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When thinking about Child Sexual Exploitation (CSE) and sex trafficking, what does the perceived victim look like? Who are the casualties of these crimes? Is the automatic thought that of a female sufferer? What kind of male is exploited? Deeper investigation into these questions - and the assumed answers - call for further exploration into what society sees as victimhood and who is allowed to lay claim to it. Looking at literature where sexual exploitation is a theme, the narrative arc of many novels satisfies the need for a comfortable resolution. The reality of sexual exploitation is that there are few happy endings, and the lack of representation allows for a continuation of societal ignorance that must be challenged. The Artful Dodgers, is written as a sequel to Charles Dickens' 1837 novel, Oliver Twist, and by creating a narrative for the gang members that Dickens offers no fate for except for a cursory sentence about Dodger and Charlie, this thesis will take the reader on an uncomfortable journey that presents a truer picture of male CSE having always occurred alongside female CSE, but how societal views about male sexual exploitation and the connotations for men and boys who fall prey to it, silence many victims. When research led me to question a potential link between abuse and suicide, the findings were marred by a lack of accurate data about male abuse victims. The current suicide rate in males is 3:1 compared to that of females. My 25-year career, which has been based in supporting vulnerable people, raised the question of why this might be the case and has led to this thesis, which suggests that an indoctrinated toxic masculinity drives societal opinions about male victims of CSE and puts in place additional barriers for males, preventing many disclosing abuse and receiving support.

There has been a flurry of legislative action at the international and regional levels to address the global problem of trafficking in persons, which victimises epidemic-proportions of individuals and generates one of the largest proceeds of organised crime. The harmonisation of national legal responses based on minimum standards around prevention, prosecution, and protection as espoused by those international and regional instruments is a prerequisite for effective and wide cooperation among countries of origin, transit, and destination. However, the reluctance of states to lift to the lofty heights of international consensus the contentious policy issues surrounding trafficking, including prostitution, has resulted in the adoption of rather ambiguous anti-trafficking norms and obligations, which allow states to individually determine what constitutes 'trafficking in persons' within their own jurisdictions. The subsequent divergence in national responses reveals that legal harmonisation has not taken place. The mechanisms of enforcement, which attach directly or indirectly to those international and regional instruments, therefore, have the formidable task of assisting states in the implementation of the substantive content of anti-trafficking norms and obligations through their monitoring and reporting mandates. However, their work remains a neglected area of academic research, compared to writings on the ambiguity of the international anti-trafficking framework. The challenge to international regulation of the trafficking problem, as identified in this thesis, relates on a fundamental level to the systemic limitations of the formal processes of law based on state consent and respect for the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity. Through a comparative legal analysis of international and European legal responses to sex trafficking in women, this thesis illuminates the main systemic challenges to combating trafficking in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Finland, the Netherlands, Romania, and Sweden, and how the work of those enforcement mechanisms remedies some of those challenges.

The pimp serves as an iconic ghetto hero who stands in street cultures as a figure that represents defiance, anti-establishment angst, and victorious criminality (Funches & Marriott 2002; Horton-Stallings, 2003). The American pimp has been brought into mainstream American culture through 1960’s literature, 1970’s Blaxploitation films, 1980’s hip hop and more recently, documentaries, films, books, music and television. The word ‘pimp’ has found its way into mainstream usage and popular caricatures of the pimp can be found in everything from Halloween costumes to ‘pimp and ho’ themed college parties. Despite being highly visible within mainstream culture, this character is still enigmatic as pimps are an underresearched population. Thus this thesis aims to uncover and unveil the lives and experiences of pimps involved in illegal prostitution to produce a more panoramic understanding of prostitution and an unexplored segment of major players within it. This thesis investigates the experiences and narratives of pimps involved in illegal, predominately street, prostitution in the USA. This research project stands to offer in-depth insight into the experiences of pimps in the United States within this unique subcultural context. In order to fill that literature gap, this research interviewed pimps and gathered data that explored how and why individuals become pimps, their personal histories, how they maintain their position as pimps, how pimps pimp, and the motivations for exit and/or retirement from The Game (the world of prostitution and pimping). More than just a managerial position, the role of the pimp also embraces a lifestyle with special rules, fashions and activities that create a unique and complex underground, criminal community. Rather than just presenting pimps as violent exploiters or ghetto heroes, this thesis examined the language of pimping, their orientation to their roles, the relationship between pimping and the surrounding communities and mainstream society, and explored this criminal career as a social role as well as career. With their childhood experiences of life in American ghettos leading to regular exposure to pimps and favorable impressions of illicit, underground careers, respondents came to ‘choose’ pimping as their career trajectory in their teens. Once dedicated to becoming pimps, many pimps underwent training with older pimps and later gained acceptance within the street community to earn their positions and status as pimps. When established within The Game, they started to practice ‘pimpology’ (pimp ideology) and to firmly establish their skills and methods of pimping. Two substantive chapters within this thesis are dedicated to addressing pimpology: pimpology covers the core processes, social connections and methods of management that are vital for a pimps success and survival in The Game. The aim of these chapters is to explore how pimps function as individuals, with the women who work for them, within their peer networks, and within their communities while they are actively pimping. And finally, exit from pimping will be explored. Issues such as age, exhaustion, family, health, drug addiction, trauma, imprisonment, law enforcement crackdowns and social betrayal all also act as further incentives for pimps to ‘hang up their pimp hat.’ This research has uncovered new themes and trends within the narratives of this hidden, underground subcultural population and offers great insights into the ‘career cycles’ of pimps. This project stands to fill a major gap within prostitution research as current literature lacks the perspectives and voices of pimps themselves. Within this research, a nuanced approach offers a unique view of the pimp and their complex roles and relationships within The Game. As an understudied population, pimps have rarely been the focus of academic inquiry; thus this research stands to contribute new perspectives, insights and data on a population that has remained enigmatic and well hidden from academic exploration for decades.

Human trafficking is a global crime that occurs in all countries regardless of status or rank. It victimizes both genders and all age groups. The two most common types of human trafficking are for the purposes of forced labor and commercialized sexual exploitation. The demand for commercialized sexual exploitation has increased throughout the United States. Technology and social media have enhanced and made the ability to commit sex trafficking easier and more efficient. The ties between pornography and sexual exploitation have also had an impact on sex trafficking recruiting and grooming.

This work explores the concern towards a perceived sex trafficking problem in metro Atlanta and this perception’s relationship with local media coverage of commercial sex labor (CSL). Using Erotic Capital and Feminist Criminalization theories, I critically analyzed the discursive landscape of CSL in the Atlanta-Journal Constitution (AJC). Then, considering the media’s power in shaping public opinion and relying on the strengths of qualitative methodologies (Patton 2002), I evaluated this landscape for moral panic evidence. I found that authors: 1) primarily used disparaging descriptions of voluntary CSL; 2) conflated voluntary CSL with sex trafficking; and 3) distorted the reality of Full-Service Sex Work (FSSW). Taken together, the findings reveal the negative media framing of CSL, which contributes to it’s contemporary resurgence as a popular moral enterprise. Moreover, this centuries-old moral panic as a case study informs us of the idiosyncrasies that color moral enterprise and lead to panic.

Human trafficking (HT) is a heinous crime that has gained international attention. Millions of people (specifically young girls and women) are affected by prostitution and sexual exploitation, the most common forms of human trafficking. Currently, anti-trafficking law enforcement agencies are struggling to respond to human trafficking due to the lack of data, the hidden nature of the crime, the current service providers, and the strategies of human trafficking task forces. The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study will be to understand better the challenges of law enforcement officers and the impact of law enforcement officers in combatting human trafficking. The goals of the study are threefold: (1) to illustrate the experiences in their own words, (2) to identify themes surrounding efforts to combat human trafficking, and (3) to better understand how law enforcement officers perceive the challenges they must endure. A transcendental phenomenology research design will be used to obtain a detailed description that provides the basis for the essences and meanings to emerge from the perspectives of the law enforcement officers. In this study, the researcher will conduct semi-structured open-ended interviews with ten local law enforcement officers in Alabama. The data will describe the lived experience of each of the ten officers. The transcendental phenomenological research design will also utilize Moustakas' processes: epoche, phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, structural-textural, composite textural, and synthesis. The study’s findings will have implications for the criminal justice field and professional practice.

