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Objectives: This study applied the Integrative Causal Model of Antisocial Behaviour to the behaviour of preschool behaviour In an attempt to increase understanding of the origins of preschool behaviour problems. Three hypotheses were generated: • Predisposing factors and social factors combined would account for more of the variance in child behaviour than either set of factors alone. • Oppositional temperament would be the more predictive of child behaviour than the remaining predisposing factors. • Harsh discipline and low tolerance for difficult behaviour would be more predictive of child behaviour than lax supervision or parental antisocial behaviour. Design: A cross sectional, within subjects design was used with a community sample. Method: Forty parent-child dyads opted-in to the study. Parents completed questionnaires regarding: child behaviour and temperament; their discipline and supervision of the child and their psychological well being, stress and degree of antisocial behaviour while the child's verbal ability was assessed. Basic demographic data was also obtained. Results: The main results were: • Predisposing factors and social factors combined were more predictive of preschool behaviour than either alone; • More specifically socioeconomic status, harm avoidant temperament and parental antisocial behaviour combined were most predictive of preschool behaviour; • Harm avoidant temperament and harsh physical discipline were the most significant single predictors of preschool behaviour. Conclusions: The Integrative Causal Model of Antisocial Behaviour was of limited value for understanding preschool behaviour problems. It may be that different factors are implicated in the development of early behaviour problems compared to antisocial behaviour.

For many decades, school leadership has been conceptualized in a variety of ways attempting to identify the critical elements necessary for effective school leadership. The expertise required for today's schools appears to be different from that required in the past, particularly as school leaders are expected to initiate change and "restructure" in order to obtain new and improved educational results. Traditional managerial skills, once deemed appropriate and effective for school administration, are now being replaced by styles that focus on cooperation and consideration, community building, open communication, and involvement with others. These behaviors appear to be present in women as they demonstrate their effectiveness in leadership roles as principals and superintendents. This descriptive study offers an in-depth look at the administrative behavior of three women. It documents their experiences and perspectives as high school principals. The purpose of the study is to contribute to the growing body of research on female leaders necessary to challenge the existing theories on school administration, which are based on traditional business management theory and formulated using an androcentric conceptual framework. Naturalistic inquiry guided the present study, which employed qualitative research methodology. Participant observations, complemented by interviews and reflective conversations, provided the data for analysis using grounded theory. A computer software program Ethnograph (Qualis, 1998) facilitated the organization and analysis of data. Case narratives, case reports, and a cross-case analysis report three women's behavior in their role as high school principals. Major conclusions include: (a) Each principal demonstrated a unique style of administrative behavior which seemed effectively matched to the needs of the school organization; (b) Each principal demonstrated a strong set of collegial or relational behaviors that focused on building community in order to support the school programs; and (c) Each principal demonstrated an ethic of care informed by a sense of fairness and loyalty to the policies and procedures associated with their bureaucratic organizational environment. The ethic of care that guided each principal's style suggests that these principals exercise a kind of power associated more with "effective agency" than with "command and control" power typically associated with traditional leadership. Additional research is needed to document the female leadership experience in schools in order to challenge and transform current administrative theory; research is also needed to explore the notion of "effective agency" as power. Practitioners, researchers, and other interested educational professionals are invited to use the behaviors identified in this study to reflect upon their own styles, because changing our schools is inevitably bound up with changing ourselves.