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The hand has the highest surface area-to-volume ratio of any body part. This property offers the potential for the hand to serve an important function in thermoregulation through radiative heat loss. Theoretically, the capacity for heat loss may be influenced by hand and digit proportions, but the extent to which these proportions influence the hand's radiative properties remains under-investigated. Although hand morphology is highly constrained by both integration and functional dexterity, phenotypic variation in hand and digit proportions across human populations shows broad ecogeographic patterns. These patterns have been associated with climate adaptation. However, the theory linking climate adaptation to such ecogeographic patterns is based on underlying assumptions relating to thermodynamic principles, which have not been tested in vivo. This study sought to determine the influence of hand and digit proportions on heat loss from the hands directly, the additional anthropometric factors that may affect this relationship, and the impact of variation in hand proportions on dexterity in the cold. The relationship between hand proportions and thermoregulation was tested through both laboratory-based investigation and a field study. The laboratory investigation assessed the relationship between hand proportions and heat loss, the influence of body size and composition on this relationship, and the effect of morphological variation on manual dexterity. Participants (N=114; 18-50 years of age), underwent a 3-minute ice-water hand-immersion. Thermal imaging analysis was used to quantify heat loss. Hand and digit proportions were quantified using 2D and 3D scanning techniques; body size and composition were measured using established anthropometric methods and bio-impedance analysis. After accounting for body size, hand width, digit-to-palm length ratio, and skeletal muscle mass were significant predictors of heat loss from the hand, whilsthand length and fat mass were not. A separate set of participants (N=40) performed a Purdue pegboard dexterity test before and after the immersion test, which demonstrated that digit width alone negatively correlated with dexterity. The field study tested whether phenotypic variation in upper limb proportions could be attributed to cold adaptation or selection for dexterity in living populations exposed to significant energetic stress. Upper limb segment lengths were obtained from participants (N=254; 18-59 years of age), from highland and lowland regions of the Nepalese Himalayas using established anthropometric methods, and relative hand proportions were assessed in relation to severe energetic stress associated with life at high altitude. Relative to height, hand length and hand width were not reduced with altitude stress, whilst ulna length was. This indicates that cold adaptation is not shaping hand proportions in this case, although phenotypic variation in other limb segments may be attributed to cold adaptation or a thrifty phenotype mechanism. The current study provides empirical evidence to support the link between surface area-to-volume ratio, thermodynamic principles and ecogeographical patterns in human hand morphology. However, this research also demonstrates the complexity of the hand's role in thermoregulation; not only do other factors such as muscularity affect heat loss from the hand, but hand morphology is also highly constrained by integration and dexterity.

Over 60% of the adult population in the United Kingdom is now overweight or obese or classed as plus size . This is higher than almost all other developed countries in the world. Even with numerous public health interventions, the incidence of being plus size continues to rise potentially changing the demographics of the working population. This presents a challenge to those involved in workplace design as the design process relies upon the utilization of appropriate anthropometric data to establish the percentage of the user population that will be accommodated by the design. The aim of this thesis is to identify issues affecting plus size people in the working environment, not previously explored within the literature. Furthermore, by understanding the size and shape of this population via the collection of key anthropometric data, this will help inform the design of safe, comfortable, inclusive and productive working environments for plus size people within the United Kingdom. A first stage Scoping Study (n=135) found that fit (equipment, tools, furniture, uniforms and personal protective equipment) and space (circulation and shared spaces within the working environment) were issues of concern to plus size people. This suggests that aspects of the current design of the workplace are not suitable, and may even exclude plus size people. A better understanding of the anthropometric requirements of plus size workers is therefore required. Self-reported anthropometric data is an acceptable way of studying large and geographically diverse populations and may assist in accessing the hard to reach plus size working population. A validation study (n=20) established that self measurement of 14 key anthropometric measurements, using a self measurement instruction guide, was a feasible and acceptable data collection method for a larger scale anthropometric study to further understand the body size and shape of plus size people at work. A unique measure of knee splay (for a non-pregnant population) was included. Defined as the distance between the outer borders of the knees whilst seated in the preferred sitting position it represents the observed sitting postures of plus size individuals not captured in existing anthropometric data sources. The larger scale Plus Size Anthropometry Study (n=101) collected anthropometric data of plus size working age people via self measurement. The findings indicated that the study population was substantially larger in circumference, depth and breadth measurements than the population of existing anthropometric data sources. Knee splay was also identified as a key anthropometric variable for plus size people, however, it is not included in any datasets or literature relating to plus size people at work. These factors may contribute to high exclusion rates from current design practices that seek to accommodate the 5th to 95th or 99th percentile of users and may explain the high incidence of fit and space issues reported by participants with a BMI over 35kg/m2 . Finally, semi structured interviews with stakeholders (n=10) explored how they would like the data from the plus size anthropometry study communicated and any additional requirements of a resource aimed at supporting stakeholders in meeting the needs of plus size people within the working environment. The primary concern from stakeholders was the lack of existing data on the size and shape of the plus size working population and the importance of access to such data in whatever format. A range of ideas were suggested including case studies, guidance and access to training which may assist them in understanding the needs of their end users ultimately supporting the inclusion of plus size people in workplace design.

Traditional three-dimensional (3D) photonic scanning (3DPS) can be used to obtain body volume data and to enable visualization of 3D body shape in one rapid scan, which is helpful for determining people’s obesity level, health risk and sport performance as well as motivating individuals to reduce weight efficiently. Nevertheless, traditional 3DPS is restricted to expensive and fixed hardware and specific software that requires specialist interpretation in laboratory settings, which reduces possible applications. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to develop a fast, inexpensive, portable and automatic 3DPS system to measure body volume data and to display body shape in 3D. To ensure that the system could be used for monitoring changes over time, the accuracy and reliability of the estimated body volumes were also established. Four studies and one technical description were conducted to achieve the purpose of this research. In the first three studies, a new technique, DScan, was developed that could generate individual 3D human models and calculate body volume. In Study 1, the reliability of the body dimension features obtained by four extraction methods was compared to find an appropriate method to improve the quality of extracted body dimension features. In Study 2, two different parameter groups were compared to enable subsequent selection of appropriate parameters to generate realistic 3D human models. A procedure and a program were presented which can set the parameters to match the extracted features and generate individual 3D human models effectively. In Study 3, Blender scripts and shell scripts were used to develop a customized program which can obtain body volume data from generated 3D human models. In Study 4, the accuracy and the reliability of the body volume data acquired from DScan were examined by comparing with the traditional 3DPS and the geometric modelling technique, elliptical zone (E-Zone). In the technical description, a Body Shape Monitoring System (BSMS) which can help non-expert users complete the DScan procedure and visualize body shape changes was introduced. The processing speed, cost and portability of the introduced BSMS were also shown in the technical description. The accuracy of the BSMS for whole-body volume indicated by an inter-method relative technical error of measurement was within 5% of that obtained from the traditional 3DPS. The repeated reliability expressed as an intra-method relative technical error of measurement was under 3% for whole-body volume. The accuracy and the reliability of the BSMS for segmental volumes (upper torso, lower torso, upper arm, lower arm, thigh and shank) indicated by inter-method and intra-method relative technical error of measurements were less than 10% and 5% respectively. These were similar to those obtained by the E-Zone. The BSMS reduces the requirement of hardware, software and expert knowledge as well as the processing time compared to other techniques of quantifying whole-body volume and segmental volumes. The GUI of the BSMS enables it to be used without specific training in computer programing or machine operation. The system is highly portable, and its components are inexpensive (under £700). Each analysis can be completed in three minutes without requiring subjective interpretations. The results showed that the system has the potential to be applied in the domains of health and medicine, the fashion industry, ergonomics, and sports science. Further studies should be conducted to develop a complete system which is consequently suitable for home use.