Despite the new wave of laws and victim advocate services implemented to treat all children involved in sex trafficking as victims, many law enforcement officers have some difficulty in identifying potential victims of child sex trafficking. The purpose of the study was to understand how law enforcement officers perceive child sex trafficking victims in South Carolina and how law enforcement officers respond to child sex trafficking victims in South Carolina based on those perceptions. The theory that guided the study was Becker’s (1963) labeling theory. This multiple case study investigated how law enforcement officers perceive child sex trafficking victims in South Carolina and how law enforcement officers respond to child sex trafficking victims in South Carolina based on those perceptions. The data collection method used for this study was individual interviews. Individual interviews were utilized to answer the three research questions. Data analysis occurred through a triangulation process consisting of analyzing logged data for consistent patterns and themes. Triangulation provided validity of the data analysis. The findings of this study showed that law enforcement is beginning to change their perceptions and how they respond to child sex trafficking victims in South Carolina. The participants viewed all potential victims as victims while a few viewed them as victims and offenders. The findings also showed that services are provided to potential victims, but victims are still hesitant to cooperate with law enforcement due to the fear of being prosecuted or retaliated against This study was guided by Becker’s (1963) labeling theory which correlated with existing research labeling young victims as offenders. This study also showed an increase in law enforcement treating child sex trafficking victims as victims.

Higher education students are vulnerable to being sex trafficked (Campus Law Enforcement-DHS, n.d.). As a means of prevention, an online training was developed for higher education students. The purpose of this training was to provide awareness and education about sex trafficking and promote safety in terms of relationships, jobs, and the internet. The intention of this study was to research the effectiveness of this training in building an understanding of sex trafficking. A convergent mixed methods study was conducted using pre and post surveys to assess awareness around sex trafficking in higher education. The training was found to be effective in educating participants about “discerning legitimate and safe websites and apps.” In addition, participants’ questions and concerns about sex trafficking are included for future course development and awareness training. Ideas for future steps to help prevent sex trafficking are also included. This dissertation is available in open access at AURA (https://aura.antioch.edu) and OhioLINK ETD Center (https:// etd.ohiolink.edu).

This quantitative, quasi-longitudinal research was conducted to empirically examine if sex-demand buyer behavior of heterosexual males is causational based on commonplace societal and transgenerational influences. These causational influences are termed “escalation dynamics,” which can lay on a ranged scale from adolescent development through adulthood, termed an “escalation continuum.” This research aimed to research how and why a heterosexual male becomes a sex buyer from different influences over a developmental time frame. Participants had to meet the criteria of being a heterosexual male, having been arrested for sex-demand buying, and currently participating or having completed the Sex Buyers Transformation and Restoration (STAR) Program. The 67-question My Sex Life Survey was completed online by 56 respondents. The results indicated a correlation between developmental influences, i.e., escalation dynamics, such as hegemonic masculinity, traditional male roles, internet pornography, strip clubs, and beliefs leading to the objectification of prostituted females. The research showed multiple significant inferences on sex-demand buyer behavior concerning negative heterosexual male influences from adolescents to adulthood. Furthermore, the results showed and exposed a range of sex-demand buyers as being more or less hegemonic in their masculinity traits, suggesting that men who suffer more significant strain suffer greater symptoms of hegemonic masculinity.

This research aims to analyze what are the possible consequences of conflating sex work and sex trafficking, specifically in a criminalized setting. This research focuses on the United States and samples three states to make this assessment. The three states are New York, Idaho, and Massachusetts. The research focuses initially on establishing its design and context, establishing qualitative data as its main source of data. The second part follows to the analysis of whether sex trafficking and prostitution are conflated in practice while differentiated in theory. To this end, anti-prostitution statutes and antitrafficking statutes are analyzed. As well as prostitution diversion programs and human trafficking task forces. Lastly, the research proceeds to the analysis of the consequences of the conflation of sex work as sex trafficking using a procedural timeline. Which starts on the moment before an arrest until a possible conviction. The research then, presents its crosscutting recommendation and conclusions.

This is a quantitative-comparative analysis that focuses on Artificial Intelligence (AI) platforms that assist law enforcement agencies as they combat human trafficking. Human trafficking is a Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) which means it can impact every country in the world, and in doing so, impact every person in the world. AI uses machine-learning capabilities to identify clusters, odd and/or unusual font, words, numbers, and other markers in advertisements that promote the sale of human beings. Human trafficking affects males, females, and children of all ages and can include different types of trafficking such as sex and labor trafficking. By using these AI platforms, law enforcement officers are able to identify and help more human beings than ever before in a quicker timeframe. This quantitative-comparative analysis compared Spotlight, Traffick Jam, Traffick Cam, and Domain Insight Graph (DIG) to determine if these platforms were helping law enforcement. The study revolved around the questions of accuracy, consistency, and effectiveness with each platform and found that the majority of AI platforms led the way to promote better, more efficient platforms by the same companies that learned how changes could assist law enforcement more in the future. While each platform assisted in their own ways, there were deltas in each area that leads to the need for future research in the area of AI and how it can be used to help victims of human trafficking and convict human traffickers more in later years.

Survivors of human trafficking experience trauma that causes profound, sometimes lifelong effects. The abuse experienced during a trafficking episode can result in physical injuries, emotional and psychological problems, and challenges with executive functioning skills (Gorman & Hatkevich, 2020). Current policies and resources focus on trafficking prevention and rescue, but there are few programs that address the survivors’ recovery needs after exiting the trafficking episode. This results in a gap in care that leaves survivors with few options as they try to regain their independence and engage in meaningful occupations. Occupational therapists are ideally suited to addressing this gap. This author developed a comprehensive, evidence-based program that demonstrates the vital role occupational therapy (OT) can play in post-trafficking recovery and rehabilitation. Pathways Nepal is a six-week OT program developed for the women living in the SASANE residential home in Pokhara. The program is grounded in well-established models of care and incorporates occupation-based activities, trauma-informed care, and the use of social support – approaches that have been shown to be effective in facilitating positive change for the post-trafficking demographic (Amadasun, 2022; Cerney et al., 2019; Edwards et al., 2023; Johnson, 2018; Hardy, 2013; Hopper et al., 2018; Rafferty, 2017). Findings from the initial iteration of Pathways Nepal will be used to facilitate the program expansion throughout Nepal and eventually, to other post-trafficking residential facilities globally. In doing so, Pathways Nepal serves to help define the role of OT in post- trafficking care, while also helping to establish the role of OT on the global healthcare stage.

Qualitative coding is a long and strenuous process that requires a well-skilled investigator. Natural language processing techniques have made leaps and bounds as far as usability and application domain, although it does not work for every task. In this work, we have created a natural language processing framework to help qualitative coders automatically obtain the nodes and node arcs from federal case files, dockets, and indictments within a sex trafficking network. The produced nodes and arcs allows us to perform network modeling by providing us with the information needed to create network structures that can then be used for interdiction simulation. The network models can also be analyzed for patterns, trends, and contrasts. Another goal for these networks is to apply Operations Research (OR) methods to better understand the operations of sex trafficking networks. Results fared better for the node extraction task, begging the question, does automation belong in the process of coding sex trafficking networks? If yes, then future implementations should avoid rule-based matching, despite the high structure of court documents. Additionally, more data would help improve accuracy of a model; however, obtaining ground truth data requires human coders. This thesis helps to address the question of how automated techniques, such as natural language processing and machine learning, can play a role in qualitative coding and thematic analysis. Further, by focusing on obtaining networks from text documents, it provides a basis for inputs into operations research models.

