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Child sexual exploitation (CSE) can have huge impacts on a child's physical and emotional wellbeing and have long-term consequences. Literature has found that professionals can have negative perceptions of children who are being sexually exploited, and this can affect the support they receive. To date, there has been little research exploring the education and support within educational provisions for children and young people experiencing sexual exploitation, suggesting the need for further research. This research aimed to fill this gap by exploring the perspectives from both school staff and from survivors of CSE. The following research questions were addressed; 1) what are Special Educational Needs Coordinators (SENCo) and Designated Safeguarding Leads' (DSL) abilities to respond to the needs of children who have experienced CSE whilst in secondary schools in the South West of England (including knowledge, perceptions, practical support, and challenges), 2) what are adult survivors of CSE's experiences of support within their secondary educational provision in the UK? This research consisted of two phases. Phase one took the form of an online questionnaire which was completed by 30 SENCos and DSLs across the South West of England. This used vignettes to explore the school staff's perceptions, and open ended and closed questions to provide a mix of quantitative and qualitative results. Data have been analysed and is displayed in frequency tables and descriptive statistics. In phase two, four semi-structured interviews were conducted with adult survivors of CSE in the UK. The data were analysed using thematic analysis. Phase 1 findings revealed that the staff have a good level of training in CSE, they have positive perceptions of the victims and have good systems of support in place within their schools. It was felt that pastoral support and supportive relationships, multi-agency working, and systemic level approaches (including parental engagement and training), were the main strategies to help support a child or young person experiencing CSE. Barriers included working with the parents, engagement difficulties with the young person, difficulties in accessing services, the demands of school, and negative attitudes of the staff. It was felt that to achieve this, schools needed further training, funding and access to resources and the staff needed more support for their health and wellbeing when working within these populations. Phase 2 findings revealed eight main themes. The findings showed that the survivors had many difficulties whilst being at school and there was a lack of support. Negative attitudes and unhelpful stereotypes were prominent from professionals, which led to their abuse being minimised, or them feeling blamed. There was a lack of education around sex and healthy relationships, and staff did not have adequate understanding of CSE and abuse. This meant that signs of CSE went unnoticed and the adults were out of their depth or limited in the support they offered. There were difficulties in communication, and the survivors felt a lack of agency and control. The importance of a supportive positive relationship within school was highlighted, as well as holistic support, with an emphasis on supporting the child's emotional wellbeing. This research is relevant for schools in understanding how to support victims of CSE, including addressing negative attitudes from professionals, promoting child and family engagement, providing holistic support with a focus on wellbeing, having a multi-agency approach and ensuring there is a high level of training for professionals working with children. Implications for educational psychology practice are explored at various levels of working, and future research directions proposed.