This thesis concerns the history of humanitarian nutrition and its political implications. Drawing on aid agency archives and other historical sources, it examines how food has been delivered in emergencies, from the First World War to the present day. The approach is ethnographic: this is a study of the micro-level practices of relief, examining the objects distributed, the plans made, the techniques used. It is also historical: examining how such practices have changed over time. This thesis makes five interlocking arguments. First, I make a political point: that humanitarian action is always political, and that it is impossible to adhere to ‘classical’ humanitarian principles such as neutrality, impartiality and independence. Second, I make a sociological argument: that the activities of humanitarian nutrition have been shaped by a number of themes, which include militarism, medicine, modernity, and markets. Third, I make a historical argument: that the main features of humanitarian nutrition were solidified between the 1930s and the 1970s, and were largely in place by the time of the Biafran war. Fourth, I make a sociological argument: that these mid-century changes involved a profound redefinition of hunger and food (with hunger conceived as a biochemical deficiency, and food as a collection of nutrients). Finally, I make a normative argument, suggesting that this redefinition has not necessarily benefited the starving: the provision of food in emergencies, I argue, is often concerned with control and efficiency rather than the suffering individuals themselves.

Castration has a long temporal and geographical span. Its origins are unclear, but likely lie in the Ancient Near East around the time of the Secondary Products Revolution and the increase in social complexity of proto-urban societies. Due to the unique social and gender roles created by castrates’ ambiguous sexual state, human castrates were used heavily in strongly hierarchical social structures such as imperial and religious institutions, and were often close to the ruler of an imperial society. This privileged position, though often occupied by slaves, gave castrates enormous power to affect governmental decisions. This often aroused the jealousy and hatred of intact elite males, who were not afforded as open access to the ruler and virulently condemned castrates in historical documents. These attitudes were passed down to the scholars and doctors who began to study castration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, affecting the manner in which castration was studied. Osteometric and anthropometric examinations of castrates were carried out during this period, but the two World Wars and a shift in focus meant that castrate bodies were not studied for nearly eighty years. Recent interest in gender and sexuality in the past has revived interest in castration as a topic, but few studies of castrate remains have occurred. As large numbers of castrates are referenced in historical documents, the lack of castrate skeletons may be due to a lack of recognition of the physical effects of castration on the skeleton. The synthesis and generation of methods for more accurate identification of castrate skeletons was undertaken and the results are presented here to improve the ability to identify castrate skeletons within the archaeological record.

The aim of this thesis was to investigate how physiological and environmental factors affect surfing performance. Studies were performed that assessed the effect of anthropometric and physiological characteristics of surfers on rank and ability, the effect of creatine supplementation on surfing performance and the effect of wave size, wave period and the ability of surfers on physiological and performance indices of surfing. Study one investigated the effect of the anthropometric variables on rank and rating of ability. This was measured across a sample of 79 surfers ranging from intermediate to professional surfers. Significant correlations were found for endomorphy (r = -0.366, P <0.01), sum of six skinfolds (r = -0.274, P <0.05), Body fat percentage (r = -0.268, P <0.01) and mesomorphy (r = 0.442, P <0.01). Findings suggest that levels of adiposity and muscularity might influence the potential for progression between intermediate and professional level surfing performance. Study two investigated the effect of physiological variables on the national ranking of 18 elite male junior surfers using assessments of maximal oxygen uptake, lower body explosive power, upper body power, agility, and balance. Partial correlations were used to account for the influence of age within the sample and a significant correlation was found between power output at (rp = -0.879, P <0.01). Findings suggest that power output at is an important factor for achieving competitive success in high performance junior surfers. Study three investigated the effect of short term (20g.day-1 for 5 days) creatine supplementation on body composition, repeated upper body anaerobic power and competition performance was assessed in 17 club level surfers. Testing comprised assessment of body mass and total body water using bioelectrical impedance analysis, a repeated upper body Wingate based on time motion analysis of competitive surfing. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA found no significant effects of supplementation on laboratory measures of anaerobic power or competitive performance. The fourth study investigated the effects of changes in wave conditions on physiological response and performance parameters of surfing. This was assessed using 39 surfers who participated in 60 surfing sessions where wave conditions were recorded and performance was measured using GPS. The study found that wave height was significantly related to energy expenditure (rp =-0.351, P <0.05), maximum ride speed (rp = 0.866, P <0.01), the standard deviation of maximum ride speeds (rp = 0.654, P <0.01), mean ride time (rp = 0.354, P <0.01), maximum ride time (rp = -0.296, P <0.05), the standard deviation of the ride times expenditure (rp = -0.344, P <0.01), mean ride distance (rp = 0.398, P <0.01), maximum ride time (rp = 0.318, P <0.05), minimum ride distance (rp = 0.268, P <0.05), standard deviation of the ride distances (rp = -0.362, P <0.01), percentage of total distance riding (rp = 0.310, P <0.05), percentage of time spent waiting (rp = -0.272, P = 0.05), percentage of total time spent riding (rp = 0.396, P < 0.01), percentage of total time in miscellaneous activities (rp = 0.471, P <0.01), total distance riding (rp = 0.310, P =0.05), total distance per hour (rp = 0.427, P <0.01). Wave period was found to be significantly related to average heart rate as a percentage of maximum (rp = 0.490, P <0.01), the percentage of time spent in the “easy” training zone (rp = -0.408, P <0.01), maximum ride speed (rp = 0.371, P <0.01), mean ride time (rp = 0.283, P <0.05), maximum ride distance (rp = 0.279, P <0.05), and the standard deviation of the ride distances (rp = 0.325, P <0.05). The ability levels of the surfers were found to be significantly related to average heart rate as a percentage of maximum (rp = -0.412, P <0.01), percentage of time in the “steady” zone (rp = 0.435, P <0.01), percentage of time in the “intermittent” zone (rp = 0.483, P <0.01), maximum ride speed (rp = 0.454, P <0.01), mean ride distance (rp = 0.392, P <0.05), standard deviation of the ride distances (rp = 0.264, P <0.05), percentage of the total distance riding(rp = 0.267, P <0.05), percentage of time paddling (rp = 0.364, P <0.05), percentage of time in miscellaneous activities (rp = -0.299, P <0.05), total distance riding (rp = 0.267, P <0.05) and average speed (rp = 0.428, P <0.01). This thesis has found that ability in surfing is related to anthropometric and physiological measures, creatine supplementation improves peak anaerobic power but does not significantly improve surfing performance in club level surfers and that wave conditions and the skill levels of surfers are significantly related to the physiological and performance parameters of surfing.

The thesis presents an investigation of pregnant women s safety and comfort needs during car travel. A survey is used to investigate all aspects and problems of car travel. This survey is a comprehensive examination of the entire driving activity with much detail of reported difficulties from pregnant women that forms a novel resource for the automotive engineers. The survey results are used to generate guidelines for the automotive industry. A series of sled tests are presented that investigate seat belt use in pregnancy including the use of lap belt positioners. The peak abdominal pressure results clearly agree with current guidelines that the lap belt should be positioned across the hips and not across the abdomen. This research includes a novel anthropometric dataset for 107 pregnant women including measurements especially selected for the field of automotive design and to describe the changes of pregnancy. This includes investigation of pregnant driver s proximity to the steering wheel. A novel measurement of knee splay is used to define the pregnant women s preference to sit with their knees widely spaced instead of knees together, in both normal sitting and in a car. Comparison is made between the pregnant women's measurements and the available data in the literature for non-pregnant women and males, and this shows that pregnant women can be excluded from designs if the accommodation does not consider their needs. The pregnant women's anthropometric data is presented as a novel website in order to make the data available to the automotive industry. This website is generated for use by automotive engineers and is designed to suit their usability needs and the general trends within the industry, in order to make the site more user-friendly and more likely to be used as a reference for pregnant occupant's needs.

For all types of clothing and body worn technologies it is important to consider how they integrate and interact with the complex shapes that form the unique profile of the human body. This interaction determines the fit of these products and it is often difficult to generate a fit that can simultaneously accommodate these complex shapes. Achieving the correct fit is determined by a number of different factors that must be combined appropriately to create the fit associated with a particular product. This is particularly applicable to Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to ensure it provides protection while maintaining comfort, mobility and good interaction with the surrounding environment. Integrating suitable anthropometric data into the design and manufacture of this type of clothing plays a critical role in achieving a good fit. By using various processes of Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM), the detail contained within these data can be quickly and accurately transferred into physical tools. The aim of this study was to demonstrate and validate a method of enhancing the fit of PPE handwear. This has been achieved through an action research strategy using descriptive and practical research methods. The research tools primarily used are case studies, used to demonstrate how manually collected 2D anthropometric data can be used to generate computer models that represent these data in a 3D form. The products of the case studies are tools that have been introduced into the design and manufacture processes of commercial handwear manufacturing environments. The tools have successfully been used to produce gloves using two different manufacturing methods and been assessed to analyse their fit. An improvement in fit for the gloves has been quantified through user trials to determine the level of increased performance afforded to the wearer. The conclusions drawn from the case studies demonstrate that the integration of anthropometric data and CAD/CAM can greatly influence the fit of handwear and improve the iterative processes of its design. However, the data alone does not achieve this as the added integration of tacit knowledge related to glove design is needed to ensure the correct properties are included to the meet the needs of the target population. The methods developed in the case studies have the potential to be applied to other products where fit and interaction with the human body are important design considerations.