Black girls who have experienced childhood sexual abuse are disproportionately exploited through domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST)- as the intersection of their experiences of systemic marginalization exacerbates their trauma and increases their vulnerability to DMST. The purpose of this critical qualitative study, involving 10 Black girls and 13 women of color advocates, was to explore the self-identified and observed ways in which systems, especially schools, silence Black and Brown girls, as well as their recommendations for educators/schools and other systems to play a role in DMST prevention. This study builds on existing research on the adultification, criminalization, and sexualization of Black girls, acknowledging the ways in which schools exacerbate vulnerabilities to sex trafficking for girls of color. Grounded in the expertise and experience of the co-creators/participants, this study proposes a School-Based Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Prevention Model for Girls of Color comprised of the following 8 components: 1) DMST education, 2) Comprehensive sex education & consent, 3) Healing-centered community, 4) Policies & protocols, 5) Restorative culture, 6) Culturally sustaining, 7) Community collaboration, and 8) Aligned with American School Counseling Association (ASCA) National Model.

Human trafficking is a global public health crisis catastrophically threatening the health and well-being of those trafficked. Limited studies measure health care providers’ confidence in their ability to recognize, treat, and refer those being trafficked. This integrative review synthesizes current knowledge on human trafficking and identifies gaps in research on educational interventions aimed at increasing provider knowledge and awareness as well as confidence in treating and referring those being trafficked. A systematic search of five databases identified peer-reviewed published papers between 2015 and 2021. The integrative review followed the framework of Toronto and Remington (2020), and the systemic search was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Revies and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Melnyk’s Levels of Evidence framework was used for appraising the quality of evidence (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2015). Findings across studies (N = 11) reveal that providers (nurses, doctors, social workers, and hospital staff) have low knowledge and confidence in their knowledge surrounding human trafficking and their role in identification, treatment, and referrals related to an array of barriers. Further findings across studies (N = 13) reveal that providers’ knowledge and confidence knowledge about human trafficking and identification, and referral of those being trafficked increased significantly with an array of educational interventions, but the transfer of this new knowledge to practice is a gap in research, as few studies reported this (n = 2).

This study explored the topic of human trafficking with a focus on the perspectives of local law enforcement officers located in California, Florida, New York, Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to examine officers’ perceptions relating to the under-identification of sex trafficking victims and the victim-centered approach to human trafficking. The problems addressed in this study are that the identification of victims of human trafficking has not been effective, under-identification has long been a problem, and victims are undercounted. The theory guiding this study is Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance, as officers may experience cognitive dissonance during their routine law enforcement work. The study utilized an email survey instrument consisting of open-ended questions that were sent to officers who held the rank of police officer or sergeant (or the equivalent). The survey was administered through SurveyMonkey®. The survey responses were manually coded and analyzed; the results were then analyzed using QSR®NVivo 12 to ensure correlation with the manual coding analysis. The major findings of this study are as follows: officers believe the victim-centered approach to human trafficking is a compassionate tool for empowering individuals who are powerless and that mistrust in law enforcement remains a significant barrier to implementing the victim-centered approach to human trafficking and building relationships with victims. The officers’ agreed almost unanimously that sex trafficking victims are under-identified and that more training on prostitution and human trafficking is needed.

“Awake, O sleeper, arise from the dead, and Christ will make you aware.” Eph. 5:14 Earlier this year I stopped at a table under a sign reading “January Is Human Trafficking Awareness Month.” The table’s material did awaken me to the scope of human trafficking (global), the amount of money traffickers are making (billions), and where to send money to help fight the problem – but there was little information on being more aware of human trafficking within MY town. A lifetime focus on community safety helped me realize that a high level of awareness of the signs of trafficking occurring within my community directly correlates to its’ safety… and that being awake isn’t enough – being aware is critical! If my community’s ‘trafficking awareness level’ (TAL) is low, the probability of trafficking occurring is high. I also realized that the smaller the scope, the greater the hope for dealing with this ‘hidden crime,’ for at the community level human trafficking is less able to hide. In the verse from Ephesians 5 Paul pleads with Christians to awaken from their sleep. When we truly wake up, we become aware and this awareness keeps us alert and alive – especially if that awareness includes Jesus Christ as Lord. Similarly, to protect lives in our Avalon community, the Community Awareness Core (CAC) – in partnership with the Avalon Community Church (ACC) – proposes to assess Avalon’s TAL and, if low, raise it by training community members to identify, or ‘see,’ the signs and indicators of trafficking as they occur in daily interactions. When community members ‘see something,’ they’ll be trained to ‘say something’ (report to law officers). This project offers faith-based and civic organizations a grassroots approach to collaborating with law enforcement agencies to keep their communities safe from human trafficking.

Among the many issues facing sex trafficking survivors, the bonds they develop to their traffickers or other perpetrators are one of the most complex and least understood concerns. In part due to the sensitive quality of the issue at hand and the often-hidden nature of the population, too few studies have sought to give voice to survivors themselves and their own experiences with trauma bonding. It is important to hear from survivors directly about how trauma bonds are formed and how they manifest, and most importantly, how individuals can sever these bonds and experience healing and freedom from a life of exploitation. Furthermore, little research has examined survivors’ experiences in human trafficking specialty docket courts. Trauma bonds likely affect survivors who are involved in these courts, but no prior research has sought to explore how these survivor-participants experience these bonds. This study sought to fill these gaps by seeking to understand how survivors have experienced trauma bonding, how they have experienced healing from trauma bonding, and how their participation in a human trafficking specialty docket has affected their healing from trauma bonding. This phenomenological study seeks to center survivors’ lived experiences and to prioritize and honor survivors’ voices. The sample consisted of 19 female survivors of sex trafficking who were all participants in or graduates of a human trafficking specialty docket. The first research question was: How have survivors of sex trafficking experienced trauma bonding? Two themes emerged from the data. The first theme is the source of the trauma bond. Participants in the focus groups and interviews discussed in depth with whom they had trauma bonds with. The second theme is aspects of trauma bonds, which included three subthemes. Specifically, survivors have experienced trauma bonds as being (a) involuntary, as having a (b) lingering power, and as consisting of both (c) love and hate. The second research question was: How have survivors of sex trafficking experienced healing from trauma bonding? Three themes emerged from the data regarding how survivors of sex trafficking have experienced healing from trauma bonds. Survivors shared that (a) building trusting and honest relationships, (b) their relationships with themselves, and (c) education all played a pivotal role in the healing they had been able to experience. The third research question was: What are the experiences of trauma bonded survivors of sex trafficking in a human trafficking specialty docket? Three themes emerged from the data. Survivors shared that (a) love and support from specialty docket staff contributed to their ability to flourish in the court program and to overcome effects of their trauma bonds. Survivors had conflicting (b) views on change the specialty docket had undergone regarding their rules and procedures, and how effective or ineffective they felt these changes were for survivors with trauma bonds. Finally, survivors expressed that how trauma bonding affects a survivor in the court program ultimately (c) depends on the individual and their willingness to change and be honest. These findings contain significant implications for theory, practice, policy, education, and future research.

Society struggles to have difficult conversations. Polite silence is often preferred to dredging up uncomfortable topics. This silence is deafening as the majority of Americans do not consider topics such as The American Sex Trafficking Crisis. In a post-pandemic world, how do we initiate difficult conversations in both digital forums and public domains? The Artemis Project seeks to visually explore this gap in conversation, undergoing an optical investigation of utilizing design and illustrative practices as tools for mass communication. This project conceptualizes the development and application of imagery to introduce a conversation, facilitating understanding and empathy. In short, The Artemis Project endeavors to assign a recognizable brand and aesthetic to a difficult conversation, developing a metaphor to provide language for consumers to equate to the conversation.

It has to be recognized that human trafficking is a problem in all American states. Small towns do, in fact, face this international problem. Human trafficking can happen in any community, large or small, in cities and rural areas alike. Globally, society lacks a complete and accurate understanding of the nature of human trafficking. Rural towns, such as Billings, Montana, are just now comprehending the size of the problem they have in their area. With the help of community organizations, residents are becoming aware that it is happening in their state, despite being a relatively secluded area of the United States. As small rural towns, large cities, and entire nations fully understand this crisis, society can effectively create the best solutions for combatting human trafficking: first, understanding how widespread the issue is locally and internationally, and second, through theories such as conflict theory, constructivism, and trauma theory, we can properly identify victims and perpetrators. By comprehending how demographic, economic, and political variables impact how human trafficking occurs, society can see how prevalent human trafficking is in any community or part of the world.