This original thesis examines the pathways from child sexual exploitation (CSE) to street-based sex work. The concept of adult sexual exploitation is developed to emphasise the links between child sexual exploitation and continued exploitation of these women as they move into the most precarious form of sex work, underpinned by the failure of services to support these survivors of CSE. The thesis identifies interventions that could support women to make positive pathways out of sexual exploitation. The voices of female street-based sex workers and key voluntary sector professionals who support these women are prioritised, by examining the narratives of 20 street-based sex workers and five key professionals from the voluntary sector, alongside a critical policy analysis. This research focuses on whether it is possible to identify some of the key transition needs for young people affected by sexual exploitation, to disrupt or stop the continued pathway of sexual exploitation into adulthood. This qualitative study adopts an ethnographic approach, incorporating semi-structured interviews and in-depth observation with 20 female street-based sex workers affected by CSE and five key professionals from the voluntary sector. The ethnographic study focuses on the lives of street-based sex workers accessed from two inner-city voluntary projects in the UK that support female street sex workers to work safely or exit sex work. All of the street-based sex workers were affected by CSE and had continued the pathway into street-based sex work. The findings expose the diverse ways in which early childhood experiences of CSE affect the transition to emerging adulthood. At the heart of this thesis is a range of social, personal, and structural issues that beset young women affected by sexual exploitation on the cusp of emerging adulthood. As girls they were (in)visible to statutory services - being presented as deviant agentic young women rather than vulnerable children in need. This thesis critically analyses the legislation, policy, and practice from late adolescence to emerging adulthood to question why statutory services failed to implement transitional care pathway plans for this vulnerable group. The statutory authorities failed in their duties under the Children Act, 1989. The research exposes a lack of understanding of the long-term effects of CSE and argues that professionals require a deeper critical lens when supporting the young person who is affected by the long-term effects of CSE. In particular, the thesis presents an analysis that is critical of statutory practice, which has failed to support these women. Predominantly, young people figured as agentive social actors in which their sexual exploitation was ignored or regarded as a life choice or identified as beyond the boundaries of transitional care pathway plans due to a misinterpretation of the legislation. These women needed sustained intervention of mental health, housing, social and other services to support them when they experienced CSE. Instead, they were repeatedly failed by every service. CSE was not recognised as exploitation and abuse, but as a choice enacted by these women when they were girls. These failures were repeated. Instead of being given transitional support as the children in need that they were, they were provided housing in which they were expected to live independently, often in close proximity to their abusers and/or hubs of street-based sex work. Inflexible mental health, housing and other services and a focus on the women's behaviour (e.g., drug taking) as deviant rather than expressing the level of trauma they had sustained through CSE meant that the women did not get support in transitioning out of sexual exploitation. The voluntary sector projects were the only support available to the women and provide examples of how statutory services could more effectively work with the women to help them to transition out of sexual exploitation.

This thesis is based on a case study of a group photography and digital storytelling project for young people accessing a specialist child sexual exploitation (CSE) service in the UK. The research aimed to fill current gaps in the evidence base by exploring how young people accessing specialist CSE services experienced working in a group setting and utilised arts-based methods to share their experiences. The study explored the benefits and challenges associated with such projects, and the similarities and differences between group arts-based projects and traditional forms of support, which predominantly involve one-to-one support with a key worker. In striving to understand the potential power and purpose of 'the group', the study was informed by theories of feminism, trauma and empowerment. The primary research method was participant observation of the group sessions and this was supplemented by interviews with those involved; young people, project facilitators and CSE support workers. A thematic analysis of the data, informed by Braun and Clarke's (2006) methodology, was undertaken. As the first study exploring a group arts-based project with young people accessing a specialist CSE service in the UK, this research provides new insights into a number of areas. This study highlights the benefits, practical challenges and considerations required in developing group work with this population. In exploring these complexities, the findings offer a new perspective on the current dominant narrative that group work may exacerbate young people's risk to CSE. The findings instead highlight important factors to consider in creating a safe space. This includes reflecting on: the diversity of service-users; where 'common ground' may be established; the criteria and selection of young people; and what, and how, information about young people is shared with project facilitators. The study illustrates how the structure of a group can enhance a sense of normality for young people. This offers a new perspective to the literature on therapeutic group work which focusses on how the group can normalise specific 'symptoms' of trauma rather than how it can promote a general sense of normality for young people. In this study, the structure of the project and the use of photography and digital storytelling appeared to add value in a number of ways. Arts-based methods: helped young people engage in the project; supported group members to get to know each other; allowed others to 'see' young people's identities that went beyond that of victim-survivor; and provided a sense of control and achievement for young people. From the data, I argue that given how past experiences of talking about one's experience may impact on a young person's confidence and comfort in sharing information related to their experiences, photography and digital storytelling play an important role in supporting young people to reflect, explore and communicate their emotions and experiences in a different way. This is significant, as the majority of literature on the use of photography in research has focussed on it as a method of inquiry rather than as a supportive tool for the individuals involved. Such methods can provide a mechanism to respond to young people in a strengths-based, trauma-informed way, and add value to traditional forms of support. However, the study also identified a number of challenges and risks that are inherent in working in this way that also need to be acknowledged and considered.