If designers are to meet the needs of the growing population of older and disabled people then data on size, shape, posture and capabilities will be increasingly important. This thesis details a methodology for the collection of anthropometry, joint constraints, reach range, postural capability and task specific information, to create a unique database of `individuals'. These data were then used in the development of a computer-based design tool (HADRIAN), to allow design professionals to estimate the percentage of people who could be accommodated by a design. Having complete data sets for individuals is vital to enable multivariate analysis, as opposed to traditional univariate percentile data. Following a review of the literature two interview surveys were conducted with 32 design professionals and 50 older and disabled people. The majority of designers were aware of the philosophy of `design for all', but rarely considered the approach due to perceived time and financial costs. With respect to older and disabled people it was found that nearly all experienced problems completing basic activities of daily life, and that improvements to existing designs could improve quality of life. Activities such as being able to cook a meal, and use the bath were reported as being particularly important. Firstly, a pilot study was conducted with 8 participants to assess the different data collection options. Data were then collected on 100 people, with the majority being older and/or disabled, and encompassing a wide range of capabilities. From these data it was possible to see that the anthropometric data showed a range beyond 15` and 99`h percentile for each dimension when compared to existing anthropometry data, and a breadth of variation in task specific behaviours. Validation trials were then conducted to compare the actual task performance of 10 of the 100 `individuals' with that predicted by HADRIAN, with postures and task capabilities being correctly predicted for open-access reach-and-lift tasks. This gives some confidence that it is possible to predict postures and capabilities from the data collected.

To design a product that people can use effectively and safely a designer must understand the physical characteristics of humans. Measures of the characteristics of human physical function are defined by anthropometry. Unfortunately some designers carry misconceptions about anthropometry and are sceptical of the benefits of its application to product design. This is confounded by the lack of data on minority groups such as the elderly who are becoming increasingly influential in determining the functional requirements of products. The anthropometric software systems that are presently available to designers have been ineffective in providing designers with appropriate data in a format they can use. A new methodology is proposed for the presentation and retrieval of anthropometric data for product designers. The methodology uses a novel application of task analysis techniques to establish the anthropometric data that describes the physical demands of users. The methodology defines the interaction between the product and the users in performing a task by breaking it down into its distinct actions. Then the physical demands of an action are defined using generic descriptors. These selections and the users' parameters are used to select the related anthropometric data. The parameters of the environment that interact with the product are then used to express the anthropometric data in terms of the functional limits of the product. This enables the selection of appropriate anthropometric data to describe the physical demands of the users and presents the data in a format that can be effectively applied in the product development process. The methodology was validated using a two stage analysis. In the first stage a sample of designers assessed the qualitative and quantitative performance of the usability of the implementation of the method. In the second stage the effectiveness of the methodology was assessed by performing a comparative analysis with an existing system.

Objective: The purpose of this thesis was to determine the degree of difference between anthropometric and heel pad tissue characteristics of the lower extremities of PMHS compared to living populations as well as to establish a wholistic procedure for extensive measurements of the foot using methodology previously used in lower limb anthropometry, x-ray imaging, and ultrasound imaging studies.Methods: Thirty-seven PMHS were included in the anthropometry analysis, 21 PMHS were included in the x-ray analysis, and 32 PMHS were included in the ultrasound analysis. For the anthropometry, measurements were taken in seated and standing positions and included bimalleolar breadth, heel breadth, navicular height (medial prominence), navicular height (inferior medial border), talar head height, plantar curvature height, lateral malleolar height, medial malleolar height, acropodion foot length, hallux foot length, horizontal foot breadth, ball of foot length, and dorsum height. Comparisons were then made between left and right feet, seated and standing positions, males and females, and PMHS and living populations. For the x-ray analysis, two of the anthropometry measurements, navicular height (inferior medial border) and talar head height, had values for anthropometry compared against measurements determined through x-ray imaging. For the ultrasound analysis, ultrasound images were taken of the plantar foot at the calcaneus at loadings of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 Newtons. Thicknesses, stiffnesses, and compressibility indexes were determined using the images, and these values were then compared against values seen in living populations. Results: Left and right feet were found to have no significant differences in anthropometry. Seated and standing positions were found to be significantly different in 12 of the 13 measurements. Male values were found to be significantly different from female values in both seated and standing positions for all measurements except for plantar curvature height. By determining percent difference values between seated and standing positions for both males and females, no significant difference was found between sexes in their respective measurement changes from seated to standing positions except in plantar curvature height and lateral malleolus height. Eleven of the 13 measurements showed agreement between PMHS and living populations, with talar head height and plantar curvature height showing greater than 10% difference. In the x-ray analysis, navicular height was significantly different between anthropometry and x-ray values, and talar height was not significantly different. In the ultrasound analysis PMHS were found to have thinner and stiffer heel pads with lower compressibility than living populations.Conclusions: A wholistic procedure for foot measurements and analysis was developed which incorporates methodology from previous literature. For foot measurement, x-ray imaging was shown to be necessary for certain landmarks but not for others. Results from this study have provided quantification of posture and sex differences as well as quantification for differences between PMHS and living populations for foot anthropometry. Differences were also quantified for the thickness, stiffness, and compressibility of PMHS compared to living populations. The results show that PMHS anthropometry sufficiently represents that of living people’s anthropometry when sex and postural differences are accounted for, but PMHS is not representative of living populations regarding heel pad thickness, stiffness, or compressibility, and these differences must be considered in lower extremity testing.

