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This dissertation focuses on three manuscripts all related to bolstering science achievement through recommendations from the National Research Council (NRC) regarding the teaching and learning of science. The manuscripts address meeting the NRC's call to incorporate curriculum and assessment that lead to more in-depth knowledge that can be transferred across domains, and the use of technology to facilitate teaching and learning. The first manuscript, "Improving Science Achievement -- Is It Possible? Evaluating the Efficacy of a High School Chemistry and Physics Project-Based Learning Intervention," describes the process of developing intensive project-based curriculum and assessment materials for high school chemistry and physics classrooms. This study answers the question of what impact that curriculum has on students' future science achievement and academic ambition. The second manuscript, "Using Machine Learning to Score Multi-Dimensional Assessments of Chemistry and Physics," focuses on the use of a supervised machine learning approach to facilitate the scoring of science assessments. The goal of this study was to determine whether automating the process of classifying these responses could reduce the burden placed on teachers in scoring assessments that effectively measure the dimensions of learning spelled out by the NRC. The third study, "U.S. and Finnish high school engagement during the COVID-19 Pandemic," then explores student engagement with the use of technologies that facilitate remote instruction. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Success in STEM-based fields provides a path to highly regarded and powerful positions in society. Hegemonic structures of society have excluded women and other non-hegemonic groups from these fields and from recognition in these fields. Between 1903 and 2018 the Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded 113 times to 212 individuals. Marie Curie was awarded the prize in 1903; Marie Goeppert-Mayer in 1963; and Donna Strickland in 2018. Three women out of 212 award winners reflects continued exclusion of women from STEM-related fields. This study focuses on the language used in the newspaper announcements for these three Nobel Prize winners. Newspapers use specific language and linguistic strategies to maintain society's hegemonic values and goals. By winning the Nobel Prize for physics these three women challenged the hegemonic values of society that commonly exclude women from STEM-based fields. The newspaper announcements for these three Nobel Prize winners used language and strategies to resolve this challenge while describing these women and their achievements. This analysis provides an examination of the announcements to identify how language is used to portray these women to the general public. The announcements were analyzed to understand the use of linguistic strategies such as Topic Control, Hidden Power, and Interpretive Control, and the intended outcomes. The analysis revealed specific strategies used to portray each of these three women. The linguistic strategies shifted over time and each of these women were portrayed differently from their male counterparts and from each other. The announcements were consistent in portraying the male counterparts with admiration and respect for their accomplishments in physics. The 1903 newspaper announcements for Marie Curie's Nobel Prize for physics erased or minimized Marie Curie's achievements through linguistic silencing strategies. Subsequently, in 1911, when she was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry, the announcements were more respectful in acknowledging Curie's accomplishments. However, she was presented through traditional social constructs that applied to women. This included the use of compliments, euphemisms and evaluative comments that focused on her appearance and her social roles of wife, widow, mother, and her household duties rather than accomplishments. The 1963 newspaper announcements celebrated Maria Goeppert-Mayer's achievement of being awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. However, the announcements foregrounded Dr. Goeppert-Mayer's social roles of wife, mother, and employee. Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was often referred to as Mrs. Goeppert-Mayer rather than using her professional title. In contrast, the 2018 announcements for Donna Strickland presented her in a similar fashion as her male colleagues. She was applauded for her achievement and acknowledged as a leading contributor to the research for which the Nobel Prize was awarded. Strickland was not held to any social roles, identified by her marital or family status, or any other traditional social constructs. The announcements focused on her scientific achievements and her career. Each of the announcements for Dr. Strickland foregrounded, or at least acknowledged, the lack of women in the field of physics, but recognized and denounced the bias against women. Across all the Nobel Prize announcements the use of language was intentional and effective in portraying each of these prize winners. The linguistic strategies shifted over the timeframe of 115 years to finally achieve a more well-balanced presentation of a woman being awarded a Nobel Prize for physics. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Physics education research to date has predominantly focused on the undergraduate level. This has left critical avenues of research in graduate education relatively understudied and has motivated much of my research. Numerous studies across the education research landscape have analyzed undergraduate admissions practices, but few have critically examined physics graduate admissions to the same extent. Additionally, significant research has focused on identifying characteristics indicative of productive PhD mentoring relationships, yet no study in physics has investigated how graduate students go about finding their advisor and research group in the first place. Lastly, despite ample research on problem-solving in undergraduate physics classes, little work has examined the expert-like problem-solving skills typically used by graduate students during research. My work addresses these gaps in the literature. First, I present results from a quantitative study of admissions data from 1,955 physics graduate students to illustrate how undergraduate grades predict graduate grades and PhD completion more effectively than GRE scores. Counterfactual mediation analysis is used to show that undergraduate grades predict PhD completion indirectly through graduate grades. I then present a qualitative study investigating 40 first and second-year physics PhD students' perspectives on the experience of finding a research group. Results from this study indicate that helping students successfully navigate the group search process may positively impact retention through increased sense of belonging in their programs. However, students often perceive a lack of guidance from their department regarding how to navigate that process. I also discuss the role that research interests play in the group search, including their effects on when students join a group and the concerns they have during the process. The final study details results from interviews with 11 theoretical physicists that give insight into how making assumptions and using analogies are used in their professional research. I discuss connections between the ways theorists use assumption and analogy and offer potential new avenues of research regarding applications to instruction at the undergraduate and graduate levels. I conclude by synthesizing the results of these studies and their implications for making PhD programs more inclusive, supportive, and productive for all students. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