The role of the educational psychologist (EP) in relation to child protection and safeguarding is debated and difficult to define. A proposed extension of the child protection system through a contextual safeguarding approach offers an opportunity to reconsider the EP role with a focus on supporting schools to develop practice frameworks that can guide professionals in recognising and responding to extra-familial harm. Through a Critical Interpretive Synthesis reported at paper one, a systematic literature review examined the EP role in relation to child protection and safeguarding as it has been conceptualised over time within the research base. Twenty-four papers (published between 1988 and 2019) across multiple areas of child protection and safeguarding work were included. Reported through paper two, an empirical investigation looked at the ways in which EPs, experienced in complex safeguarding, apply psychology in their practice. Three semi-structured interviews and a follow-up workshop, reported at paper three, were undertaken to explore the EP role in addressing extra-familial harm, and how it might be developed in schools through a contextual safeguarding approach. Analysis presented through the systematic literature review suggests that changing legislative and socio-political climates have resulted in a shift within the research base from 'thinking about doing' towards 'thinking about thinking', where a safeguarding agenda is prioritised and there is less focus on child protection. The empirical investigation suggests that an extension of the child protection system to include responses to extra-familial harm mean the EP is ideally positioned to support schools in developing frameworks for practice. Links to theory and practice, and implications for future research are considered along with the application of psychology to local contexts and service development processes. Finally, following an exploration of the concepts of evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence and their implications for practitioner psychologists, a dissemination strategy for sharing findings with participants and the wider EP community is proposed.

This portfolio is comprised of four parts: A literature review, a research report, a critical appraisal of the research and a service evaluation. The literature review investigated adult Child Sexual Exploitation (CSE) globally, analysing factors contributing to people's offending behaviour. Twelve studies were included. There were variable definitions of CSE and a paucity of high-quality research. Results indicated common psychological themes such as cognitive distortions, group stages and ways of operating, and systemic issues like socio-economic conditions and subcultural norms that are a catalyst for CSE. The research analysed interviews with sixteen serving prisoners convicted of group CSE in the UK. Data was analysed using a constructivist, grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2014). Multiple adverse life experiences and criminal versatility were common. Those offending against children did so because of a pervasive sexual interest, which was the main function of their group involvement. Conversely, for people offending against teenagers, group involvement satisfied a need for kinship. CSE was part of a lifestyle that included sex as a transaction. The offending was incidental to group membership. The critical appraisal analysed strengths and limitations of the research. The interviews produced rich data. The painstaking analytical approach and methodological rigour made the analysis insightful and thorough. The project's practical applications were apparent. Some participants were under-represented; females, high-level organised groups and the un-convicted. These should be considered preliminary findings and future research should seek to clarify whether they are representative. The service evaluation analysed the success of a mentor scheme for serving prisoners supporting peers attending Offending Behaviour Programmes. Thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2013) revealed their motivations were altruistic and mutually beneficial. They gained positive, sometimes transformational benefits from supporting others. This is consistent with desistance literature about the need to be valued in order to be rehabilitated (Maruna, 2001; Garcia, 2016).