Human trafficking, the cruel and inhumane crime that it is, exploits the lives of millions of people around the world. My study explores the common vulnerabilities that exist for victims of cross-national human trafficking. First, I analyze literature discussing individual and country- level victim demographics to identify characteristics that predict recruitment or abduction into human trafficking. Using the 2017 Counter Trafficking Data Collaborative, I demonstrate the applicability of Cohen and Felson's 1979 Routine Activity Theory (RAT) to explain the vulnerabilities to victimization further. More specifically, I use VIVA to assess the methods of control and types of exploitation utilized by domestic and international traffickers. A sociological study that combines the work of RAT and VIVA in relation to human trafficking victimization is yet to exist, therefore I am seeking to fill this research gap. The overarching goal of this study is to form a victim profile through cluster analysis and logistic regression in order to locate the unique patterns of victimization. My findings demonstrate that there is a significant relationship between the three clusters formed, the methods of control used by the perpetrator (physical, psychological, and economic abuse), and the types of exploitation suffered by the victim (sexual and labor exploitation).

IntroductionMuch is known about human trafficking, but alarmingly little is known about anti-trafficking practices. In general, and without substantive investigation, the anti-trafficking movement is taken-for-granted as a force for good, beyond reproach, and somehow magically uncoupled from trafficking per se. Yet the animating logics and practices of the anti-trafficking movement reproduce some of the very same violences of trafficking itself. By investigating the mechanics and logics of anti-trafficking, as well as the ways in which gendered and sexual violence constitutes both illicit and licit forms of gendered and sexualized labor related to human trafficking and rescue, this project pushes back against the normative logic of much of the trafficking research which to date has exempted anti-trafficking from serious, sustained critical analysis. My dissertation research remedies this situation by subjecting recent federal anti-trafficking legislation SESTA/FOSTA to rigorous social scientific scrutiny and specifically by learning from the people who occupy the liminal space between victim and worker, in order to situate anti-trafficking efforts in their historical, economic and political contexts.Chapter 1: Sex, Labor and the Consent GapDespite many shared goals and investments, the anti-trafficking movement has long been at odds with the sex worker’s rights movement. The anti-trafficking movement is characterized by a commitment to radical feminist values which view heterosexual sex as inherently violent and consent to paid sex impossible. In this view, the sex industry is painted as uniformly violent and exploitive. For this reason, the anti-trafficking movement has advocated the increasing criminalization of the sex industry (what Elizabeth Bernstein calls “carceral feminism”).Taking seriously the implications of an emerging sex worker literature which is critical of work, I argue that to understand consent when sex is work, the term’s component parts must be engaged separately. Utilizing a dimidiate consent framework reveals a significant discrepancy between the socially and legally acceptable level of consent to (unpaid) sex versus the socially and legally acceptable level of consent to (non-erotic) work. This model allows for a truly labor-centered understanding of consent to paid sex and a useful framework for analyzing competing legal models for regulating the sex industry. In this chapter I compare New Zealand’s model of full decriminalization of the sex industry to Nevada’s model of limited legalization. Engaging these sites of productive ideological tension reveals important truths that can help lay the groundwork for a more nuanced and complex understanding of consent in the sex industry which takes seriously not only the risk of episodic direct physical violence experienced by people in the sex industry, but also the quotidian violence of value extraction in capitalist labor relations, and the role of the state in contemporary labor relations. The unique language of New Zealand’s Prostitution Reform Act provides an excellent framework for rethinking workers’ rights and workers’ relationship to the state beyond the sex industry. Chapter 2: The Impact of SESTA/FOSTA on Sex Workers in San FranciscoIn this chapter I contrast the animating logics of the anti-trafficking movement (the rationale for SESTA/FOSTA) with a qualitative analysis of interview data from interviews with 38 primarily street-based sex workers in the Tenderloin in San Francisco. I completed this fieldwork at St. James Infirmary in the Fall of 2019. St. James Infirmary is a sex-worker-run, harm-reductionist organization in the Tenderloin neighborhood of San Francisco which supports sex workers via healthcare, mental health services, needle exchange, peer mentorship, street outreach and case management. The purpose of semi-structured interviews in this research is to understand the impact that SESTA/FOSTA is having on sex workers’ exposure to risk and violence, day-to-day work practices, decision-making and survival strategies. Because St. James Infirmary is located in San Francisco’s Tenderloin neighborhood and works primarily with transgender and cisgender street-based sex workers, fieldwork at St. James afforded me access to a crucial population that would otherwise be difficult to reach: sex workers who had worked indoors prior to SESTA/FOSTA but had been pushed out onto the street following the government seizure of Backpage and similar low-cost advertising forums.Chapter 3: The Impact of SESTA/FOSTA on Internet-Based Sex Workers in the United StatesThis chapter is based on the second phase of research: an anonymous online survey, available in English, Spanish and Mandarin Chinese. Survey participants were recruited through key organizations which work to support those in the sex industry including Desiree Alliance, Red Light Legal, SWOP (the Sex Workers’ Outreach Project), TGIJP (the Transgender, Gendervariant, Intersex Justice Project), Bay Area Workers’ Support, GLITS (Gays and Lesbians Living in a Transgender Society), CUSP (Community United for Safety and Protection), Red Canary, and Women with a Vision. A second round of participants was recruited via sharing of the survey link by individuals who have either received the link via one of the organizations or completed the survey themselves as described above. The survey was designed with only multiple choice and Likert-scale questions such that I was able to complete all data analysis myself without knowledge of Chinese.Combining quantitative survey data with qualitative interview data affords the opportunity to situate the qualitative data in the larger context and identify trends and patterns. This mixed methods approach allows for a more robust analysis, situating the lived consequences of the legislation in the larger political, economic and social context.For the already marginalized workers in the Mission and Tenderloin neighborhoods, losing virtual territories such as Backpage is uniquely perverse in a city where their real world displacement from their neighborhoods was hastened by the encroachment of a population of people who made their fortunes in the virtual world. In short, for sex workers in San Francisco the real world violence of gentrification is paralleled by a kind of virtual gentrification, with devastating material effects. Chapter 4: SESTA/FOSTA and the Anti-Trafficking MachineIn chapter four I ask: how did we arrive at the current moment? I understand the mainstream anti-trafficking movement to be, fundamentally, a neoliberal project. By erasing state and economic violence, expanding the carceral state, and contributing to the formation of a class of citizen vigilantes, the anti-trafficking movement has increased state violence in the name of freedom. Because the anti-trafficking movement embraces this fundamentally neoliberal approach to power, understanding how anti-trafficking operates requires a thoughtful, situated analysis of mechanisms of state power and law enforcement.I open with an overview of some of the key federal legislation that preceded SESTA/FOSTA, beginning with the Mann Act of 1910 and incorporating the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (renewed annually since 2000), the 2003 PROTECT Act, and the 2015 SAVE Act. I then explore in detail the transcripts of each legislative hearing that lead to the passage of SESTA/FOSTA in March of 2019. I establish that SESTA/FOSTA is not an overreach or aberration from the animating logics of the anti-trafficking movement but rather, a logical extension of the neoliberal logic of anti-trafficking.Throughout the senate hearings that led to the passage of SESTA/FOSTA the disconnect between the mythology around trafficking and the actual testimonies is striking. I identify at least four factors that contribute to this disconnect: First, anti-trafficking rhetoric ignores economic factors in the sex industry in favor of viewing prostitution as a personal failing. Second, that anti-trafficking movement assumes the interests of trafficking victims are at odds with the interests of sex workers. Third, the anti-trafficking movement is largely unable to see women of color as victims. Fourth, the contemporary anti-trafficking movement is refuses to recognize that sex can be labor, and that capitalist labor relations are inherently violent.I suggest that part of the impetus for the federal government to go after Backpage is the absence (in many prostitution-related arrests) of a figure who clearly fits the trafficker archetype and is easily read and prosecuted as a predator. In other words, the anti-trafficking movement tends to erase ongoing systemic economic violence and state violence by displacing that violence onto the mythical figure of the trafficker. This has created a legal framework in which prostitution-related cases require a trafficker, even when there is none (as in the case of a collective of sex workers sharing a workspace). In the absence of an actual trafficker that assumed violence gets projected onto survival sex workers and now onto the third party sites that facilitate paid erotic exchanges. ConclusionIn the conclusion I imagine what a truly labor-centered approach to regulating the sex industry might look like, and what meaningful support for trafficking victims might look like. In both cases I emphasize minimizing state and economic violence.