One way to bring about change in higher education is to introduce professional development programs for higher education, however these programs have been found to be ineffective at promoting positive change for individuals and departments. To address the need for better programs, I worked on two projects: one project attempts to identify a way to improve Responsible Conduct of Research training and the other project is an assessment designed to be distributed in a Thermal and Statistical Physics course that supports instructors on improving their curriculum. Many scientists view science as value-free, despite the fact that both epistemic and non-epistemic values structure scientific inquiry. Current Responsible Conduct of Research training usually focuses on transmitting knowledge about high-level ethical concepts or rules and is widely regarded as ineffective. We argue that Responsible Conduct of Research training will be more effective at improving ethical decision making if it focuses on connecting values to science. Due to the investigation of research ethics education in physics being relatively new, we pull from philosophy and psychology to define ethical decision making using the Four Component Model. This model states that in order to make an ethical decision someone must consider four components: moral sensitivity, moral reasoning, moral motivation, and moral implementation. For this study we formed a moderated fellowship of fourteen science faculty from different disciplines who met for ten sessions over the course of a year, where they discussed the values embedded in different scientific norms. We then conducted interviews before and after the year-long fellowship that involved guided reflection of scenarios where there was some kind of ethical misconduct where the scientific practice required value judgements (e.g using unpublished data). From this data we looked at how the fellowship affected the scientists' ability to recognize ethical dimensions in their work. We found that this fellowship improves moral sensitivity, but their moral reasoning does not change. We then identified a more precise approach to looking at scientists' moral reasoning. This work can inform future ethical training to align better with what scientists value and introduce useful concepts from philosophy and psychology to education research in physics.There are calls to create assessments that focus on gathering evidence that shows both knowledge of the desired subject and transferable skills between disciplines while providing useful feedback to instructors. To answer this call, we created a thermal and statistical physics assessment that provides evidence of student knowledge and skills in a thermal or statistical physics course that also provides actionable feedback to instructors. To create tasks, we use a knowledge-in-use framework that focuses on identifying the evidence we need to see in student answers to claim students are able to do physics, not just know physics. These "evidence statements" are the observable features students generate that show they have knowledge to complete a claim. We need to determine a way to validate the tasks based on the focus towards obtaining evidence of student abilities when solving tasks. Current literature focuses on bringing in experts to validate whether the tasks are at the right level for the students. We are looking to expand on literature in Physics Education Research (PER) by articulating a way to validate tasks that use evidence-centered design through looking at students' evidence statements. To validate the assessment, we identified new components to gather evidence towards validation. Using these new components we introduced a new methodology to validate assessments that focus on delivering feedback through evidence. We have conducted and analyzed student think-aloud interviews answering the tasks in a free-response format or in a Coupled Multiple-Response format. We also conducted faculty interviews to see if the tasks are relevant to their courses. Through these interviews we developed a new methodology of contributing to the validation of assessments that focus on faculty feedback. This dissertation introduces new methodologies for future researchers to improve on Responsible Conduct of Research trainings and assessment designed for supporting instructor curriculum. Through these new methodologies scientists can address the calls for better professional development programs in higher education. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Understanding human behavior and reasoning is essential for developing successful instruction. Discipline-based education researchers have examined how students learn, informing the development of successful instructional strategies. Researchers have also identified barriers to the successful implementation of such strategies. This work utilizes two theoretical frameworks from psychology to further examine: 1) efforts to enact instructional change and 2) the effectiveness of instructional approaches to improve students' reasoning in physics. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is used to assess professional development supporting the successful implementation of evidence-based instructional strategies. The Dual Process Theories of Reasoning and Decision-making (DPToR) are used to model human reasoning and explain persistent inconsistencies in student responses. Guided by the TPB, an assessment instrument was created, validated, and implemented to evaluate instructor's beliefs and intentions about active-learning methodologies. A semi-novel research methodology was also applied to address response-shift bias, a phenomenon common in professional development self-reported assessments. The validation of the instrument and the utility of the retrospective pretest methodology are reported, together with initial assessment results, demonstrating the value of both the TPB and the retrospective pretest in the context of professional development. The second half of this work discusses inconsistent student reasoning, where students correctly apply conceptual understanding in one context but fail to do so in similar situations. This phenomenon is examined using the Dual Process Theories of Reasoning, which describes reasoning in terms of two processes: a fast, automatic process 1 and a slow, resource-intensive process 2. Process 1 is quick but frequently inaccurate. Process 2 is analytical but time-consuming and effortful. Four reasoning hazards are identified and examined through the lens of DPToR. Three different types of interventions are implemented to help students develop skills to navigate reasoning hazards: 1) Collaborative exams are used to trigger socially-mediated-metacognition in a high-stakes environment, modeling process 2 activation through group reasoning, 2) a multi-stage guided individual intervention followed by a classroom discussion, and 3) explicit discussion of human reasoning modeled by DPToR. The impacts of these interventions are assessed by comparing results from the treatment (intervention) and controlled (alternative intervention) groups. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Physicists, physics students, and community members engage with each other through a variety of informal physics programs. These programs differ in format, such as after school programs, public lectures, planetariums, summer camps, and other non-formal classroom environments. These programs also differ in the physics topics they cover, activities, audience demographics, frequency of events, and involved personnel. While studies have found that these programs have positive impacts on audiences and volunteers, we do not fully understand the organizational and programmatic structures of these programs or their impacts on those involved with these programs. In this work, I apply an organizational theory framework to understand and analyze six functional aspects of informal physics programming: "Assessment, Audience, Institution, Personnel, Program," and "Resources." One finding is that the personnel have a central role in the functionality of these programs, however, program leaders often experience challenges because most of the responsibilities are placed on a single person. Program leaders state they want to do more assessment of their programs, but lack the time, resources, or experience to do so. Building off of my findings, I developed an empirical framework of key components. This framework identifies 12 key components of informal physics programming that program leaders have control over and that are important to the program's functionality. Identifying these components lays the groundwork for developing tools and resources that program leaders can use to support and improve their programs. Multiple of these components are centered around the recruitment and support of volunteers. Since these are voluntary positions, understanding the motivations of volunteers can help program leaders to better support their personnel. I interviewed alumni who had volunteered in informal physics programs as university students. I applied a volunteerism framework to understand their motivations for volunteering in the first place and the impacts that volunteering had on their career pursuits. The findings of these studies help to identify the aspects of informal physics programs that are crucial for program functionality and how some of these aspects impact those who facilitate these learning spaces. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Challenges to integrating technology into educational institutions pose a significant issue that impacts students' performance and accomplishments. The research problem addressed through this study was that secondary school physics teachers were challenged to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) in a southwestern state of Nigeria. The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to explore secondary physics teacher perceptions of the factors that challenged ICT integration in the southwestern state of Nigeria, so that schools could be provided with research-deduced recommendations to take informed steps forward toward developing technology-integrated student-centered pedagogies. In this study, the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology served as the conceptual framework. Research questions were rooted in the conceptual framework consisting of four percepts: effort expectancy, performance expectancy, social influences, and facilitating conditions, all of which collectively influence teachers' adoption of technology in classroom teaching. The subjective sample was comprised of 12 participants who were secondary school physics teachers employed in a single school district. With a basic qualitative approach, data were gathered using an open-ended interview protocol. Subsequently, a thematic analysis of the collected data was conducted, focusing on each of the three research questions. The results of this study indicated how teachers' experiences and perceptions informed techniques to be adopted for effective ICT integration in physics education, in the target state. The outcomes of the study coupled with the planned professional development session for secondary school physics teachers in technology integration might result in positive change from more teachers integrating technology with efficacy and fidelity. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Women, especially Black and Latina women, are marginalized in physics, including in high school classrooms. Recognition is one of the ways women and girls experience marginalization in physics. This dissertation is comprised of three distinct but related studies examining how students experience recognition in an AP Physics 1 classroom. The first study is a mixed-methods study examining students' sense of self-efficacy using a sequential explanatory design. This study first examined the relationship between students' self-assessments and actual quiz scores and found no statistically significant difference between boys and girls in this class. I next used open-ended self-assessment prompts and semi-structured student interviews to identity classroom experiences that students felt contributed to or detracted from their sense of self-efficacy. While boys and girls talked about many experiences, such as the way labs in the course were structured, in very similar ways, only boys clearly discussed receiving consistent recognition from their peers, leading to the research questions in the subsequent studies. The second study examined how students provided each other with recognition, what kinds of contributions they recognized, and how peer recognition interacted with students' sense of physics identity using small group video and student interviews. Recognition fell into two major categories: explicit, where students directly recognized a peer, and implicit, where the recognition was provided indirectly. Explicit recognition was primarily connected to correct answers while implicit recognition was connected to a much broader range of contributions. During interviews, when students discussed their personal physics identity, they primarily discussed correct answers and explicit recognition they had received, suggesting that their personal identity was primarily connected to explicit recognition. When discussing their conceptions of what it means to hold a physics identity, students referenced not only correct answers, but the much broader range of contributions connected to implicit recognition. They also described giving both explicit and implicit recognition. This suggests that students connected both categories of recognition to their conceptions of a physics identity. Third, I analyzed exchanges in which students positioned each other in terms of physics ability without directly referencing physics using video of a mixed-gender group and an all-boy group. The mixed-gender group engaged in many of these exchanges and primarily used them when the girl contributed a correct answer with the boys taking authoritative positions. Rather than providing the girl with recognition, these exchanges served to devalue her contribution. The all-boy group, by contrast, only had one of these exchanges and neither was clearly established as more authoritative. Together, these studies provide insights into the gendered dynamics of the recognition that students give and receive in physics classrooms with implications for instructional practice. There is a clear need for teachers to structure group work in ways that ensure all students are recognized by their peers for a wide range of contributions and to disrupt gendered patterns in the classroom. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Concept inventories are widely used in physics education research, yet numerous studies show that concept inventories measure dramatically different learning gains in different demographic groups. Prior studies show that the performance gaps between demographic groups are already present in their preinstruction responses, suggesting that the observed gaps are largely due to students' prior experiences. For college students, these "prior experiences" are often attributed to their high school physics education (or lack thereof). If this is true, then one would expect the performance gaps on the pre-instruction responses to disappear if we control for the highest level of high school physics (e.g., AP/IB, honors, non-honors, or no prior physics whatsoever) taken by students. I investigated this hypothesis by looking at the responses of 1410 college students to the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) at the beginning of their first semester of an introductory college physics class. All 1410 students went to high school in North Carolina before taking their college physics class at a public college or university in North Carolina. I found that performance gaps exist between men and women, even when controlling for prior high school physics course. To further understand the factors that influence this phenomenon, I investigated the role played by a myriad of socio-economic variables in explaining variance in FCI performance of participants who attended public or charter high schools in North Carolina (n = 1168), an investigation lacking in the prior research. I found that many such variables hold statistically significant explanatory power, though few have large explanatory power. Finally, I investigated specific topics on the FCI in order to determine if the trends observed on the overall FCI hold for each topic. I found that, for participants with no prior physics coursework, there was no gap between men and women on questions pertaining to the topic of superposition. Coupled with the fact that the performance gap exists for all other topics and prior coursework subgroups, this finding suggests that certain socio-cultural factors may influence the gender performance gap for both students in formal physics classrooms and individuals who do not take physics courses. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Neurodiversity is the celebration of the diversity of minds. It is the understanding that people think, sense, and behave in different ways, and the assertion that the non-normative ways which people and their minds operate are, in fact, good. Neurodivergent people are beginning to access higher education at much higher rates than ever before. Yet, disability studies scholars note that, once inside, success in navigating academia remains inaccessible for many neurodivergent students. On the other hand, neurodivergent students oftentimes report qualities which otherwise make them successful STEM professionals, such as different ways of solving problems, different spatial reasoning, or different methods of working. In this dissertation, I present a tool for investigating the identity formation of neurodivergent physics students, the Critical Disability Physics Identity (CDPI) framework, which takes a strengths-based approach to understanding identity through resource use and political agency. I operationalize this CDPI framework and use it to investigate and hold space for the experiences of neurodivergent postbaccalaureate nonacademic physicists, physics undergraduates, and physics graduate students. I conclude with a call to action for disability justice in physics. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The post-pandemic classroom dealt with not only the mental health struggles of educators and students, but also the technological and virtual learning dependence in a time ridden with misinformation. At this time, it was important to not only consider the purpose and intent of science education as a learning experience, but also pedagogical approaches that seek to actualize this very intent. The pedagogy of science has at its foundation the experience of inquiry-beginning from self and expanding to the natural world. Explained by educationalists like John Dewey and Thomas Kuhn and in theory, implemented into classrooms through the Next Generation Science Standards, the potential of inquiry is to expand from a first-person experience to the wellbeing of community and society. Moreover, contemplative philosophies, such as Yoga, Vedanta, and Buddhist mindfulness, provide novel, yet ancient approaches to teaching this awareness through their pedagogical framework. Contemplative or spiritual pedagogies are those whose approach involves the exploration of subjectivity through introspection and empathy practices like meditation, journaling, and activism. In all, as the practitioner of these traditions and the educator-researcher in the classroom, I performed a qualitative study in phenomenology. I taught an AP Physics C class influenced by the lens of this contemplative paradigm, although this was not detached from the usual curriculum or interventional by nature. From emergent themes in the past student work and evaluation of their experience, I discovered the following: when an educator applied the approach of these wisdom traditions into the classroom curriculum, the resulting environment impacted a positive learning experience as it pertained to engaging science as inquiry. This study had an ambition to provide a novel approach to teaching and learning inquiry informed by the above-mentioned traditions. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Our nation has declining participation in science and technology fields, even though in the United States we have seen an astounding collection of innovations in technology, communication, the Internet, and financial products. This lack of participation is even more noticeable for students with learning disabilities (SWLD) when compared to general education students (GES) at both the secondary and postsecondary levels as their enrollments in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) programs are noticeably disproportionate. Many interventions have been conducted to impact enrollment in more advanced science classes for SWLD, but challenges continue for this underrepresented group in STEM classrooms. This study assessed how the introduction of co-teaching (reciprocal teaching) with a special educator in STEM classrooms impacted a science teacher's self-efficacy while teaching SWLD in freshman Journey through Physical Science-physics classes. Reciprocal teaching is a collaborative co-teaching model that allows teachers and students to lead discussions while summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting on specific STEM content. The ultimate goal of this study was to potentially impact science teacher's self-efficacy and in turn, afford SWLD with greater access to learning science. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

A significant body of scholarship in Physics Education Research (PER) has documented that students have intuitive knowledge resources that they use to make sense of the physical world. Similarly, for physicists, symmetry is fundamental to making sense of the universe. In this dissertation, I explore students' intuitive resources related to symmetry and how those resources are used when sensemaking about magnetism. Magnetism is a useful area for exploring this topic given the multiple types of symmetry present in permanent magnets. To situate this study, I use the overlapping theoretical frameworks of Knowledge in Pieces and Resource Theory. In these frameworks, the underlying assumption is that people have intuitive knowledge resources that they use to make sense of the world. The purpose of this study is to explore the intuitive knowledge resources students have that cluster around the notion of symmetry and to determine how students use these resources in reasoning about magnetism. The scope of this study is focused on middle and high school grade students engaged in a lesson where they generated and tested models of magnetism. Data capture and analysis were informed by the theoretical framework. I interviewed students in small groups using a semi-structured format, video and audio recorded the interviews, and collected the student written artifacts. Data analysis involved an iterative process of transcription and coding. The analysis is presented in a multiple case study approach to provide an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. The findings indicate that students likely have four types of primitive resources related to symmetry. These resources are used across multiple types of symmetry in ways that are consistent with how physicists use symmetry. Additionally, I conducted a moment-by-moment analysis of an instance of using symmetry knowledge resources in sensemaking. Results are important for providing new insights about previously unexplored knowledge resources related to symmetry, in providing greater understanding about the way that students use symmetry productively in sensemaking about magnetism, and in providing guidance about ways to scaffold learning about magnetism. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This is potentially the first study that addressed the Puerto Rican high school students' chemistry knowledge acquisition using traditional teaching and Physics Education Technology. The problem addressed by this quantitative comparative quasi-experimental study was that students' showed a disadvantage on chemistry knowledge acquisition over other science courses as indicated by Department of Education in Puerto Rico META test results, which showed a decrease of 2.9% in high school students' chemistry knowledge acquisition when compared to the previous year test results. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a difference existed in knowledge acquisition of a chemistry topic taught using Physics Education Technology (PhET) computer simulation and traditional teaching lecture technique among high school students from two private and two public schools in Puerto Rico. This study followed constructivism theory. A total of 117 high school students participated and completed the molecular geometry pre and posttests in this study. Three research questions addressing any differences between PhET and lecture teaching for the molecular geometry topic were performed. Data results were statistically analyzed using ANOVA tests through SPSS. There were no statistical differences between traditional lecture teaching and the use of PhET computer simulations, neither for private nor for public schools, or between them. However, the mean gain increased in all private and public participating schools when PhET computer simulation were used for the molecular geometry topic, therefore, indicating PhET computer simulations can be used to enhance knowledge acquisition in Puerto Rican chemistry high school students. Future recommendations include increasing sample size, expanding the study to additional educational regions, use of other chemistry topics, expanding to college level and using tests in Spanish. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The "Framework for K-12 Science Education" and the Next Generation Science Standards have called on teachers to shift from having students "learn about" science topics to having students engage in a process of "figuring out" how and why natural phenomena occur. These reform documents push teachers away from a transmission-style (TS) approach to science teaching, in which students' ideas and ways of knowing are often ignored or treated as misconceptions. Instead, these reform documents require that teachers use a responsive instructional (RI) approach, in which student ideas are attended to and used as resources for learning. Research on the use of RI provides evidence of greater student learning gains compared to those observed with use of TS. Though RI has been called for within reform efforts and its benefits have been demonstrated, this approach is not common in most science classrooms and it can be challenging for teachers to learn to plan for and enact this type of instruction. Most studies of RI focus on teachers' enactment, often focusing on how a teacher "elicits," "interprets" and/or "responds" to student ideas during instruction. However, the way a teacher plans for instruction strongly influences enactment, as teachers do not commonly stray from their lesson plan once instruction has begun. Therefore, if a teacher is to enact RI, they must first plan ways to attend to and use student ideas as resources for learning or engage in what I call responsive planning. One tool that may support a teacher's "responsive planning" is a learning progression (LP). As a model of how student ideas may change over time, an LP used during planning may help (1) to increase teacher awareness of commonly held student ideas to plan for and (2) in making decisions about instructional next steps that build on student ideas. Therefore, this case study investigated how a high school physics teacher with a TS approach to science instruction began to intentionally engage, with PD support, in responsive planning; how his planning changed over time; and how his planning was supported with the use of an LP. Data was collected during PD-supported planning meetings held during a 6-week force and motion unit that was taught twice, once in the Fall, and again, in the Spring. At the start of the study, the participating teacher's planning was informed by his TS instructional approach. However, over time, the teacher made changes across three dimensions of responsiveness: (1) the amount of "attention" he planned to give to student ideas during instruction, (2) the type of "discourse" structures he planned to use and (3) the types of "roles" he planned to have students take on during instruction. As compared to his original TS-informed lesson plans, the teacher's Fall eliciting lesson plans showed increased attention and role responsiveness. The attention responsiveness of his Fall responding lessons also increased from the beginning to end of the unit. As compared to the Fall responding lessons, the teacher's Spring responding lessons showed more discourse and role responsiveness. Over time, these gradual shifts in attention, discourse and role amounted to significant changes in the responsiveness of his lesson plans. Data also suggests that these shifts occurred when PD support focused on shifting one dimension at a time, rather than multiple at once. Additionally, the teacher used the LP both when his planning followed a TS approach and as it transitioned to being more responsive. Together, these findings suggest: (1) that PD providers could use a similar approach to supporting teachers as they shift toward responsive planning (starting with one dimension, rather than trying to shift multiple dimensions at once) and (2) an LP may be useful, when coupled with PD, to teachers as they shift toward more responsive planning. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Female student engagement in the STEM fields does not currently match the level at which male students are engaged. Whether it is in high school course enrollment, college, or careers, males outnumber females in terms of enrollment and study of advanced physics and engineering. The purpose of this mixed-methods, phenomenological action research dissertation was to uncover reasons why female students, who have otherwise exhibited individual Advanced Placement Physics-C Potential for success in the study of physics at the advanced level, were not enrolling in the Advanced Topics in Physics Honors course (an AP Physics-C comparative course). The goal of this dissertation was to provide greater opportunities for success for all students and to reduce the current level of gender disproportionality. The purpose of this study was to develop intervention strategies, including action steps to reverse this trend and promote a more proportional, and equitable, enrollment of males and females in advanced physics courses. Quantitative and qualitative data from student participant surveys and follow-up focus group interview sessions involved male and female student participants who exhibit Advanced Placement (or AP) Physics-C Potential. AP Physics-C Potential was used as a factor to determine which female students to target for intervention, with the anticipated result being increased course enrollment. The research revealed that an encouraging message from school counselors, teachers, and peers, delivered along with awareness of individual AP Physics-C Potential can promote an increased level of female student enrollment in advanced physics courses and reduce the phenomenon of gender disproportionality which precipitated this study. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

In recent years, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) have gained increasing importance in the field of physics. Despite efforts to enhance DEI, physics still faces numerous challenges in this area. This dissertation is divided into three main chapters, aiming to investigate the significance of learning-related emotions and physics identity as means to improve DEI in the field and gain a comprehensive understanding of students' experiences while working in groups. The first chapter delves into the concept of being a "science person" by presenting a taxonomy developed using the extensive literature on science identity, which is then applied to research on physics identity. The subsequent chapters focus on understanding students' learning-related emotions in the context of groupwork within their introductory physics courses. The study includes students from algebra, calculus, and honors mechanics and E&M, who were recruited to explore how interactions between students can influence their emotions and other affective constructs, such as self-efficacy, conceptual understanding, and perceptions of effective groups. Control value theory serves as the theoretical framework to investigate these relationships. For this research, a mixed methods approach was adopted. A survey was administered to students in the Fall of 2021 and Spring of 2022, utilizing a modified version of the achievement emotions questionnaire to assess their learning-related emotions. Students were also given the option to volunteer for an hour-long Zoom interview. Quantitative data was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, ANOVA, and t-tests, while qualitative data was analyzed using thematic coding. The study's results revealed no significant differences in learning-related emotions based on gender or race. However, statistically and practically significant differences emerged when students were grouped by their sense of belonging. Furthermore, the study highlighted the importance of productive struggle in creating positive groupwork experiences. This indicates that experiencing some negative emotions can be beneficial to students' attitudes towards physics and their perceived achievement. These findings suggest that instructors need to be intentional when forming groups and designing curriculum to foster a supportive and inclusive learning environment. Overall, the study underscores the potential of learning-related emotions and physics identity in enhancing DEI in the field of physics. By recognizing and addressing the role of emotions and identity in the learning process, educators and institutions can take meaningful steps towards creating a more inclusive and supportive physics community. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Quantitative literacy---the use of mathematics to describe and understand the world---is an essential skill. Physics has an opportunity to contribute to how students develop quantitative literacy, as much of physics curriculum centers on making sense of quantitative models. One facet of quantitative literacy in physics is covariational reasoning: how changes in one quantity affect changes in another, related quantity. Covariational reasoning is at the heart of developing and making sense of quantitative models, and is central to graphical reasoning. Much of the research on covariation lies in mathematics education; the language of covariation has only recently begun to be used amongst physics education research. Research in physics and mathematics education has demonstrated that reasoning mathematically in physics contexts is distinct from reasoning mathematically in a context-free way. Early indications suggest that, similarly, covariational reasoning is likely different in physics contexts than in mathematics. Moreover, research into quantitative literacy more generally has shown that it is unlikely to improve in physics classrooms without direct instruction. Therefore, there is a need to characterize and understand physics covariational reasoning towards developing instructional activities that can be used in physics classrooms to help students develop quantitative literacy. The research presented in this dissertation represents a collection of work that provides a foundation for instructional activity development. We describe research into characterizing and operationalizing physics covariational reasoning through a series of studies that examine how physics experts reasoned while generating graphical models. The results of this study, together with prior research in the field, are organized into a framework of covariational reasoning: the Covariational Reasoning in Physics (CoRP) framework. We present this framework in this dissertation, and describe how it can be used towards identifying learning outcomes for introductory physics courses and beyond, identifying proto-expert resources that students may already have when entering physics courses, and developing instructional interventions that attend to improving students' quantitative literacy. We then present two short reflections on two assessment tools, the Physics Inventory of Quantitative Literacy (PIQL) and the Generalized Equation-based Reasoning inventory of Quantity and Negativity (GERQN), that are designed to measure physics quantitative literacy across a wide range of student populations. These assessment tools can be used to measure the impact of instruction on students' physics quantitative literacy, and thus are a necessary tool towards designing activities that are supported by research. This dissertation concludes with a reflection on how these pieces can be used together for future steps towards the development of instructional materials. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This paper is a proposal, project, and dissertation for Kenneth Johnson, Doctor of Philosophy degree in Science Education, in the Graduate College of The University of Iowa. I propose analyzing the writing assignment in an undergraduate online physics course offered by a small midwestern community college (CC). The goal is to study how Writing to Learn (WTL) exercises affect undergraduate physics students. How does their understanding of physics concepts improve? How does the writing toward a target audience improve over a semester? What are the student attitudes and impressions of online undergraduate physics science class writing exercises? The project will answer the first two questions in chapter two by studying the effects of WTL writing tasks on online undergraduate physics students at a two-year college (TYC). The investigator will address aspects of the third question in chapter three. In Chapter 4, the investigator will submit a detailed discussion of results, conclusion, limitations, potential actions in the learning environment, and future research potential. The investigation will take data from assignments, discussions, and surveys from an undergraduate online physics course in the spring of 2022. The writings in this study occurred before the public release in November of 2022 of ChatGPT, the artificial intelligence "chatbot" developed by OpenAI, a large language model. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation investigates the complexities associated with developing expertise in physics problem-solving and the methods for measuring and assessing the skills involved. Problem-solving skills are critical in today's rapidly changing world, and thus, it is important to emphasize them in education. However, lacking precise methods for measuring problem-solving abilities makes it challenging to improve techniques used for teaching these skills. The goal of this dissertation is to broaden our understanding of problem-solving skills in introductory physics classrooms at the undergraduate level. We present four studies that investigate distinct aspects of physics problem-solving skills, each providing better insight into the obstacles students encounter in honing these skills. The first study focuses on the design and development of three computer-based problem-solving diagnostic instruments to measure respondents' problem-solving processes. From the first two surveys we investigate the novice-expert differences in the problem-solving process, which provide insight into the design and future analysis of the third problem-solving tool. This study also highlights the nonlinearity of problem-solving development, and the third survey will aim to investigate the difference in problem-solving ability in different educational settings. The second study explores the practices involved in solving a complex, authentic problem in physics and the effectiveness of worked examples in facilitating the learning of these problem-solving practices. While the results suggest that worked examples can help students adopt more effective problem-solving practices, this improvement does not result in successfully solving the problem. The next study we present investigates two analyses of student epistemologies while reflecting on solutions to physics problems. In the first analysis, we examine the strategies students use to check their answers, which provides insight into the factors that may influence student epistemology of student reflection. In the second analysis, we examine the epistemological framing associated with answer checking, revealing the differences in how students view solution reflection tasks by physics background. Finally, we present a study exploring how students engage in the metacognitive subcomponent of evaluation on their weekly homework assignments over a semester in an introductory physics course. We investigate the relationship between students' evaluation ability and their course performance as well as trends in evaluation strategies students use by the specific task. We further highlight the difference in evaluation ability by students' college concentration. From our findings on evaluation ability, we provide insights into how this problem-solving skill can be improved. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Physics is known for its emphasis on innate brilliance as a prerequisite for disciplinary membership and success. Women, Black, Latine, and Indigenous individuals remain vastly underrepresented and marginalized in physics spaces, a reality that is due in part to oppressive stereotypes that position them as less inherently intelligent than their male, white, and Asian peers. Traditional lecture-based college physics courses often contribute to this marginalization by fostering competitive cultures that elevate inherent, exceptional ability over intellectual growth and malleability. In recent years, physics educators have implemented a variety of interactive instructional approaches to both enhance student learning and reduce competitive classroom cultures. This dissertation consists of three studies, each focused on discerning factors that influence the experiences, beliefs, perceptions, and intentions of undergraduate physics majors enrolled in courses that incorporate an interactive instructional approach. The first two studies utilized multilevel modeling to examine the contextual dynamics of students' physics ability beliefs, sense of belonging, disciplinary identification, and persistence intentions over time. The third study employed dynamic narrative inquiry to explore the lived experiences and disciplinary identity development of physics students with marginalized or multiple marginalized social identities in the context of the power dynamics of their physics learning environments. Quantitative analyses indicated that students' physics ability beliefs shifted and changed over time in accordance with both individual and environmental factors. In the short term, the malleability of students' physics ability beliefs related to the extent that they felt recognized by others as an exemplary physics student. Over a longer time period, students with more malleable physics ability beliefs conveyed a greater sense of belonging and intent to persist in the physics major. Students who perceived innate brilliance as required for success in physics, on the other hand, conveyed a lower sense of belonging and intent to persist. Perceived recognition and a sense of belonging in physics positively related to students' level of disciplinary identification. The magnitude of these quantitative trends varied in meaningful ways by students' gender, race, ethnicity, and course level. In addition, women, Black, and Latine students reported a lower sense of belonging in the physics major than men, white, and Asian students, even after accounting for individual-, environmental-, and disciplinary-level ability beliefs and perceived recognition. Qualitative analyses provided a richer context for these findings. Narratives revealed common course and programmatic norms, values, structures, and practices, some that disrupted and others that reproduced the discipline's white, masculine, heteronormative, able-bodied, middle- and upper-class traditions. Taken together, findings from these three students offer important scholarly and practical insight into how undergraduate physics programs can foster diversity, inclusion, equity, and justice in physics learning spaces by intentionally dismantling and reshaping oppressive dynamics that deter students with a diversity of social identities and backgrounds from growing, belonging, and persisting in the field as their authentic selves. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Over the past few decades, physics education researchers (PER) developed a variety of assessments instrument for research and instructional purposes. Most of these instruments are designed to measure topical understanding. Generally, if student performance is satisfactory, it is assumed that the students possess the content understanding and that the instruction was successful. If performance is less satisfactory, it is assumed that the student understanding is weak and significant changes in instruction are required. The challenge with this assessment approach is that the term "student understanding" is not well defined. Moreover, factors that contribute to improved student understanding have not been examined explicitly and systematically. Recently, PER researchers started integrating findings from cognitive psychology to explore the impact of specific factors on student performance in physics, including the strength of content knowledge (or mindware), reasoning skills, and cognitive reflection tendencies. Traditional assessments do not differentiate between these (or other) factors. This thesis describes work that uses Dual Process Theories of Reasoning as a theoretical framework to investigate patterns in student performance in physics, disentangles various factors that impact performance, discusses the development of a diagnostic instrument designed to measure changes in content knowledge and reasoning necessary to apply this knowledge correctly. Specifically, we examined to what degree student reasoning patterns are consistent with the reasoning pathways predicted by DPToR. Next, we applied a screening-target methodology to disentangle student content knowledge (i.e., mindware) from their reasoning approaches on a sequence of 11 screening-target pairs of physics tasks. We explored the relationships among mindware, reasoning, and tendencies toward cognitive reflection. We found that most item pairs function as expected: screening item performance predicts performance on a target item and that CRT performance is linked to that on target items under certain conditions. Finally, we explored the use of hierarchical cluster analysis to categorize changes in item profiles that measure content knowledge and reasoning consistency with that content knowledge. We found that the instrument could differentiate students along these axes but not into the groups expected by DPToR. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Instructional explanations are an ubiquitous component of classroom instruction, but are relatively neglected in science education when compared to other facets of teaching and learning. The ubiquity of instructional explanations and their potential to stimulate learning in students suggests that they should garner more attention from science education scholars. Students are likely to have developed opinions on the quality of effective explanations given the sheer number of explanations the typical student has encountered in their education, but only a few efforts have documented the criteria that students use to evaluate instructional explanations. The current thesis has four goals: i) to develop an initial model for the dimensions of explanations along which students evaluate explanations generated by highly regarded instructors of physics, ii) to determine what level of agreement exists between students on which explanations are good versus poor quality explanations, iii) to document the research-supported strategies that are utilized in those same explanations, and iv) to compare how evaluations of explanations based on research compare to the opinion from the students concerning which explanations are best. To accomplish these goals, nine highly rated instructors wrote 45 explanations in response to five physics questions. The 45 explanations were scored based on a research-derived rubric that identifies research-supported strategies related to learning outcomes. Next, students in an introductory calculus-based physics course for engineers were invited to make pairwise comparisons of explanations and to rank order the explanations. Students also described how they made their judgments. The comparative judgement data was analyzed with the Bradley-Terry model and agreement was estimated with a split-half correlation method. The rank orders were analyzed using a relative placement algorithm, which, to my knowledge, has not yet been used in research, and with sequential rank agreement metric measuring agreement between rank orders. The top-rated explanations from the relative placement algorithm were compared with the research-driven scoring to highlight areas of agreement and disagreement between the research team and student samples. From the analysis, I discuss patterns in features that appear in the explanations used in this study. I also present a model for effective explanations from the student perspective together with three general hypotheses that seem necessary to model good explaining practice from the student