The purpose of this research was to explore how Harare (Zimbabwe) and London (United Kingdom, UK) social workers understand and interpret 'child sexual exploitation' (CSE), and how they apply CSE policies and legislation to practice, including addressing the barriers they encounter when trying to protect children. Recognising that individual social workers interpret CSE legislation and policies differently, this thesis contributes new knowledge and shows gaps in practice within a 'developing' (Zimbabwe) and a 'developed' (UK) country. I decided to adopt a qualitative phenomenological approach with elements of a comparative study between Harare and London which provided an opportunity to make an in-depth study of the phenomena. I have chosen these two cities as both are experiencing increased identification of cases of sexually exploited children. More so, the two countries, Zimbabwe, and the UK, share a common history in that the former was once a British colony. A review of existing literature on CSE and professionals' experiences was utilised in order to shed light on the results. To deepen my knowledge of this context, and prepare for interviews with social workers, I first piloted my semi-structured interview questions with three work colleagues who had knowledge of CSE. The study is primarily based on in-depth, semi-structured interviews with fifteen social workers from Harare and fifteen social workers from London who had experience of working with children at risk of CSE. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using a thematic approach, allowing me to inductively extract complex issues from my data, which was important to my topic using interpretative phenomenological analysis. The main findings of this research concluded that despite CSE being a subject that has attracted attention in both Harare and London, social workers still require more conscientisation, training and knowledge if their practice is to be more effective in reducing rates of CSE. The study noted that individual social workers give different interpretations of CSE and legislations and policies that guide practice, regardless of different geographical spatial locations. Although in London the study noted that some social workers still looked at CSE from a gender perspective towards girls, in Harare findings showed that customary law was legitimising gendered notions of CSE, posing challenges to social work intervention. In conclusion, the recommendations within this study, if adopted, have the potential to articulate and resolve some of the problems that social workers face during practice.

The aim of this study was to critically analyse the perspectives of children and young people in relation to their experiences of professionals in the context of child sexual exploitation, using a children's rights lens. Using a children's rights approach and child-centered methods, including consultation with a Young Person's Project Board, this thesis drew on the voices of nine young people living in England who had been subject to child sexual exploitation. Their experiences were analysed alongside serious case reviews, government policies and society's changing attitudes towards children and childhood. This research's key findings are that: dominant discourses from the Victorian era continue to be drawn upon by professionals in practice; in some situations, children and young people were disempowered by professionals, who were, in turn, disempowered by the structures and systems they work within; existing safeguarding policies and procedures struggle to address child sexual exploitation; and children's rights are not consistently respected in practice. The thesis also highlights the benefits of taking an integrated approach to research where a children's rights approach is supported by other theoretical frameworks to analyse the research participants' experiences. The thesis concludes with evidence-based recommendations aimed at improving professional practice and the experiences of those affected by child sexual exploitation. These include implementing contextual safeguarding and trauma-informed practice.

This thesis aims to explore the relationships that young women who have experienced, or have been at risk of child sexual exploitation (CSE), have had with secondary school education. Previous studies of CSE have not dealt with the effects on young women’s education during and following CSE. Therefore, the educational outcomes for this cohort of young women are poorly understood. To respond to this gap in knowledge, this thesis asks questions about the educational and labour market experiences of young women who have experienced CSE during their secondary school years. In the light of those experiences, what are the policy and practice implications, and what effect does experiencing CSE have on young women’s perceptions of their aspirations for their future. Interviews have taken place with nine young women who have experienced CSE, 16 specialist CSE voluntary sector key workers and three professionals variously working in safeguarding children and in Pupil Referral Units (PRU’s). As a result of these interviews, this study has discovered concerning levels of school exclusion and referral to PRUs among young women who experience, or who are at risk of CSE during their secondary school years. This thesis argues that the experiences of sexually exploited young women are not being taken into account when decisions are made about their education and that their right to an adequate education is not being met. A search of historical literature established that the identification of behaviour among female pupils, which can be recognised as CSE was documented in the Newsom Report (1963). A review has been undertaken to establish how far CSE policy and procedure has advanced to meet the needs of sexually exploited young women since the recommendations made by Melrose, Barrett and Brodie (1999). Conclusions have been drawn from the literature of the previous decade that there has been a lack of attention to the educational outcomes of young women experiencing CSE. Two theoretical foundations underpin this research: firstly, a Feminist Constructivist Grounded theory approach to women who have experienced sexual violence, contributing to recommendations for policy change that will benefit young women. Secondly, the thesis employs Social Pedagogy, in terms of the relationships which can be built with young women who have experienced CSE, to support their engagement with education. This is supported by consideration of the discourse on the rights of a child to an education appropriate to their needs and aspirations. This thesis concludes that young women’s education is liable to be damaged by experiencing CSE and that there is not enough knowledge to resolve this problem. Further research is required to understand what is involved in ensuring that sexually exploited young women’s rights to education are being met.