This qualitative study collected and analyzed original interview data with mental health clinicians and survivor mentors exploring their perspectives on and experiences in aftercare/recovery work with survivors of domestic and international sex trafficking in the United States, through multidisciplinary and multisystemic contexts. This study addresses the significant gap of research on mental health recovery support with survivors of sex trafficking, which exists despite disturbing prevalence rates of sex trafficking, especially amongst girls and women of Color living in the United States. The study examined mental health providers’ perspectives on treatment approaches they employ, the processes they find to be effective, and their views on emancipatory approaches in recovery work. This study collected, transcribed, and analyzed semi-structured interview data with 13 mental health providers (including clinicians and peer/survivor mentors), and employed qualitative conventional content analysis. The study is the first to explore mental health providers’ experiences with service provision/accompaniment with a focus specifically on their work within multidisciplinary and multisystemic environments. It aims to increase understanding about the perspectives and approaches held by multidisciplinary therapists and survivor mentors, who specialize in accompanying survivors of sex trafficking, and may hold important insights into this complex work. The study found that therapists and peer mentors are challenged by barriers, and leverage key opportunities in their work through multidisciplinary and multisystemic contexts, and benefit from partnering with each other in survivor recovery work. It also found that survivor community and peer mentors are central to aftercare/recovery work, and that providers work to employ an intersectional/emancipatory healing lens. Analyses identified fifteen approaches to recovery work, organized into four categories: 1) integrated structural and trauma-sensitive emotional support; 2) community and emancipatory healing approaches; 3) peer mentor as a critical role; and 4) multiple systems challenge recovery. Implications for future research, clinical practice and policy are discussed.

Sex trafficking is a heinous criminal act that compels victims in the United States and worldwide to perform commercial sex acts through force, fraud, coercion, or age (TVPA, 2000). This dissertation takes a risk-analysis and data-driven approach to attain a better understanding of the problem, with the goal of showing that such an approach can help comprehend misallocation of resources, reform policy, reinforce social services, or support populations vulnerable to sex trafficking. Sex trafficking is a complex problem and must be studied both qualitatively and quantitatively in order to provide those in a position of influence with an improved basis for decision-making. In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I outline the risks associated with sex trafficking and suggest that risk analysis tools can be useful for antitrafficking efforts, as they can provide context-sensitive, empirical knowledge as well as a way to communicate neutrally about a charged topic. Building on the understanding of this complex crime, in Chapter 3 I analyze online commercial sex work advertisements to draw conclusions about the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on sex trafficking, showing a measurable impact of the pandemic-related stay-at-home orders on advertising, and likely on the vulnerability of at-risk populations to trafficking. Finally, in Chapter 4 I use data collected by myself and a collaborator on sex work advertisements as a basis to explore three quantitative methods for detecting anomalies in time-series data. Based on the results of this sex trafficking case study, I evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of each method for risk-based decision-makers and discuss how these methods can be integrated into a broader risk framework. This dissertation contributes to the field of sex trafficking research by offering improved methods for detecting anomalous behaviors in the system and advancing the application of these techniques for the risk analysis community. Although they are specifically designed for sex trafficking, analysts can apply these methods to many of the risk-related challenges of our future.

The purpose of this thesis was to examine and assess justice system efforts in combating human trafficking; more specifically sex trafficking. The goal was to understand how efforts of combating human trafficking started, how they progressed, and to explore where efforts remain at this time. Additionally, the goal was to identify and understand what is working in law enforcement, human trafficking courts, and policy. This included identifying issues such as disparity in law enforcement reporting, lack of recognition of sex trafficking, and outdated policies. To assess these issues, this project utilized human trafficking data available through the FBI Uniform Crime Report (UCR), including human trafficking arrests and clearance rates, as well as reported tip data from the National Human Trafficking Hotline (NHTH) between the years of 2015-2018. Additionally, this analysis incorporated Polaris Project’s report card scores on the quality of criminal record relief laws addressing adult sex trafficking survivors. The four years of data were analyzed to identify relationships between law enforcement arrests and NHTH reporting, as well as to assess whether or not there was a relationship in clearance rates and the quality of criminal record relief laws. An important finding included identifying that there is a positive moderate to strong relationship between NHTH reporting and law enforcement arrests, indicating that there is a likelihood that law enforcement recognition and awareness is improving. Another important finding includes a considerable issue in lack of data reported within human trafficking courts where there is an inability to assess the effect they may have on clearance rates. Criminal record relief laws appear to have no relationship with clearance rates, leaving open questions regarding how many survivors are left with a criminal record from sex trafficking victimization. This tells us that there is much more work needed to be done to improve justice system responses in figuring out strategically where resources need to be allocated to improve coverage as well as identifying ways to improve a more centralized form of reporting for human trafficking data.

In this novella, Charlotte Smith, the main character, a gay Dine fifteen-year-old girl, is propelled into prostitution with an abusive older man. In the beginning, Charlotte is kicked out of her mother's home for having a homosexual relationship with another girl, Ava. The two girls try to make it on the street, homeless, together, but fail. Circumstances force Charlotte to resort to prostitution to support them both.

In 2016, an estimated 3.8 million adults and children were victims of sex trafficking worldwide. Even with so many people affected, and with the mental health effects of sex trafficking victimization being so serious and long-lasting, very little exists on how to most effectively treat this population after they are rescued or escape. The current study contributes to this body of research by obtaining the perspectives of clinical service providers working with sex trafficking survivors, with particular attention paid to their experiences and views on mental health treatment methods for survivors. This study used a systems perspective and qualitative research methods in line with the Total Quality Framework to ensure a holistic, in-depth analysis of the current state of post-trafficking service provision. Qualitative analysis of interviews with 18 clinical service providers revealed various gaps in the system of service provision that could lead to survivors not receiving the help they need. The study found that the most common mental health symptoms among survivors of sex trafficking were PTSD, anxiety, and depression, but that dissociation and Complex PTSD were particularly common and associated with difficulties in treatment. Clinicians used a variety of treatment methods, including CBT, EMDR, and DBT, but noted that no currently available manualized treatment could meet the complex needs of survivors. Participants noted that there was a need for a sex trafficking-specific treatment framework and that such a framework must include information on trafficking-related issues, suggestions for the adaptation of currently available treatment methods, and a network that allows for collaboration and oversight among service providers.

Most victims who have escaped trafficking report that during their captivity they were taken to health care facilities. Though health care–based trafficking reporting has increased over the last few years, studies show that private practices and most hospitals within the country do not have a human trafficking protocol, policy, nor educational intervention for their frontline staff to be able to identify and refer victims for short- and long-term support. The United States health care system is poised to play a large role in the fight against human trafficking. This integrative review describes the current status of human trafficking victim identification in the health care setting and common themes surrounding victim identification. Gaps in the literature and areas for further research are presented with implications for health care practice and policy. Without purposeful and targeted human trafficking identification interventions in the health care setting, victims will continue to go unrecognized.

Sex workers are disappearing from online spaces. These spaces are integral to these workers’ health, labor, political organizing, and representation. The most recent and impactful effort in eradicating sex workers from the internet is legislation in the form of two relatively new bills: Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act (FOSTA); and, Stop Enabling Sex Trafficking Act (SESTA). These acts, claim to curb sex trafficking, but are disproportionately affecting consensual sex workers. Sex-workers are left to work: in less safe conditions; without harm-reduction tools; without connection to community; and, having lost online spaces integral to activism surrounding the very legislation that disproportionately affects them. Since President Donald Trump’s signing of the reconciled bill SESTA, the law has not been used in any lawsuits or litigation to assist victims of trafficking or prosecute traffickers. In practice, the law has been quick-and-effective in further criminalizing marginalized sex workers. Social media are censoring, shadow banning and suspending sex workers from various platforms (survivorsagainstsesta.org). The wider implications of the vaguely worded law are also affecting sexual expression more broadly for online users. Queer, sex-positive, Black and Brown individuals and online communities are being erased and policed; while cis, white, heterosexual bodies and spaces are privileged and persist— despite producing comparable content.