Farmers need more than a single trusty tractor to handle most of the jobs and tasks on their property. Tractors are useful for tasks that require high power such as seeding and plowing. However, for some daily-farm tasks that need lower power, tractors are being replaced with All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs). While ATVs cannot match up the strength of tractors, their versatility and relatively lower costs allow farmers to efficiently perform some of the jobs and tasks in a farm that do not require high power, such as transporting supplies, mowing grass, checking fences, herding calves, and carrying firewood. However, the increasing use of ATVs as a utility vehicle adds a heavy burden to the American public health system. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) estimates that in the past ten years, ATV-related incidents have resulted in over 6,500 deaths and 925,000 hospitalizations. In addition, the annual cost of lives and health care from ATV-related incidents has increased almost five times in the past decade, reaching $22 billion dollars spent in 2016. ATVs have engineering features such as low-pressure tires, narrow wheelbase, and high center of gravity that make them prone to rollover when riding on rough and uneven terrains, or steep slopes (all common scenarios in farms and ranches). Indeed, agriculture is the major contributor for incidents involving ATVs, accounting for 50% and 65% of all occupational-related injuries and deaths, respectively.Based on data from the CPSC, youth younger than 16 years old are the leading victims of ATV incidents. Furthermore, a previous study found that ATVs are one of the primary sources of vehicle injury for youth on farms, causing 63% of the vehicle-related injuries. Moreover, according to “AgInjuryNews.org” in 2021 the number of reported fatalities and nonfatal injuries in the U.S. among youth caused by ATV were 52 and 26, respectively. Data from the 2019 National Electronic Injury Surveillance System revealed that youth younger than 18 accounted for 36.8% of all ATV-related injuries. Over 15% of those injuries occurred on farms or ranches. Furthermore, several studies identified a correlation between ATV-related injuries of children and their readiness to ride, including their strength and anthropometry, among other characteristics. For these reasons, two studies of this dissertation focused on evaluating the capabilities and limitations of youth operating utility ATVs. Furthermore, previous studies showed that crash location is an important risk factor for ATV-related incidents. Most ATV crashes on farms and ranches result in traumatic injuries where the rider needs immediate care but is unable to seek help because they are severely injured. Further compounding the issue, most of these crashes occur in isolated areas of hard access and without reliable and constant cellular service. Thus, making it challenging to contact emergency medical services (EMS) promptly and receive first-aid care in a timely manner. Therefore, one study in this dissertation aimed at developing and testing a low-cost, ATV crash-prediction-and-detection device (AgroGuardian) that immediately alerts EMS, even when the rider is unable to do so, and there is no cellular service available. In the first study, potential discrepancies between the required activation forces of eight controls of fifty-four utility ATVs and the strength of youth of varying ages (6-20 years old), genders (males and females), and strength percentiles (5th, 50th, and 95th) were evaluated. In addition, we also assessed if youth strength is enough to push the ATV off if they are pinned underneath it, which is a common post-rollover scenario that can result in death by mechanical asphyxia. A handheld force gauge, a button load cell, and a pressure glove were used to measure the activation forces of the main controls (handbrake, footbrake, handlebar, throttle lever, ignition switch, headlight switch, hand gearshift, and foot gearshift) of the utility ATVs. The activation forces of the ATVs’ controls were compared with the corresponding strength of youth found in previous reports. The results of this first study demonstrated a physical mismatch between the forces required to operate ATV controls and youth’s strength. Turning the handlebar, pressing the footbrakes, and pushing the ATV off were the most difficult tasks for ATV operation. For instance, youth aged 6-10 would be able to activate the footbrake of only 64% of the evaluated ATVs. The inability to depress the footbrake affects the youth’s ability to reduce the speed or stop the ATV and can prevent the operator from diverting from obstacles or potential bystanders. The results were even more striking when considering the ability of a youth operator to push the ATV off if pinned underneath it. Less than 13% of all evaluated vehicles could be pushed off by male operators aged 16-20 years old of the 95th strength percentile, the strongest subjects of this study. These discrepancies compromise the youth’s ability to ride ATVs, increasing their risk of crashes. In the second study, potential inconsistencies between the operational requirements of utility ATVs and the anthropometric dimensions of youth were evaluated through virtual simulations in an ergometric software (SAMMIE CAD). The simulations were performed to assess eleven reach-based ATV fit guidelines proposed by several ATV safety advocacy organizations (National 4-H council, CPSC, IPCH, and FReSH). In total, seventeen utility ATVs along with male-and-female-youth of nine different ages (8 – 16 years old) and three height percentiles (5th, 50th, and 95th) were evaluated. The results demonstrated a physical mismatch between ATVs’ operational requirements and youth’s anthropometry. For example, male-youth aged 16 years old of the 95th height percentile failed to pass at least one out of the eleven fit guidelines for 35% of all vehicles evaluated. The results were even more concerning for female operators. Female youth 10 years old and younger (from all height percentiles) failed to pass at least one fit guideline for all (100%) ATVs evaluated. As such, youth should not ride utility ATVs. The results from these first two studies provide quantitative and systematic evidence to modify/update current ATV safety guidelines. Furthermore, youth occupational health professionals could use the present findings to prevent ATV-related incidents in agricultural and other settings. Lastly, in the third study, a device (AgroGuardian) was developed to make online predictions of the likelihood of an ATV rollover based on the ATV characteristics (e.g., length, width, height) and riding conditions (e.g., speed and attitude) and alert the rider in real-time if this likelihood is above a pre-set threshold. In addition, AgroGuardian automatically notifies EMS and emergency contact(s) when a rollover is detected even though no cellular service is available, and the rider is unable to take action. AgroGuardian includes an embedded data logging system, a smartphone application, and a remote database. The embedded system includes a 3-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) for attitude (roll, pitch, and yaw) estimation, a low-cost Global Positioning System (GPS) for position estimation, and a Rock7 modem for off-board communication. To reduce the system’s attitude error, a Madgwick filter was implemented to fuse the data from the sensors of the IMU (accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer). Similarly, GPS and IMU data were fused through an Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) to improve the ATV’s position estimate. The smartphone application was developed to receive inputs from the users regarding their machines (e.g., make, model, and characteristics such as width and length), to log information about emergency contacts, and to allow them to interact with their ATV data. The ATV’s riding data collected by the sensors in the embedded system along with the ATV characteristics inputted from the user via the smartphone app are fed to a deep neural network to make online rollover predictions. An emergency signal along with the ATV’s coordinates are sent off-board through the Rock7 modem and received in the remote database when a rollover is detected by the system. This emergency signal is then processed and sent to EMS and emergency contact(s). The performance of the proposed device was assessed through experimental tests simulating rollover incidents and normal riding conditions. The results indicate that: (1) the device has a rollover prediction system with an accuracy superior to 99%; (2) the device has a rollover detection system with an accuracy superior to 99%; (3) the device has a fast EMS notification time (40.70 s); (4) ATV localization presented an accuracy of 2 m.

Purpose: Race has rarely been the focus of biomechanics investigations, despite affecting the incidence of musculoskeletal injury and disease. Existing racial differences in movement mechanics could drive disease development and help identify factors contributing to racial health disparities. This study aimed to 1) Identify racial differences in walking, running, and landing mechanics between African Americans and white Americans and 2) Determine whether racial differences can be explained by anthropometric, strength, and health status factors. Methods: Venous blood samples, anthropometric measures, lower extremity strength, and a health status assessment were collected for 92 participants (18-30y) in an IRB approved study. After measuring self-selected walking speed, 3D motion capture and force plate data were recorded during 7 trials in the following conditions: regular walking (1.35m/s), fast walking (1.6m/s), running (3.2m/s), and drop vertical jump (31cm box height). Fundamental gait measures and running and landing measures associated with overuse and impact injury risk were extracted using Visual3D and custom Matlab scripts. Multivariate and post-hoc univariate ANOVA models were fit to determine main and interaction effects of gender and race (JMP Pro 15, α=0.05) after which data was separated by gender. Stepwise linear regression models evaluated whether anthropometric, strength, and health status factors explained racial effects. Results: Several racial differences in walking, running, and landing mechanics were observed in both men and women, but differed between genders. Effect sizes of observed racial differences indicate the potential for both statistical and clinical significance. Although several racial differences during all tasks were explained by anthropometric, strength, and health status factors in women, none were explained by these factors in men. In women, explanatory factors were a combination of innate and modifiable. Conclusion: Future steps should include the development of racially diverse databases and the identification of potential factors to target in interventions aimed at reducing racial health disparities.

Background: Every child deserves an equal chance at good health and cognitive development, but growth failure from undernutrition and disease rob many poor children of this opportunity in the first 2 years of their life. Child malnutrition kills roughly three million children every year, and many more suffer long-term health consequences from impaired physical growth and cognitive development, especially if malnutrition occurs during the first 1000 days of life. Wasting and stunting, two markers of child malnutrition, are strongly associated with increased mortality and decreased cognitive development, and are still highly prevalent in developing countries, even though their reduction are targets of the World Health Organization Millennium Development Goals. Trials on nutritional interventions have had null results or not clinically meaningful effect sizes. Most existing research on exposures associated with stunting and wasting rely on small cohorts or large cross-sectional surveys focused on stunting and wasting prevalence. Pooled analyses of data from many longitudinal studies offer unique opportunities to identify novel patterns in child undernutrition across combinations of time, space, and human characteristics, which is not possible in smaller datasets. The objective of this research was to answer the following questions by pooling information across multiple cohorts: when and where growth failure occurs, what characteristics best identify children at risk, and how early growth failure affects later growth and mortality. Answering these questions may help inform generalizable rules for child monitoring and develop preventative intervention to stop the initial onset of wasting and stunting.Methods: In this dissertation, I conduct an individual-participant-data meta-analysis of 35 different longitudinal cohorts and trials from 15 different countries to identify patterns in wasting incidence and recovery across child ages, across regions, and across seasons. I use machine learning and targeted learning methods to identify key child, parental, and household characteristics associated with wasting and stunting, adjusting for potential confounders. In addition to estimating relative risks of wasting between levels of characteristics, I estimate more policy-relevant population attributable fractions and a novel variable importance metric. In the first chapter I introduce the motivation for the analyses and give an overview of individual participant data meta-analysis methods and advantages. In the second chapter I examine longitudinal patterns in wasting incidence, recovery, seasonality, and concurrence with stunting by using a subset of 18 monthly-measured cohorts, and I compare differences in the epidemiology of wasting across regions. In the third chapter I estimate the relative importance of the causes of early life growth failure using targeted learning methodologies. Using machine learning to flexibly adjust for measured confounders, I estimate and rank order associations between 36 child, parental, and household characteristics and measures of growth failure in 31 cohorts and trials. In the fourth chapter I estimate the associations between early growth failure and subsequent adverse outcomes, including mortality. In the fifth chapter I discuss key subject-area advancements in knowledge from these analyses and offer the public health implications. Significance: This dissertation is currently the largest scale individual-participant data analysis of longitudinal patterns in and causes of child malnutrition in the first 1000 days of life. Using longitudinal, high quality anthropometry measurements, I examined patterns in wasting onset, recovery, seasonality, and concurrence with stunting not possible from national health surveys or accurate from small cohorts. The data were large in scope as well as scale, with data from 35 separate research sites (94,019 children and 645,869 total measurements), 18 with monthly measured cohorts (10,854 children and 187,215 anthropometry measurements). I was able to examine effect modification of wasting incidence by region and season. The results from chapter two found a high prevalence of wasting incidence at birth and the first three months of life, especially in South Asia. This is earlier than the paradigm in the nutrition field that most wasting episodes occur in children older than six months, after the cessation of exclusive breastfeeding and the start of crawling behavior. My findings suggest that interventions to prevent child acute malnutrition may have the largest impact if delivered earlier, including maternal interventions during pregnancy and early lactation and child interventions through the first months of life. Development of maternally focused, prenatal interventions represents an important opportunity to prevent child growth failure in lower-or-middle income countries (LMICs), especially as I found that early growth failure had a strong relationship with mortality. Future research into potential tradeoffs in prioritizing exclusive breast feeding versus the prevention or treatment of wasting in the first 6 months is needed. I also found high seasonality in wasting in synchrony with rainfall patterns, possibly due to seasonality in food availability and infectious diseases, indicating the timing of intervention delivery should target seasonal peaks in wasting. The strongest determinants of child growth failure were maternal anthropometry and child birth size. Future research should use the key determinants identified to find the optimal subgroups of children who would benefit most from postnatal interventions to start and reduce the substantial global health burden of child growth failure.