A growing body of research has shown that the discourse on child sexual exploitation (CSE) continues to be female-centric despite some attempts to raise the plight of young males as victims of this phenomenon. This thesis addresses this gap by examining the potential impediments to the recognition of CSE in young males under the age of 18. The central focus of this study is to identify barriers to disclosure by young males and inhibitors to identification by professionals, encompassing an exploration of the existence of any relationship between the two. The research took the form of a mixed methods approach, obtaining both quantitative and qualitative data from young people and a range of professionals. This consisted of: 91 respondents to a survey for professionals; 1,158 respondents to a survey for young people; 10 interviews with young males; and 30 interviews with professionals. The study is underpinned by the theoretical framework of ecological systems theory, supporting the notion that the sexual exploitation of young males as a phenomenon is not simply a manifestation of the individual male victim operating in a vacuum, but contextual to the prevalence and impact of other factors. This allows for the integration of all levels of human ecology, including the environment and diverse cultural contexts, as responsible for the cause of and solution to the problem. Application of this theory was facilitated by using Sorsoli et al's (2008) three domains model as a practical framework, enabling examination of barriers to recognition within each of the systems (or domains) at play, and the interplay between them, demonstrating the complexities surrounding the recognition of this phenomenon. This study concludes that there is both commonality and dissonance between the views of young people and what we already understand from the Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) literature relating to the non-recognition of males as victims. The findings challenge the actual stereotypical assumptions regarding males and masculinity believed to inhibit recognition of males as victims. The findings also reveal a level of dissonance between the views of young people and professionals regarding the relevance of barriers to recognition of CSE in young males. These findings present safeguarding implications. They underscore the importance of recognising the role of gender constructs and socialisation in the negating of males as victims of CSE, but more importantly, how they may be manifested. This adds unique complications to the process of both disclosure and identification of CSE in males. The implications of this for the interpretation and application of CSE policies and procedures to the identification of young males as victims, is significant. The results of this study call for the sexual exploitation of young males to be placed firmly in the child protection arena, providing a basis upon which the young male, the professional, and the wider social system can understand the position of responsibilities in relation to recognition of CSE in males, thereby achieving greater equilibrium in recognition of the two genders as victims of CSE.

Background and Objectives: The rise in cases of online child sexual exploitation has become a global problem. Understanding both the psychological profiles of this offender group and the strategies employed during the process of exploitation, is crucial for aiding prevention and detection of these crimes as well as informing treatment and educational programmes. Thus, there were two main aims of the thesis. Firstly, a systematic review was conducted to investigate the psychological characteristics of online child sexual offenders (OCSO). Secondly, research was carried out to examine the utility of a pre-existing process model of grooming in the online sexual exploitation of children (O'Connell, 2003). Methodology: A systematic search of papers published between 2006 and 2016 was carried out. Those eligible for inclusion measured psychological characteristics using psychometric tools. A quality checklist was designed to appraise the methodological robustness of each paper. For the research study, qualitative content analysis of 63 online chat logs between offenders and children was undertaken. Logs were initially coded for correspondence to stages and strategies outlined by O'Connell, and additional codes assigned to themed text that did not fit this model. Results: The systematic review revealed fourteen papers for inclusion, and collective strengths and weaknesses were identified. Compared to contact offenders, few differences in psychological characteristics were identified; however tentative evidence suggests that online offenders experience greater interpersonal deficits whilst contact offenders present with more antisocial difficulties. Qualitative content analysis of chat logs revealed partial support for O'Connell's model. Several offender strategies proposed to take place during the sexual stage were evidenced. However, no logs showed evidence of all six stages. Additional offender strategies identified included flattery and minimising their behaviour. Various child strategies were identified, with children refusing all sexual advances in the majority of logs (n=34). Conclusions: Generic sexual offender treatment packages may not best meet the needs of OCSO. An alternative is discussed. Future research should focus on the development of psychometric tools for use with OCSO. Offenders appear heterogeneous in their approach to online sexual exploitation of children. Effective educational programmes must emphasise the speed at which many offenders will introduce sexual content, for whom traditional notions of grooming do not apply.