There are an estimated 24.9 million people being trafficked around the world (Human Trafficking, 2020). This project explores discourse and framing around trafficked individuals, particularly those trafficked for sex work, and how this influences approaches and frameworks for policy development, with the goal of making policy and service recommendations. The analysis begins with definitions, followed by general overviews of US and international policies relating to prevention, policy, and prosecution. It then turns to look at sex trafficking and relevant frameworks. Using trauma-informed language and human and feminist rights, the project advocates for increased education and public awareness on signs of sex trafficking, cohesive policy to criminalize involved perpetrators of sexual exploitation and protect victims and survivors.

Human trafficking impacts sufferers on a global scale with serious and lifelong health issues associated with the illegal practice. Interventions for these victims’ extensive health issues must ignite healthcare staff education and expert clinical interventions. Due to these health problems, healthcare staff function on the front lines to identify and help trafficked persons. This study focused on the scope of trafficking and health staff awareness, identification strategies to help recognize trafficked persons, techniques for interviewing, best practice strategies for intervention and referral, and new coding guidelines. During the intervention, health staff received a human trafficking pre-education questionnaire, a research supported education training intervention, and a post-intervention questionnaire. Data on post-education intervention referrals was also completed to discern impact of education on trafficking recognition and resource support. Qualities examined for ease and efficacy included the education intervention strategy, utilization of resource support, reported issues with trafficking recognition, and increase or decrease of staff confidence within interactions. Questionnaire results demonstrated increases for questions one through four following the educational intervention. Post-intervention data showed some recognition of potential human trafficking persons particularly related to mental health. Project results were consistent with other research recommendations. Continued human trafficking encounters in health systems necessitates continued research into best education, interviewing, intervention, and post-care methods.

Sex trafficking is a public health concern affecting approximately 4.5 million victims each year (International Labor Office, 2012). Despite the pervasiveness of sex trafficking, many people still hold false beliefs about the topic. Endorsement of false beliefs may lead to failure to identify victims and victim blaming (Cunningham & Cromer, 2014). A variety of educational trainings are available for professionals and community members to learn more about sex trafficking. The goals of such trainings are to reduce the endorsement of common myths about trafficking, and to increase identification of victims and reporting of suspicions to authorities. Trainings are provided in a variety of formats such as: facts-only (Polaris Project, 2012), stories-only (Equality Now, 2014), and combined facts and stories (Department of Homeland Security, 2018). However, there is little literature investigating the efficacy of sex trafficking educational trainings. In the current study, 268 participants were recruited nationwide using Amazon Mechanical Turk. Participants completed several questionnaires online as a pre-training assessment. Variables assessed included: myth endorsement, self-reported and actual knowledge, identification of sex trafficking scenarios, reactions to sex trafficking scenarios, and willingness to engage in behaviors to combat trafficking. Next, participants were randomly assigned to complete one of three trainings (i.e., facts-only, stories-only, combination) to learn about sex trafficking. One week later, participants completed the same questionnaires online as a post-training assessment. Participants were most satisfied with the facts-only training. Participants showed improvements in myth endorsement, perceived and actual knowledge, identification of sex trafficking, risk sensitivity to sex trafficking scenarios, victim blaming, decision to report sex trafficking scenarios to authorities, perceptions of sex trafficking as a major problem, willingness to engage in prosocial behaviors to combat sex trafficking, and likelihood to engage in behaviors to intervene in a situation where sex trafficking was suspected. Explanations for the findings and directions for future research and practice are discussed.

Being Groomed for A Life of Sex Trafficking: The Raw and Uncut Truth ________________________________________ Sex Trafficking: Transitioning from Victim to Survivor

Sex trafficking is one of the most persistent issues in Asian countries and specifically in Vietnam. Hundreds of Vietnamese are trafficked daily across the world, but mainly in Taiwan, Malaysia, South Korea, Laos, China, and Thailand. Sexually trafficked individuals are reported to have symptoms of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal tendencies, and physical violence. Despite the increasing number of victims, there is a lack of empirical research on issues relating to the impact of human trafficking on Vietnamese people and especially the public attitude about the problem. The current study examined the public’s general knowledge of trafficking myths, their willingness to believe in the trafficking situation, and their tendency to place blame on the victim, in relation to the sex of the participants and the sex of the victims. Vietnamese citizens across the country (N= 922) responded to a vignette portraying a sex trafficking situation and completed the Human Trafficking Myth survey. Results indicated that the sex of the participants and the sex of the victims significantly correlated with the participants’ perception of the human trafficking myths, trafficking story and victim’s responsibility. Acknowledging the paucity of cross-culture empirical research, the current study also compared the Vietnamese sample with the American sample that completed similar scales. The results of study 1 and 2 have the potential to serve the needs of anti-trafficking campaigns in Vietnam and support the collaboration of different countries in their effort of combating human trafficking.

Although the exploitation of people has existed for centuries, human trafficking has only recently emerged as an offense that merits special legal intervention. This recognition is due, in part, to a growing movement that has labeled trafficking as a social problem that requires a collective response. Despite efforts to better understand and prevent these crimes, the clandestine nature of human trafficking makes it difficult to measure and draw a reliable portrait of offenders and their victims. In this respect, scientific research on this topic is limited. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation is to use an innovative method to expand knowledge about the nature of human trafficking in the United States.The current dissertation applies content analysis methods to create a rich database that informs characteristics on victims, offenders, and offenses. To facilitate this goal, human trafficking incidents from 32 independent newspapers, located in 22 of the largest cities across the United States, were reviewed from January 1, 2000 to December 31, 2016. Identified cases that reported an arrest, conviction, or sentencing for a trafficking-related crime were then subjected to supplemental searches to gather all publicly available information on these events. Seven domains were recorded and analyzed: (1) identifiers; (2) newspaper details; (3) locations of cases; (4) nature of the crime; (5) victim characteristics; (6) offender characteristics; and (7) trial characteristics and offender outcomes. Using these methods, 361 cases were identified and coded for the final analysis. There were 303 sex trafficking cases, 39 labor trafficking cases, and 19 sex-and-labor trafficking cases.The analysis illuminated clear patterns regarding sex and labor trafficking offenses. In particular, sex trafficking cases tended to involve trafficking offenses without any smuggling component, domestic victims, and relatively few victims per case. Reports about sex traffickers suggested that they were in their early adulthood when they were first arrested for their crimes. A majority of sex traffickers were also Black or Hispanic and U.S. citizens. The victims of sex trafficking were relatively young and often Hispanic. The duration of sex trafficking was approximately six months. Labor trafficking, however, tended to involve smuggling and trafficking offenses, foreign national victims, and a large number of victims per case. Labor traffickers were in their early 40s and were frequently Hispanic or Asian. Many traffickers were also foreign nationals. The victims of labor trafficking were commonly adults in their 20s and Asian; they were often trafficked for more than two years.Taken together, these findings revealed that trafficking offenses were characterized by unique patterns. The results were then contextualized within existing opportunity models (lifestyle-routine activities theory and target congruence theory) to explain trafficking events. Although both frameworks were informative, the target congruence perspective could be especially important when considering individual characteristics that traffickers target. These models also have implications for crime prevention. It is likely that a combination of situational crime prevention and other approaches (e.g., place-based efforts, specialty courts) can be used to prevent human trafficking by different actors and at different stages of exploitation.