Workplace conditions (pipe height and gas density), anthropometric variability (worker height), and task orientation (worker posture) in petroleum refining can influence the concentration of chemicals measured in the breathing zone of workers. Consideration of these factors while performing qualitative risk assessment is essential for occupational hygienists to accurately estimate exposure and prioritize assessment and mitigation resources. This study aimed to characterize the impact of these factors by simulating a routine operations task in a laboratory setting, at a predetermined flow rate, using full body mannequins. The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc Tukey tests indicate that all tested independent variables have a significant impact on the level of gas measured in the breathing zone (p < 0.001). Pipe height was a significant predictor of gas concentration measured in the breathing zone and correlated to the emission pathway for each evaluated gas density. Specifically, measurements of chemical concentration were higher for pipe heights that encouraged the gas to enter the breathing zone of the worker. Worker anthropometry was a significant predictor of gas concentration measured in the breathing zone and results varied for each gas density tested. Specifically, the tall worker (male) chemical concentrations exceeded those of the short worker (female) for methane simulations. Conversely, the short worker (female) chemical concentrations exceeded those of the tall worker (male) for sulfur hexafluoride simulations. This variance is primarily attributable to the vertical and horizontal position of each mannequin’s breathing zone relative to the emission source for exposure events. Worker posture was a significant predictor of gas concentration measured in the breathing zone and the results of this study demonstrate that non-neutral postures may be associated with higher levels of chemical concentration for these sorts of manual tasks. The findings of this study indicate that qualitative risk assessment cannot be performed accurately without accounting for all variables that may impact a worker’s exposure. Failure to account for these variables may result in worker exposure being severely over or underestimated.

It has been observed through numerous academic and governmental agency studies that pediatric all-terrain vehicle ridership carries significant risk of injury and death. While no doubt valuable to safety, the post-hoc approach employed in these studies does little to explain the why and how behind the risk factors. Furthermore, there has been no prolonged, widespread, organized, and concerted effort to reconstruct and catalog the details and causes of the large (20,000+) number of ATV-related injuries that occur each year as has been done for road-based motor vehicle accidents. This dissertation takes the opposite approach from a meta-analysis and instead examines the injury risk factors through a two-pronged, a priori, physics-based approach. Specifically, this dissertation study sought to: 1) experimentally determine whether age is an effective metric for assessing proper rider fit on an ATV, and 2) demonstrate experimentally and analytically how the combined dynamics of the ATV and riders can contribute to vehicular instability. These two studies were conducted using instrumented human subjects and ATVs and measured in a biodynamics laboratory. The key finding from the rider versus ATV size study was:1) contrary to publicly circulated engine size and age-based fit guidelines, age is not an effective metric for assessing rider fit on ATVs; instead, stature is the more reliable measure. The key findings from the rollover propensity study were: 2a) the combination of common terrain and throttle input can easily lead to a rearwards rollover, with or without additional riders sitting behind the ATV driver, and 2b) the minimum turning radius before initiating a sideways rollover can be easily be exceeded when ATVs are driven on commonly-encountered terrain and at surprisingly low speeds. The results of this dissertation study thus provide new evidence for mitigating two root causes of ATV injury by informing better parental guidance: first, clearly revealing that stature and not age is the key metric for who fits on what ATV model, and second, revealing the ease with which backward and sideways rollovers can occur.

This dissertation is history of how researchers have trusted biometric technologies to operate objectively but have perpetuated racial bias in the technologies’ design and output. It explores the origins and development of the biometric study of race and skulls during the rise and hardening of colonialism. A turn to quantification marks this period: researchers increasingly relied on measurements and statistical methods to develop racial classifications of the world’s populations. With a central focus on racial data and the practices that produced the data, the dissertation is a transnational history that follows the data from measurement encounters in colonial spaces, to laboratories in the United States and Europe, to printed form in publications. It transcends disciplinary boundaries and integrates anthropology, anatomy, statistics, and genetics, thus offering a fresh perspective on the history of racial science. I reveal a methodological crisis around 1900, spurred by a heterogeneous approach to studying race. Measurements and instruments like the skull-measuring caliper were introduced in the 19th century to infuse anthropology with precision. Meanwhile, researchers continued to study skulls through observations with a “trained eye.” By 1900, racial data had piled up without clear taxonomic value, creating a distrust in quantification and confusion about the direction of racial research. In the first half of the 20th century, statisticians like Karl Pearson began transforming anthropology with new biometric methods to make racial research more “scientific.” The dissertation argues that biometricians quantified and automated racial research: they made new use of the caliper by combining it with disembodied statistical formulas. Automation entailed a critique of the anthropologist’s subjective “trained eye” expertise and a reduction of human intervention in favor of objectivity. The biometricians, however, never challenged racial research itself and continued to reproduce old racial biases in their new methods and theories. Even in challenging Nazi race theories, they never questioned the existence of race. The dissertation thus uncovers how biometric practices were considered objective and reproduced racial prejudices.

Background/Objectives: Although current adult anthropometric cut-points (e.g., BMI, waist circumference (WC), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)) are applied universally, a growing body of research suggests that these measures, along with their relation to adiposity, may differ across racial/ethnic groups. In this study, we investigated the presence and persistence of racial/ethnic differences among anthropometric and body composition measures. Racial/ethnic-specific prediction of total percent body fat (BF%) and percent trunk fat (TF%) by these anthropometric measures was also examined. Exercise parameters were also compared across racial/ethnic groups Subjects/Methods: Data from 1783 participants from the Training Intervention and Genetics of Exercise Response (TIGER) Study, (n=1151 females, 632 males) were used. Subjects underwent 15 weeks of aerobic exercise training at 65 – 85% heart rate reserve. Only subjects who completed the protocol were included in these analyses. One-way ANOVA and multiple regression, stratified by sex, were used to compare the relationship between race/ethnicity, BF% or TF%, and anthropometric measures, and exercise parameters across racial/ethnic groups. Results: African American (AA) of both sexes exhibited lower levels of BF% per unit BMI, WC, and hip circumference (HC) and TF% per unit WC and WHR when compared to NHW. Similarly, Hispanic males and females showed less BF% per unit BMI and WC compared to NHW, but greater TF% per unit WC. Conversely, Asian Indians of both sexes had higher levels of BF% per unit BMI, WC, and HC compared to NHW. Both Asian males and females had greater levels of BF% per unit HC and TF% per unit WC compared to NHW. In females, AA (p