An extensive review of research and policy literature revealed that links are made between: going missing and forced marriage; going missing and child sexual exploitation; and forced marriage and child sexual exploitation. However, despite these overlaps, no links are made between all three issues. Given that some South Asian young women will run away from home in order to avoid being forced into marriage and that young people who run away or go missing from home are at risk of, or abused, through child sexual exploitation a research proposition was developed on the basis that a three way link was theoretically possible. A case study methodology was developed to test the research proposition. Eight cases were identified in which South Asian young people (under 18 years of age) had experienced some combination of all three issues. However, the pattern identified within the research proposition was not the ‘final explanation’. Analysis of the research findings revealed that variation existed within the pattern proposed. Moreover, a second pattern was identified in which forced marriage emerged as a parental response to young people who were already being sexually exploited and going missing in this context. The patterns identified were confirmed through analysis of interviews undertaken with twelve subject experts (key informants) and resonated with a specifically selected group of nine young people who were presented with a composite case study during focus group discussion. I argue that awareness of patterns linking all three issues will help practitioners to identify and respond appropriately to cases where the issues of going missing, forced marriage and child sexual exploitation overlap. That said the complexity of the cases highlighted risks associated with overlooking diversities: social divisions related to age, gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality and disability were explored to see how they shaped the young people’s experiences. This process revealed that they were located within complex axes of power which then intersected with social systems, including family, community and public institutions. As a consequence, young people lacked relational support and had limited access to safe accommodation and economic resources. This resulted in some young people making attempts to try and self-manage the competing harms that they were facing. The practitioners who supported the young people highlighted the challenges involved in working with them. Analysis of practitioners’ accounts further revealed how power dynamics within multi-agency working arrangements also impacted their efforts to respond to the needs of young people. Through testing the research proposition, I addressed a recognised need for more focused research into the issue of going missing as it relates to young people from different ethnic backgrounds (Berelowitz et al. 2012; Berelowitz et al., 2013; OCC, 2012; Patel, 1994; Safe on the Streets Research Team, 1999; Stein et al. 1994) as well as furthering knowledge about how child sexual exploitation is experienced by young people from black and minority ethnic (BME) communities (Chase & Statham, 2004; CEOP, 2011b; Jago et al., 2011; Berelowitz et al., 2013; Thiara & Gill, 2010; Kelly, 2013; Ward & Patel, 2006). The development of a typology of patterns linking going missing, forced marriage and child sexual exploitation provides a unique contribution to the scholarly literature.

According to the 2016 International Labour Organization (ILO), more than 168 million children are forced to labor worldwide, and more than half of these children work in some of the worst forms. Sexual exploitation and human trafficking are classified by the ILO as being some of the worst forms of child labor existing in the twenty-first century. Child labor in the worst forms are more prevalent in developing countries due to poverty and lack of education. The United States Department of State monitors human trafficking and child sexual exploitation through an annual Trafficking in Persons Report (TIP). The 2015 TIP report verified that Costa Rica has been downgraded to the Tier 2 Watch List. If by 2016 the TIP report recommendations are not implemented for the prevention of human trafficking and child labor, the country will fall to a Tier 3 List and face possible sanctions from the US and the World Bank. Since the government has failed to implement necessary reforms, Costa Rica is in a dilemma. The tourist industry is a prime source of income for the country while at the same time the hotel industry is a prime source of where child sexual exploitation occurs (Hetter, 2012). Thus, there was a need for research to discover what is the hotel industry’s corporate social responsibility towards the children who are sexually exploited in the Costa Rican hotels.