Purpose: Gain a deeper understanding of how former victims of sex trafficking survive. Background: Trafficking in persons, or human sex trafficking, is the fastest growing criminal enterprise in the United States, leading both drugs and weapons (U.S. Department of State, 2016). The hidden and protected nature of sex trafficking makes it difficult to identify exactly how many people are involved in the industry, nonetheless estimates range from 1.5 to 2.5 million victims currently in captivity within the U.S. The majority of victims are female (80%) and 50% are minors (Polaris, 2017). Once in captivity, victims face significant physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, and spiritual trauma having profound and lasting effects (Bergquist, 2015). The status of research on sex trafficking has been characterized as methodologically inadequate and lacking a sufficient theoretical framework necessary for solution and prevention development. Methods: Grounded theory design. 15 participants were recruited and enrolled from 2 advocacy and resource groups. Inclusion criteria: individuals over 18 who self-identify as survivors of sex trafficking and are willing to complete surveys and a face-to-face interview. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were centered around the themes of personal information, current life events, expressions of Psychological Capital, early experiences of trauma or sexual abuse leading to the process of “grooming,” how life was experienced while being trafficked, the process of exiting the life, health care needs experienced, and suggestions for prevention addressed. Results: 15 participants revealed meaningful life stories and family events, leading to grooming and entrance into victimization in sex trafficking. 4 themes of hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism emerged and were discussed in relation to surviving and finally overcoming captivity. These themes present themselves in development of an emerging theory. 5 phases occur within the theory and represent the stages one progresses through as a victim, survivor, and overcomer of sex trafficking. These 5 phases are grooming, entering, surviving, exiting, and overcoming. All phases allow for unique personal experiences and time frames in the progression, or cycle, from one to the next. The theory functions for predicting, explaining, preventative, and healing (restorative) purposes. Implications: Theoretically sound preventions and interventions are required to decrease current trends leading to exploitation and captivity into the life of sex trafficking. Findings from this study can result in information required to develop sound prevention and intervention programs for individuals, families, communities, schools, and service providers.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether scores of attitudes based on labels as measured by the Attitudes Toward Prostitutes and Prostitutions Scale (APPS) and the Attitudes Toward Trafficked Women and Sex Trafficking Scale (ATTS) and counselor attributes predicted scores of empathy on the Empathy Assessment Index (EAI) and scores of rape myth acceptance on the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale Short Form (IRMA-SF) in counselors. The participants in this study (N = 396) included licensed professional counselors (LPCs) and licensed professional clinical counselors (LPCCs) in Ohio. The results of this study found a difference on attitudes depending on whether "prostitute" or "sex trafficking" labels were used. The study also confirmed how attitudes based on labels and counselor demographics predicted empathy scores on the EAI and scores of rape myth acceptance on the IRMA. Within both APPS and ATTS groups, male counselors were more likely to accept rape myths compared to female counselors. The significance of this study's results illuminate the importance of avoiding stigmatizing labels within counseling, counselor education, and counselor supervision settings.

Human trafficking is a global epidemic that leaves victims with short- and long-term physiological, psychological, and sociological issues. The mental health needs of trafficked persons have become a topic of research in both medical and psychiatric circles. In order to comprehensively understand the mental health consequences of trafficking, the process must be defined and related to the mental health effects on its victims. The specific mental health disorders diagnosed within this population will be discussed. Treatments used currently for this population will be reviewed, along with future treatments presently being researched and evaluated regarding their potential for use in the trafficked population. Rehabilitation needs are also discussed, including the direction that programs should take in providing care to trafficked persons.

Awareness for sex trafficking is on a steady incline. Many organizations and events help to raise awareness for sex trafficking and often collect money to combat the issue. However, the unfortunate reality is that the public has gained a non-functional awareness of the issue. The public knows about the problem, they know that the number affected is astronomical, and they know that it is ugly, but they know of no tangible way to work toward the solution. Nothing is wrong with donating to an organization that is working to resolve the issue, but people need to be made aware of the simple ways that they can combat sex trafficking in their everyday life. They can do this by understanding how sex trafficking works. They can become familiar with the signs of sex trafficking and how to report suspicious activity. Lastly, the public must be made aware of personal behaviors that contribute to the problem. For example, many Americans consume pornography without knowing that this industry drives the demand for sex slavery.

Despite the well-established power of the media to shape public perceptions of social problems, compassion fatigue is believed to remain prevalent. So what does it take for someone to be compelled to act after reading a story or seeing an image of a prominent issue? This study, a 3-by-2 between subjects experiment, examined the effects of two journalistic techniques — shocking audiences into action with offensive stories or inspiring them to act with solution-based stories – in the context of sex trafficking. Results revealed that neither shock nor solutions stories led to increased empathy for trafficked individuals, greater understanding of the issue, increased desire to share the story or increased desire to act, but that readers of solutions stories felt more positive and were more likely to read similar stories about the issue. This suggests that solution-focused news stories might be at least somewhat more engaging than shocking and offensive stories.

The United States has made strides in deterring the crime of sex trafficking of minors. Within the past 16 years, the central piece of legislation, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA), has seen numerous reauthorizations, each one expanding from the one that precedes it. However, with its original intent focused on prosecuting international traffickers, the language cited is ambiguous. Furthermore, the federal anti- trafficking laws are inconsistent with state prostitution laws due to differences in age of consent. Because of this, a minor who is under federal law a victim may be prosecuted as a criminal under state law. This is a great inconsistency. To win the fight against sex trafficking of minors in the United States, state prostitution legislation must be encouraged to eliminate age of consent.

Child sex trafficking is defined as the recruitment, harboring, transportation, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of commercial sex act that is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained eighteen years of age. Based on that definition, there is an alarming number of children that are being sexually enslaved. This paper specifically focuses on child sex trafficking or child prostitution. It presents a detailed analysis of the extent of child prostitution worldwide, discusses the long-term effects of child prostitution, analyzes the adequacy of the Church’s response, and proposes solutions for the eradication of child sex trafficking. The purpose of this study is to bring light to a problem that is affecting a great number of children. It argues that child prostitution is extremely pervasive, and permeates every fiber of society, leaving no regions untouched. Trafficking is present in all the habitable continents. In the US, trafficking currently exists in all fifty states, Washington D.C., and the territories. Sex trafficking is currently the most rapidly expanding form of global criminal activity, and is the second most lucrative crime, second only to narcotics. Children are specifically being targeted, and there is a strong demand for young virgins, which has been fueled by the child sex tourism. Consequently, younger and younger children are being exploited. This study also shows that the Church has largely neglected its responsibility, and has not properly responded to the problem of child sex trafficking. The Church largely uses its resources on itself, and allocates very little to what should have been its primary mission. Whatever the reason for the inaction, whether it is because of conflict between proclamation and social action, the Church has a mandate to show compassion and to liberate those that are being held captive, which include the victims of child sex trafficking.

Anti‐sex­‐trafficking advocacy has recently seen a shift in approach from arresting anyone selling sex to viewing all who sell sex as victims of sex trafficking and instead shift focus to arresting Johns purchasing sex and traffickers forcing others to sell sex. This is due in part to an expansion in advocates’ definitions of sex trafficking. This new focus leaves those forced to sell sex only with the choices of passive victim or deviant criminal. Furthermore, this new shift focuses resources on increasing incarceration of Johns and traffickers while ignoring the structural inequalities that can lead some to be vulnerable to being forced to sell sex. The following thesis highlights the problems and concerns regarding the continued focus on carceral methodologies and argues for a new shift away from carceral strategies to focus on victim empowerment and challenging the social and economic inequalities that lead to the problem of sex trafficking.

Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is a specific sector of human trafficking in which the victims are United States citizens and under the age of 18. This type of trafficking is widespread across the U.S. in every state and every major city. The harm caused by such exploitation is extremely damaging to victims, especially considering a high proportion of these victims have already faced some type of abuse prior to their trafficking experience. Many of these children come from abusive and neglectful backgrounds and often end up homeless, which makes them especially vulnerable to traffickers. Most victims, if they do escape from the industry, are severely damaged emotionally, mentally, and physically. Therefore, treatment for this population is difficult to provide. The following will propose a prevention program that could potentially be implemented into institutions that tend to populations of children that are at a higher risk for DMST (e.g., alternative schools, juvenile detention centers, inner-city community centers in high risk locations). This program will have a basis in the building of resiliency, in which children build on valuable character traits and life skills that can help them overcome adversity. This program has groundwork in evidence-based research and the study of resiliency.