The critical development of an age at death estimation for an individual in forensic anthropology is usually estimated directly from physical skeletal remains, but in certain circumstances it may be pertinent to utilise photographic evidence. Unfortunately, the validity of currently established age estimation methods for use on photographic evidence has not been satisfactorily examined. The aim of this study was to test three age estimation methods using photographs of the auricular surface of the ilium. The three methods: Lovejoy, Meindl, Pryzbeck & Mensforth (1985), Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002) and Osborne, Simmons & Nawrocki (2004); were tested on photographs of the auricular surface of the ilium housed in the Raymond A. Dart Collection. The Lovejoy et. al. (1985) method was the least accurate for photographic age estimation despite the sex or population affinity of the individual, with 20 out of 429 individuals (5%) correctly estimated. Meanwhile, both the Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002) and Osborne, Simmons & Nawrocki (2004) methods correctly estimated a much larger group of individuals, respectively estimating 351and 341 individuals (~80%) correctly regardless of sex or population affinity. It was concluded that the Lovejoy et al. (1985) method may not suitable for photographic evidence, while the Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002) and Osborne, Simmons & Nawrocki (2004) methods have the potential to be valid age estimation methods for photographic evidence. Therefore, it is possible that the Buckberry & Chamberlain (2002) and Osborne, Simmons & Nawrocki (2004) methods may be able to form the basis of a digital system of skeletal remains for comparative age estimation purposes. The validation of age estimation methods using photographic evidence provides the opportunity for remote forensic anthropological age estimations for academic and medico-legal purposes.

Background: Fat distribution, rather than total body fat, has been identified as a significant risk factor for chronic disease. Patterning of subcutaneous fat, in particular, may play a pervasive role in shaping the metabolic milieu that is critical for disease development. Several studies have shown that early-life nutrition may influence later body composition. The effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on early patterns of subcutaneous fat deposition, however, are uncertain. Objective: At a time when early infant growth is emerging as a predictor for later chronic disease, it is the aim of the present analysis to investigate whether feeding style (breastfeeding versus formula feeding) modifies subcutaneous fat growth rates and trajectories in the first year of life with a focus on the historical iterations of WHO infant feeding recommendations (0 to 4 months, 4 to 6 months, and 6 to 12 months of age). Methods: This is an ex post-facto design that utilizes data collected as part of a longitudinal growth study in the first year of life. Subcutaneous fat mass was anthropometrically assessed weekly by skinfold thickness (triceps, quadriceps, calf, subscapular, suprailiac, midaxillary, and abdominal) in 21 infants. Feeding data were collected through daily parental records and are entered here as a categorical variable (predominantly breast fed and predominantly formula fed). Multi-level mixed effects models for repeated measures were used (STATA 14) adjusting for age, sex, weight, birthweight, and number of feeding episodes per day. Statistical significance was accepted at p Results:Infants experienced fat accretion only during the first four months, and this was limited to peripheral skinfolds. Thereafter, subcutaneous skinfolds followed a trend of declining rates. Breastfed and formula fed infants, however, demonstrated different patterns of subcutaneous fat deposition in both the sum of skinfolds and in each skinfold site. During the first four months, formula fed infants experienced greater rates for the subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac, trunk, quadriceps, sum of skinfolds (p Conclusion: Weekly skinfold assessments of seven subcutaneous sites have identified that feeding style predicts differences in deposition patterns in the first year of life. Breastfed infants demonstrated both slower rates of accretion and decline by comparison with their formula fed peers. This analysis further suggests that the first four months may be a critical period for subcutaneous fat deposition. Feeding specific effects were identified for truncal deposition and utilization, which suggests that future studies may benefit from depot-specific inquiries.

Though now seen everywhere in the hospital and operating theater, there was a time when surgeons used no hand protection. In the late 19th century, however, as the science of bacteriology became more advanced, surgical glove usage spurred. Today, gloves serve an extremely important role, helping to maintain the sterile field and protect hospital staff from the transfer of bloodborne pathogens. Since they are so valuable, it is equally important that gloves fit properly as to not be detrimental to the surgeon. Gloves that are too tight increase fatigue rate and decrease fine finger dexterity. Gloves that are too loose can reduce tactile sensitivity caused by bunching of material at the fingers. Traditionally, the larger of measurement of hand circumference and hand length are used to determine glove size, but most select a size based on comfort of fit. To assist manufacturers with creating certain sizes, anthropometry is often used. Anthropometry is the study of the physical measures of the human body. Human-factors engineering is the science of applying anthropometric information to the design of devices intended for human use. In this study, two anthropometric databases, studies by Greiner and Pheasant, were utilized to obtain hand measurements representative of the general population, due to the population studied. For this study, 59 general surgeons (51 male, 8 female) were invited on separate dates to the Medtronic Minimally Invasive Therapies Group in North Haven, CT for Voice of Customer laboratories. While there, they completed surveys where they listed their preferred glove size, double gloving sizes, dominant hand, etc. In addition, the following six measurements were taken: hand circumference, maximum grip diameter, Digit 1 (D1) length, Digit 2 (D2) link length, Distance from D2 Metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP) to Distal Interphalangeal (DIP) joint, and D2 distal phalanx length (extrapolated). These measurements were averaged and compared to the numbers reported in the Greiner and Pheasant studies for analysis using a novel Microsoft Excel tool. Commonly used laparoscopic staplers were also measured to assess ergonomic usability amongst the surgeon population. Male surgeons had statistically significantly larger hands than female surgeons with respect to all measurements taken. Compared to men of the general population, male surgeons had significantly smaller grip diameter, D2 link length, yet a greater D1 Length. Compared to women of the general population, female surgeons had a greater hand circumference, yet smaller D2 link length. All other measurements recorded were statistically equivalent. In general, surgeons seem to select a preferred glove size based on their hand circumference (Pearson’s Correlation 0.799, R2 63.9%), followed by D2 Link Length (Pearson’s Correlation 0.631, R2 39.9%). The median glove size for male surgeons was 7.5 (0.50) and 6.0 (0.25) for female surgeons (p > 0.001). To evaluate the ergonomic usability of laparoscopic staplers, the measurement “Distance from D2 MCP to DIP joint” was developed internally to roughly assess effective trigger distance, where larger lengths would force the user to adjust their hand position. The handles of two commonly used laparoscopic staplers were measured to determine what proportion of the surgeon population could use them effectively. Based on these measurements, for the Medtronic Endo GIA™ Ultra Stapler, nearly all male surgeons and 99.8% of female surgeons could use it ergonomically. For the Ethicon ECHELON FLEX™ ENDOPATH® Stapler, only 78.2% of male surgeons and 30.9% of female surgeons could use it ergonomically. This study demonstrated that there exists a large amount of variability between each part of the hand based on the different measurements. Therefore, to best assure proper fitting gloves for the majority of users, a two metric system involving hand circumference and finger length would be useful to accommodate the inherent variability of the hand. With respect to laparoscopic stapling platforms, this study demonstrated that the instruments are simply too large to be used ergonomically by a large portion of the intended audience. Medical device manufacturers should look to create an adjustable handle such that the trigger distance can be manipulated to fit the needs of those surgeons with smaller hands.

In the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, evolving scientific ideas about the body and its vulnerabilities, about women’s education, and about appropriate gendered behavior each contributed to the emergence of physical culture and healthy living environments for women and girls. Decrying the physical state of American mothers, health reformers and educators promoted new habits and routines meant to establish bodily health, and ushered physical culture programs into educational institutions and private homes. Bound together by their unwavering faith in the ability of the material world to produce healthy bodies, reformers evoked the language of efficiency, of maternal fitness, and of a fallible body that could be bolstered through material objects and spaces. This dissertation provides at once a cultural history of the female body, a study of architecture and material culture, and a critical examination of the ways in which race has been historically constructed. While scholars have begun to take up the diverse threads of this story, an architectural and material analysis of spaces and objects for exercise has thus far been overlooked. Drawing on prescriptive literature, building manuals, advertisements, and images, this dissertation argues that in the decades between 1865 and 1930, scientific ideas about racial reproduction tangibly effected the design of women’s spaces. Chapter One locates the roots of women’s physical culture in the aftermath of the Civil War and elucidates its relationship to the dress reform movement. Chapter Two considers architectural space for women’s exercise from 1881 to 1912. These three decades mark a crucial moment as the typology of the American gymnasium solidified, and women’s physical culture slowly moved out-of-doors. Chapter Three examines the middle-class house through the lens of health, and the ways in which reformers and medical experts projected scientific beliefs about gendered and racialized fitness onto the home, its contents, and the moments of performance required to maintain household and personal health. It concludes with a discussion of performative health in each of these three instances, and the specialized knowledge required of women to maintain their own health and the health of their households.

