. The dearth of information on appropriate intervention is in part related to the difficulty of operationalizing stalking behavior in empirical studies. Accordingly, the present study sought to examine clinically relevant indicators of functioning using both categorical and continuous definitions of stalking behavior. Two hundred and fifty male prisoners were surveyed about their engagement in intrusive and aggressive behaviors during a significant conflict, as well as their social, emotional, and cognitive functioning. Results indicated quantitative cutoffs recommended by previous research overincluded generally aggressive offenders. Still, the stalking group identified by this approach displayed the ruminative patterns suggested by theorists. Furthermore, few proposed functioning variables predicted violence and pursuit intensity during multivariate modeling. Violence was only predicted by greater self-reported trait rumination, while pursuit intensity was predicted by greater substance use, greater event-specific rumination, and poorer conflict management skills.

Current research has made significant strides on two levels of analysis pertaining to cognitive and neurobiological processes associated with antisocial behavior. At the cognitive level, pervasive use of Self-Serving Cognitive Distortions (SSCDs) has been emphasized in the facilitation/perpetuation of antisocial behavior. At the neurobiological level, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has been identified as the core of a neural network associated with behavioral decision-making. While studies have linked these processes individually to antisocial behavior, researchers have yet to examine their relative contributions and relationships to one another. The present study addresses this shortcoming with exploratory research of the roles of SSCDs and vmPFC function in accounting for antisocial behavior. Participants (N = 116) completed self-report measures of SSCDs, antisocial behavior, internalizing behavior, aggression, and empathy. Additionally, participants completed two neurological proxy tasks pertaining to vmPFC and dorsolateral prefrontal function. SSCDs correlated with antisocial behavior, even when controlled for internalizing behavior; both correlated inversely with empathy. VmPFC function did not correlate with antisocial behavior or with SSCDs. The results of the study do not suggest that the vmPFC serves as a neural correlate of SSCDs. Additional research is needed to establish the specific role of vmPFC function in antisocial behavior.

Childhood psychological maltreatment is associated with depressive symptoms in adulthood. However, little is known about the mechanisms responsible for this link. The primary goal of the current study was to examine mechanisms responsible for the association between childhood psychological maltreatment and depressive symptoms in adulthood. Two possible mechanisms were tested: negative internalized beliefs and emotion dysregulation. It was hypothesized that emotion dysregulation would be particularly associated with emotional nonresponsiveness, while negative internalized beliefs would be particularly associated with spurning and terrorizing. Retrospective self-report measures assessed all variables in 815 undergraduate females. Confirmatory factor analysis validated a four-factor model of psychological maltreatment. Structural modeling was used to test proposed mechanisms and relationships among variables. Emotion dysregulation and negative internalized beliefs both mediated the relationship between psychological maltreatment and depressive symptoms. Spurning/terrorizing predicted depression and was mediated by both emotion dysregulation and negative internalized beliefs. Emotional nonresponsiveness did not directly predict depressive symptoms or emotion dysregulation, but was associated with depressive symptoms via negative internalized beliefs, which predicted emotion dysregulation. Post-hoc models suggested that the sequence of the mediators was significant; psychological maltreatment’s effect on depressive symptoms and dysregulated emotions may occur through the intermediary effects of negative internalized beliefs. Results suggest that among college women, negative internalized beliefs may underlie emotion dysregulation and symptoms of depression following psychological maltreatment.

In this study, relationships among empathy, cognitive distortions, social, physical, and violent aggression, and delinquency in adolescents were examined. In particular, interaction effects between empathy and cognitive distortions were studied with regard to their ability to predict different types of aggression. The results supported one interaction between the perspective-taking component of empathy and cognitive distortions that was a unique predictor of social aggression. Cognitive distortions had very strong relationships with social, physical, and violent aggression. Male delinquents indicated the highest levels of social and violent aggression, while non-delinquent participants endorsed more moderate physical aggression than the delinquent population. Older participants endorsed more social aggression than their younger counterparts; however, females' endorsement of social aggression decreased with age while males' increased with age.

The relationship between empathy and aggression has been widely studied and this relationship has typically have been found to be indirect. The relationship between cognitive distortions and aggression has also been studied and it appears that cognitive distortions tend to be associated with aggressive behavior. However, both empathy and cognitive distortions have not been studied together to examine their relationship with aggression. There were four aims of the current study. The first two were to examine whether empathy can predict physical aggression and whether cognitive distortions can predict physical aggression. The third aim was to examine the combined effects of empathy and cognitive distortions on aggression. The fourth was to examine the influence of age and gender on cognitive distortions, empathy, and physical aggression. Two hundred and thirty-nine high school students in grades 10, 11, and 12 completed a questionnaire assessing their levels of affective and cognitive empathy, a questionnaire of cognitive distortions, and a questionnaire of physical aggression. The results indicated that cognitive distortions have a strong relationship with physical aggression in that high levels of cognitive distortions were associated with higher levels of physical aggression. Both types of empathy (affective and cognitive) were found to be negatively related to physical aggression, but neither type of empathy was able to predict participants’ aggression levels. The combination of empathy (affective and cognitive) and cognitive distortions did not turn out to be a significant predictor of physical aggression. It is concluded that the present results have important implications for future research, particularly with adolescent aggression.

The topic of criminogenic cognitive distortions among substance abusers has largely been ignored in the literature despite that studies indicate a high comorbidity between drug usage and involvement in the criminal justice system. This proposal involves the use of archival data from an inner city residential drug treatment program for offenders. Subjects are 129 men referred by the criminal justice system for drug treatment for a period of three to nine months. An investigation using a General Linear Multivariate Analysis (MANCOVA) of demographic data that includes a self-report of the frequency of substance usage, along with assessment of cognitive distortions from the How I Think Questionnaire (HIT) is utilized. Five drug classes (Ecstasy, Alcohol, Opiates, LSD/hallucinogens and Amphetamines) along with four categories of cognitive distortion on the HIT (Self-Centered, Blaming Others, Minimizing/Mislabeling and Assuming the Worst) were analyzed along with covariates of age of subject and number of drugs used. Results indicate that only the drug Ecstasy (3,4-Methylendioxymethamphetamine) exhibited significant main effect for patterns of cognitive distortions and present on three of the four scales of the HIT. Implications for cognitive distortions as reinforcement of MDMA usage are discussed. A review of critical items found on the HIT, normative comparisons, and cluster analysis of drug usage patterns are presented. For the total model, drug usage increases are associated with increases in measured criminogenic cognitive distortions.

Adolescent males commit a significant proportion of sexual offenses, and often an offense in adolescence signifies the beginning of a continuing pattern of behavior. A diminished capacity for empathic responding is often considered a fundamental deficit of adult sex offenders, though little research has been conducted in this area with adolescent sexual offenders. This study examined the role of empathy in adolescent sexual offending, investigating offenders’ empathy as it related to general, moderately specific, and specific victims. The relationship between various levels of empathy and cognitive distortion, degree of force used in abusive encounters, and the offender’s modus operandi was also examined. Similar to findings reported in the adult literature, there is a degree of differentiation in the empathic responding of adolescent sexual offenders. The adolescent offenders in this study did not, overall, have difficulty with empathic responding. In fact, study adolescents experienced more empathy for their own sex abuse victims (i.e., specific empathy) than for a general sex abuse or accident victim. Examination of the cognitive and emotional components of empathy suggests adolescent sexual offenders may have unique difficulty with cognitive processing. The pattern of empathy deficits is suggestive of a protective function for empathy deficits. The notion that measured empathy deficits may reflect distorted thinking patterns is discussed.