The commercial sexual exploitation of female minors is a problem that continues to grow domestically in the United States. Although pathways into exploitation as a minor have been addressed in the current literature, little is known about how to best meet the needs of this elusive and vulnerable population. This dissertation attempted to inform treatment, intervention, and policy for commercially sexually exploited females. The sample consisted of 160 mostly African-American females currently identified as being commercially sexually exploited. Data from the Child Adolescent Needs and Strengths for Commercial Sexual Exploitation version 1.3 were collected by service providers during a initial assessment for mental health and case management services. Resiliency Theory and the Transactional Stages of Change were used to conceptualize risk and resilience for this sample. This study addressed three specific aims. The first described demographics, individual strengths, environmental strengths, and mental health needs of this sample. The second used path analysis to analyze hypothesized relations between risk variables including caregiver risks, abuse history, and living instability, on the outcome variables of mental health symptoms, environmental strengths and individual strengths. The third aim used path analysis to explore hypothesized relations among strength variables, Stockholm Syndrome and exit variables. Two models in aim three explored the outcome variables of exit time and stage of readiness. Results indicated that cultural identity was the greatest individual strength and that the greatest environmental strength was attitude toward education. Adjustment to trauma and depression were rated as the greatest mental health needs for this sample. Age, caregiver risk and abuse history significantly predicted mental health symptoms. Caregiver risk significantly predicted fewer individual and environmental strengths. No variables were found to predict exit time or stage of readiness. However, paths from environmental strengths to Stockholm Syndrome and age of exploitation onset to Stockholm Syndrome were significant in both the exit time and stage of readiness models. These findings suggest the importance of early identification and prevention, and provide support for the construct of Stockholm Syndrome in describing and understanding the exit process. Additional treatment implications are discussed.

The United States is the second leading destination country for sex trafficking in the world. Increased effort to understand patterns of sex trafficking within the U.S. is imperative to combatting this issue. Covert networks are increasingly using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to extend their operations. Due to the increase in sex trafficking network activity online, there is a need for systematic research and methods especially in terms of technology facilitated sex trafficking. This study examined how publicly available information can be used to uncover covert networks and sex trafficking patterns in the United States through the study of dark networks from a sociotechnical perspective. The intent was to observe the types of data available in online escort advertisements and to identify ways to exploit data into meaningful information that can be used to disrupt this activity. Network analysis methods were applied to sex trafficking activity in online environments to identify sex trafficking trends within the U.S. Content analysis was used to identify important data fields in online escort advertisement that presented virtual indicators of sex trafficking. This data was further exploited using social network analysis (SNA) methods to identify provider networks and movement trends. Methods are presented to identify potential victims, provider networks, and domestic movement trends. Covert networks are continuously balancing security risk with operational necessity to communicate to external audiences. By using the Internet as a communication channel it becomes a lens to observe this activity. Consistency of findings with known trafficking trends demonstrated the effectiveness of the method to uncover covert networks and circuits within the U.S.

Human trafficking is often considered to be one of the three largest criminal enterprises worldwide, ranking beside the sale of illegal drugs and illicit firearms (Bales, 2004, 2007; Bales & Doodalter, 2009; Hussein, 2011; Schauer & Wheaton, 2006; Skinner, 2008). National estimates suggest that 100,000-300,000 American, school-aged children are at-risk for sex trafficking (Department of Homeland Security, 2014) while there is only a one percent arrest and conviction record for traffickers (Bales, 2007). This dissertation explored the portrayal of force, fraud, and coercion within federal domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) trials of Northern Ohio from 2010-2013 so as to gain a greater understanding of the contributing factors that make individuals vulnerable to the phenomenon. DMST occurs when a “commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age” (U.S. Department of State, 2011). Data were examined via qualitative means by conducting a narrative analysis of existing court documentation of fifteen confirmed DMST cases, guided by critical theory and feminist epistemology. Findings revealed dimensions of individual agency in tension with structural and cultural conditions as well as a complex set of factors contributing to the persistence and legal response to sex trafficking. The examined episodes of DMST were initiated via factors that included fraudulent documents, economic instability, emotional dependency, drug addiction, reliance on an informal/underground economy, and lack of educational attainment. DMST continued through factors including physical force, coercion, indebtedness, feelings of belonging, the leveraging of an intimate relationship, financial arrangements, and the reliance on an informal/underground economy. The episode of DMST was terminated via law enforcement involvement, voluntary departure, familial involvement, ending the use of illegal drugs, and coming into a period of economic stability.

Miss Kathy is a documentary film that tells the story of Kathy Griffin-Grinan, a lead recovery coach for prostitution and human trafficking with the Harris County Sheriff’s Office. Her non-profit organization —We’ve Been There, Done That – works in conjunction with law-enforcement to offer the survivors of prostitution a chance at rehabilitation. With endless enthusiasm, she mentors survivors as they struggle to escape a destructive lifestyle. This film also explores the relationship between human trafficking and prostitution, while addressing issues of victimization and exploitation.

This work offers an analysis of the existing literature on trauma, resilience, posttraumatic growth, and sex trafficking. It argues that the field tends to gravitate toward trauma and overlook resilience and the potential for posttraumatic growth amongst survivors of sex trafficking. This work recommends that the field should attend to both abuses endured as well as the courage and strength gained by survivors. Specifically, it argues that it is the task of the mental health professional to step into trauma trajectories with a strengths-based perspective to promote positive, resilient, and growth-oriented outcomes. Resilience and posttraumatic growth theories have been substantiated by empirical support across all gradients of risk and trauma exposure. Survivors of sexual assault, child abuse, trafficking in childhood for genocide soldiers, holocaust survivors, and family crises are among this evidence base; all of which parallel aspects of sex trafficking. However, the field has yet to explore this particular subset of trauma survivors. Research has also demonstrated that when clinicians look for strengths, beginning with the initial interview, they find internal assets and external resources that mark resilience processes in their clients. This type of initial interview then incites a trajectory toward growth-oriented treatment. To apply these concepts, this dissertation proposes resilience and posttraumatic growth guidelines for working with survivors in treatment and research capacities. This work also provides a brief review of how aftercare programs within the United States utilize these guidelines and where they can improve. Finally, phases of treatment and a preliminary model for program components is suggested, which is based on the proposed resilience and growth recommendations.

This dissertation recovers women playwrights’ examples of prostitution and severe forms of sex trafficking with the aim of providing a more comprehensive and diverse selection of theatrical materials that focus on the sex industry. I assert that the first western woman playwright, Hrotsvit of Gandersheim, authored three plays about prostitution (Abraham, Paphnutius, and Callimachus) that deserve inclusion in the western canon of drama because they influence popular portrayals of the figure of the fallen woman prostitute in Alexandre Dumas fils’ The Lady of the Camellias (1852), Arthur Wing Pinero’s The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893), Eugene O’Neill’s Anna Christie (1922), and Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire (1947). Moreover, they are essential to our understanding of plays about gender based violence and the fallen woman genre within the larger arc of theatre history. Chapter 1 tracks the containment strategies that American and European societies employed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to control prostitution and abolish white slavery. Chapter 2 develops the virgin/whore dichotomy as a theoretical lens through which I examine how the theatrical figure of the fallen woman is categorized, made vulnerable to gender based violence, and punished for prostitution to uphold a sexual and moral double standard. Chapter 3 focuses on tracing the four characteristics of a new dramatic figure, what I term the “sex trafficked been-to,” in Lucy Kirkwood’s it felt empty when the heart went at first but it is alright now, Rebecca Prichard’s Dream Pill, Cora Bissett and Stef Smith’s ROADKILL, and Catherine Cunningham-Huston’s The Walk. The “sex trafficked been-to” is (1) sex trafficked to either Italy or the UK; (2) originates in poor and rural areas of Nigeria; (3) is affected by liminal states and the blood oaths of juju ceremonies; and (4) is based on the backgrounds and testimonials of sex trafficking survivors. In contrast to the fallen woman who turns to God for redemption or the passive white slave awaiting heroic male rescue, the sex trafficked been-to has the self-determination to seek alternative futures, such as escaping from captivity and requesting political asylum.