CONTEXT: Telomeres are biomarkers of biological aging. Shorter telomeres have been associated with increased adiposity in adults. However, this relationship remains unclear in children and adolescents. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between telomere length (TL) and adiposity markers in overweight/obese adolescents after an intensive program. We hypothesize that greater TL at baseline would predict a better response to a weight loss treatment. DESIGN SETTING PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION: The EVASYON is a multidisciplinary treatment program for adolescents with overweight and obesity that is aimed at applying the intervention to all possibly involved areas of the individual, such as dietary habits, physical activity and cognitive and psychological profiles. Seventy-four participants (36 males, 38 females, 12-16 yr) were enrolled in the intervention program: 2 months of an energy-restricted diet and a follow-up period (6 months). MAIN OUTCOME: TL was measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction at baseline and after 2 months; meanwhile, anthropometric variables were also assessed after 6 months of follow-up. RESULTS: TL lengthened in participants during the intensive period (+1.9±1.0, p

Undernutrition is a major public health problem, contributing to 33% of deaths in infants and young children globally. In Kygryzstan, Central Asia, Mercy Corps provided 6 metric tons of rice, flour and oil as well as nutritional education to kindergartens in 40 rural regions, serving 41,000 children, for one year. Anthropometric measurements were collected at the beginning and end of the program. Children, who were stunted, wasted and underweight at baseline, recovered by follow-up, with rates of recovery of 50%, 65% and 50%, respectively. The prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight in the population decreased from 13.8%, 3.4% and 3.2%, respectively, to 8.6%, 2.1% and 2.3%, respectively. This study shows that preschool feeding programs have the potential to improve nutritional outcome. These results are particularly significant as the dearth of research on preschool feeding’s impact on growth and nutrition has led to this particular intervention being deemed ineffective for improvement of nutritional outcome.

Background: Obesity is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). A proper anthropometric characterisation of T2DM risk is essential for disease prevention and clinical risk assessement. Methods: Longitudinal study in 37 733 participants (63% women) of the Spanish EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) cohort without prevalent diabetes. Detailed questionnaire information was collected at baseline and anthropometric data gathered following standard procedures. A total of 2513 verified incident T2DM cases occurred after 12.1 years of mean follow-up. Multivariable Cox regression was used to calculate hazard ratios of T2DM by levels of anthropometric variables. Results: Overall and central obesity were independently associated with T2DM risk. BMI showed the strongest association with T2DM in men whereas waist-related indices were stronger independent predictors in women. Waist-to-height ratio revealed the largest area under the ROC curve in men and women, with optimal cut-offs at 0.60 and 0.58, respectively. The most discriminative waist circumference (WC) cut-off values were 99.4 cm in men and 90.4 cm in women. Absolute risk of T2DM was higher in men than women for any combination of age, BMI and WC categories, and remained low in normal-waist women. The population risk of T2DM attributable to obesity was 17% in men and 31% in women. Conclusions: Diabetes risk was associated with higher overall and central obesity indices even at normal BMI and WC values. The measurement of waist circumference in the clinical setting is strongly recommended for the evaluation of future T2DM risk in women.

Variation in stature and body proportions across the globe is generally explained in terms of climatic adaptations and as resulting from overall life conditions experienced during growth. Based on growth heterochrony, different life histories should result in different adult stature and body proportions. It is nonetheless unclear to which extent such changes in growth outcomes take place at the intrapopulation level. This study explores variation in stature and body proportions at the inter and intrapopulation level by addressing four research questions in both living and archaeological populations. Specifically, this research investigates the existence of differences in growth outcomes within populations in relation to sex, severe growth retardation, and differential access to resources. Additionally, this study examines whether stature and body proportions allow us to differentiate between populations exposed to different environmental conditions. Variation in stature and segmental body proportions is examined in three living populations from South America and in two European medieval populations for a total of 2389 individuals. Anthropometric (height, sitting height, and leg length) and osteometric (skull height, long bones lenghts, skeletal trunk height, and skeletal height) data are analyzed and interpreted in the context of biocultural information available for each population included in the study. The statistical methods employed to address the research questions include the “Quick-Test” (Tsutakawa and Hewett, 1977), Monte Carlo analyses, principal component analyses, non-parametric analyses of variance and correlation analyses. Statistical significance is defined as p > 0.05. The results of this study reveal that: 1) Significant sex-related differences in body proportions are found in the majority of the populations examined, but the direction of such differences is extremely variable and appears to be due different sensitivity to environmental stress, cultural practices favoring one sex over the other, and the different selective pressures associated with female reproduction; 2) Severe growth retardation is associated with a reduction in relative leg length only in urban settings, while growth retardation appears to be accompanied by isometric changes in body size among rural Amazonians; 3) There is evidence in support of a positive relationship between differential access to resources and growth outcomes in both living and archaeological populations. However, no differences are found in one population, likely because of the inadequacy of the variable used as a proxy for resource access; 4) Significant interpopulation differences in stature and proportions are found among both living and archaeological populations, suggesting that growth outcomes reflect the unique set of life conditions experienced by each population, even within the same broad ecogeographic zone. Thanks to an innovative approch that combines the examination of biological variation in living and bioarchaeological populations in tandem, this study demonstrates that the pattern of variation variation in stature and body proportions across time and space is more complex than previously posited. Future research should further explore how growth outcomes are affected by specific biocultural factors such as differential offspring treatment, individual female reproductive histories, and different stressors associated with specific settlement types.

This study analyzed the changes in performance and anthropometric characteristics in collegiate male club rugby athletes following an unsupervised 4-week winter academic break. Fourteen athletes completed this study utilizing a within-subjects model. All measures were collected prior to, and after the winter academic break. Prior to testing each subject was acclimated to the protocols to reduce associated learning effects. Performance measures included V02max, vertical jump, 1 0-yard sprint, squat max, and bench press max and body composition was assessed by measuring body weight and hydrostatic weighing. During the Break no structured workouts were provided for athletes and participants were required to complete a self-report on activity and nutritional habits during this unsupervised period. Surprisingly, post-break performance measurements did not decrease. In fact, some measures showed improvement. There were increases in V02max (4.95%), squat max (14.33%), and vertical jump (6.75%). Anthropometric characteristics showed significant increases in body fat percentage (increase of 19.33%) as well as total body weight (1.01 %). Self report data collected over the break indicate > 3 days of moderate to intense physical activity per week but subjects rated dietary habits on the lower end of the subjective scale. These results indicate that athletes may not need prescribed exercise routines during academic semester periods as self-reports indicated adequate levels of activity to prevent detraining effects. Furthermore, it may be more beneficial to provide structured nutritional advice during unsupervised phases.

Child malnutrition is a problem in all countries and centers in poorer communities. Biological and socioeconomic factors alike contribute to malnutrition with recent studies focusing on aspects of maternal autonomy as an influencing factor. In this study, maternal autonomy is defined as the independence in her actions and control over resources a mother has within her household and is made up of several factors, including decision-making power, opinion of domestic abuse, and financial independence. Child nutritional outcomes were operationalized using the anthropometric measures height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-height (WHZ), and weight-for-age (WAZ). For this study, the 2004-2005 Tanzanian Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) dataset was examined using weighted logistic regression in SPSS version 17. After controlling for sociodemographic covariates, the only maternal autonomy variable which was statistically associated with child nutritional outcome (associated with height-for-age) was if the mother had final say in decisions regarding her own healthcare (OR=0.857, 95% CI=0.749-0.980). Sociodemographic variables which were statistically associated with child nutritional outcome were child age (older children had higher odds ratios for stunting and lower odds ratios for wasting), child gender (being female was a protective factor against stunting and underweight), duration of breastfeeding (intervals longer than 24 months had higher odds ratios for stunting, wasting, and underweight), and family’s position in the wealth index (being in the richer and richest quintiles were protective factors against stunting and underweight). While further research is needed to examine other influencing factors such as sanitation, diet, and disease prevalence, decision-making power regarding a mother’s own healthcare is an important factor that may influence her ability to meet the nutritional needs of her children. This implies that public health professionals may want to look into avenues by which maternal autonomy may be enhanced for possible interventions to improve child nutritional status in Tanzania.

The main goal of this research is to characterize the obese population based on anthropometry and range of motion (RoM) data collected from a sample taken from the University of Cincinnati community and to give the design implications of the corresponding characteristics. The anthropometric and RoM data consisted of 40 anthropometric dimensions collected from 20 male obese individuals and 20 male non- obese individuals. The body mass index (BMI) of the obese individuals was over 40 kg/m2 and the BMI of the non-obese individuals was between 20 kg/m2 and 25 kg/m2. The descriptive statistics for the 40 anthropometric dimensions and 33 RoM parameters were calculated for the two sets of population and they were tested for difference in means statistically. The difference in variance for different parameters was also tested for the two different populations. It was identified that the means of several anthropometric measurements and certain RoM measurements were significantly different between the two populations and the same was true in the case of variances. These differences represented several changes in design considerations which have been explained in detail. On comparison of the sampled obese population data with the US civilian population data that is currently used for design purposes, it was found that majority of the obese population is left out in our quest to provide an ergonomic environment thus stressing on the urgent need for such kind of research.

Basketball is a sport with many complex demands that require a combination of fitness, skills, team tactics and strategies, and motivational aspects. However key areas that are likely to play an important role in a basketball player's success are muscular strength, fitness and body size. Methods of evaluating and developing these characteristics have been extensively tested in controlled research settings, but there is a dearth of research exploring the value of, and methods of improving, muscular strength, fitness and body size of basketball players within the demanding schedule of an elite junior development program. These were therefore explored in this thesis.

This research examines and compares methods for mathematically coding 3-D human shapes for shape searching in large image data warehouses. The mathematical coding is called shape description and the codes themselves are called shape descriptors. The hypothesis for this study is that the automated method for deriving a compact shape descriptor developed by Paquet and Rioux (1998), referred to henceforth as the Paquet Shape Descriptor (PSD), can find the same shape in a large database as well or better than classic body measurement and 3-D landmark methods. PSD is different from many other types of descriptors because it indicates the location of contour changes rather than the relative size of pre-determined measurements or distances between points. This makes it better suited for searching for contour information. It is calculated directly from a 3-D image, requiring no human intervention or interpretation. Therefore, it is also suitable for searching 3-D image databases that have no (or few) landmarks or traditional anthropometric data available. The results indicate that the PSD descriptor performs as well or better than the other descriptors when the images were collected by the same 3-D scanner. Out of thousands of subjects, PSD selected the same subject first over 90% of the time, when searching for different scans of the same subject scanned by the same scanner. The PSD did less well, as did most other measures, when searching for the same subjects scanned by a different scanner. For PSD this effect may be due to a difference in the location of missing data. If so, then standardizing or equalizing the hole locations, or better methods for filling in missing data may improve performance. The present research suggests that PSD excels in searches when body contours are the most important criterion. When other criteria, such as underlying skeletal structure, are more important than surface contours, then other search methods may still be preferable.

Thoracic hyperkyphosis is a spine problem associated with back pain, trunk motion restriction, and cosmetic deformity. It is anecdotally linked to physical activity, which can augment the flexion moment applied to the thoracic spine by gravity, and through increased muscle activity, increase the compression forces acting on the vertebral centra. In adolescents, these changes may affect the development of the osteochondral and intervertebral tissues, leading to permanent vertebral wedging. Athletic training is one type of physical activity thought to extrinsically load the spine and contribute to the development of hyperkyphosis. Hamstring shortness has been anecdotally associated with spine deformity, as have certain anthropometric characteristics. In this dissertation, secondary analyses of the data from a cross-sectional study of 2,270 8-to-18 year-olds were used to investigate the associations between thoracic kyphosis, athletic training, hamstring shortness, and anthropometry. Originally, photogrammetric methods were used to measure the angles between pairs of lines tangent to thoracic and lumbar skin surface landmarks. Training time was self-reported, and hamstring muscle shortness (tightness) was determined using the Finger-to-Floor Reach Test. A direct relationship was demonstrated between thoracic kyphosis angle and annual training time, such that a 16% difference in annual training hours was associated with a 54% increase in thoracic angle. Subsequently, videographic methods were used to measure thoracic, lumbar, and hip angles via surface landmarks on 31 individuals ranging from 10 to 70 years. Hamstring-short subjects demonstrated posterior pelvic tilting and reductions in both lumbar lordosis angle and torso flexion range of motion. This lumbar flattening was associated with thoracic flattening, especially in younger, normokyphotic subjects, reflecting spine curve balance and an indirect relation between reach distance and thoracic angle. In older, hamstring-short hyperkyphotics with reach distances beyond about 140 mm, kyphosis angle tended to increase. This direct relation confirmed a link between hamstring shortness and thoracic kyphosis, suggesting an adaptive mechanism to enhance flexion range of motion. Finally, hyperkyphotic subjects tended to have longer thoracic spines, and hamstring-short subjects tended to have longer legs. Our findings may be useful for designing prospective studies to develop guidelines for athletic training program design and sports participant screening.

Automated techniques in anthropometry using a three dimensional laser scanner

Tall women's satisfaction with Tall clothing was examined in regard to fit, style, and accessibility. In addition, anthropometric measurements (stature, neck to waist, waist to ankle, shoulder to wrist) of tall women were compared with reported fit problems with Tall clothing, with the measurements from commercial standard PS 42-70, and with two racial groups. Data were gathered from 75 women who were at least 5 feet 8 inches and between 18 and 54 years old. The subjects were satisfied with the overall fit of Tall clothing, but were dissatisfied with the style, and reported buying Misses' size for most clothing. The subjects rated style as more important than fit and were more satisfied with the overall style of Misses' clothing than with the style of Tall clothing. The subjects appeared to buy Misses' clothing despite their dissatisfaction with fit, in order to have the desired styles. The reported fit problems with Tall clothing were too short hiplines in skirts and too short hemlines in button-up blouses. When compared with the measurements for Tall in PS 42-70, the subjects' measurements were significantly larger. Comparisons of measurements between Black subjects and White subjects revealed no significant differences. Style appeared to be a major influence in tall women's dissatisfaction with and the purchase of Tall clothing. Therefore, manufacturers need to consider aesthetic qualities when developing garments for this market and should revise sizing systems to accommodate the fit needs of Tall women.

Abstract: "Spring, 1980."

Increasing numbers of Australians are playing the sport of basketball. The game's ability to be played both indoors and outdoors, and the international popularity of the game make it an appealing sport for people of all ages. With an impressive 198 countries affiliated with the International Basketball Federation and an incredible 100,000,000 (one hundred million) women throughout the world playing basketball, the position of women's basketball has never looked stronger. According to Basketball Australia, females constitute 50% of the registered basketball playing population in Australia with approximately 350,000 participants. Participation rates have doubled in the last seven years. One of the factors believed to have contributed to the growth in the number of women playing basketball in Australia, is the increased profile of the Women's National Basketball League (WNBL). According to Leanne Grantham, Chief Executive of the WNBL, record crowds were recorded throughout the 1995/96 seasons with a subsequent rise in the level of media interest. The WNBL was one of Australia's first full home and away sporting competitions for women and is considered to be one of the three most competitive female basketball competitions in the world. This is reflected in the high number of overseas players (imports) who seek to join the competition each year. Tom Maher, Head Coach of the Australian Senior Women's Basketball Team (Opals), advocates that the standard of the WNBL is in a large way responsible for the success of Australian Junior and Senior Teams at international competitions. The Australian Junior Women's Team (Gems) won a silver medal at the 1997 World Junior Championships and is currently ranked two in the World and the Senior Women's Team, which won its first ever Olympic medal (bronze) at the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, is currently ranked three. Given the increase in the profile of women's basketball both in Australia and overseas, it is interesting to note the limited number of studies which have investigated the physiological requirements of the game. A physiological investigation of elite women's basketball may provide answers to questions such as: What is the nature of the physiological strain incurred by elite players during performance? Which system does the majority of energy contribution during performance come from? What type of specific strength and conditioning is required? Do the physiological stresses placed on elite women basketballers vary according to position?