perspective. These hypotheses are that i) students generally do not share the same criteria for the essence of good explaining, that ii) students at the introductory level are sensitive to context when judging explanations, and that iii) students may not be consciously aware of all of the criteria that drive their judgements. I conclude based on my findings that students use a wide range of criteria evaluate explanations and that these criteria often align with the literature on explaining. As a consequence, I suggest that students are likely to provide valuable feedback to instructors on explanation quality. I show that the item quality estimates produced by the Bradley-Terry model and the level of agreement between students estimated through split-half correlations disagree with item quality estimates produced from the relative placement algorithm and the agreement estimate from sequential rank agreement metric. These results are consist with the possibility that the Bradley-Terry model and the split-halves correlation method do not produce item quality and agreement estimates that generalize beyond the context of comparative judgement. Alternatively, the results may suggest that the Bradley-Terry model and split-halves correlation method are inapplicable to contexts where judgement criteria are more subjective and/or flexible. Finally, I raise questions for future studies about interesting patterns in student responses and rank-order methodologies in general that warrant further investigation. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Conceptual approaches to contemporary physics topics pose many learning challenges. One factor influencing knowledge integration is a student's epistemological framing. Epistemic frames provide a context within which a particular situation is perceived, interpreted, and judged. The utility of an epistemic frame is context dependent, and the objective of this study is to explore secondary students' framings during introductory instruction on quantum physics. Inductive thematic analysis is used to identify epistemic framing clusters. The characteristics of each framing cluster are identified, and each framing is analyzed based on its sensemaking utility within the observed introductory instructional unit exploring the principles of quantum physics. Data collection includes pre- and post-unit interviews with a student focus group (n=6) as well as student work samples and audio/video recordings of classroom instruction. Evidence of student framings are identified via the warrants students use in their reasoning and the epistemic resources they employ during sensemaking. Three framing clusters emerged from the data; 1) Call on Authority, 2) Experiential, and 3) Evidence-based Sensemaking. Each framing is observed to assist in the student sensemaking process, however, the Evidence-based Sensemaking framing is most effective during the knowledge generation of abstract concepts associated with quantum physics. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Digital learning environments are becoming increasingly ubiquitous as a wide range of EdTech products and services enter classrooms and households across the globe. One salient attribute of these environments is their capacity to generate large amounts of data as students interact with the technology. These data logs can help construct a detailed picture of how students work on a task and provide valuable insights into their underlying competencies. At the same time, the sheer volume of interaction data poses challenges, such as how to extract meaningful behavioral patterns from the raw data and model them to assess specific constructs. This dissertation contributes to the efforts of educational researchers and practitioners in harnessing the data generated by digital technology to support teaching and learning, with an emphasis on using interactive tasks to assess and teach problem-solving practices. The "Introduction" chapter reviewed the historical development and various lines of inquiry in problem-solving research. The chapter also provided a summary of our lab's previous work on problem-solving practices and expert decision-making. The goal is to contextualize the present research on log data-based measurement of problem-solving within the broader problem-solving research, thereby establishing its relevance and contribution to the field. The first article, "Using Prolific as a Data Collection Tool for Educational Research," explored whether Prolific, an increasingly popular online crowdsourcing research platform, could be used to collect data on college students' problem-solving performance. Specifically, the study employed an interactive problem to compare the task engagement and performance of college students recruited from the Prolific platform with those of college students enrolled in an introductory physics course in a large public university. The Mystery Gift problem challenges students to determine the weight of an unknown gift using known weights and a marked seesaw in the PhET simulation. Results show that Prolific participants performed on par with college students from the physics class in obtaining the correct solutions. Furthermore, college students who submitted incorrect answers were more likely than Prolific participants to make rushed cursory attempts to solve the problem. These results suggest that Prolific is a valid data collection platform for studying how college students solve complex, interactive problems in science and engineering domains. The second article is "Applying Log Data Analytics to Measure Problem-Solving." This study investigated the potential of log data, which recorded students' interactions with the digital task environment while solving the Mystery Gift problem, as evidence of their problem-solving practices. Building upon the validity of Prolific as a data collection tool established in the first study, a national sample of 80 US college students majoring in STEM fields was recruited via Prolific to participate in a 30-min online study. The log data was processed to reveal the sequence of test trials conducted by individual participants when solving the problem and the pauses between test trials. Our analyses revealed that taking deliberate pauses (10 secs) during problem-solving was a significant predictor of participants' problem-solving success and an indicator of specific problem-solving practices. The results highlight the value of log data in offering unobtrusive observations of students' problem-solving processes and the power of learning analytics techniques in extracting semantically meaningful features associated with specific problem-solving practices. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Assessments are an integral part of academic environments and can present opportunities for students to make sense of novel contexts using their existing ideas. Assessments also provide insights on students' learning and the efficacy of the pedagogical practices. Consequently, physics education research shares a storied history of developing research-based assessments (RBAs) that support students' sensemaking. However, contemporary studies have noted several shortcomings of the existing RBAs such as: (i) lack of clarity for instructors in interpreting students' scores to make modifications to their instruction, (ii) misalignment between the content of the assessments and the local learning goals of the instructors, (iii) scarcity of standardized assessments for undergraduate physics, and (iv) the need to shift the focus of RBAs from ``knowing" to ``doing" physics. Researchers have also called for probing the contextual factors that influence students' sensemaking in physics. In light of these observations, I present methodological and theoretical approaches to developing and analyzing next-generation RBAs. I introduce the development process of a novel RBA -- the Thermal and Statistical Physics Assessment (TaSPA) -- which focuses on assessing the ``doing" aspect of physics along with providing actionable feedback for instructors to modify their courses. Additionally, this assessment allows instructors to choose what they wish to assess, thereby bridging the gap between assessment objectives and the local learning goals of the instructors. I elucidate the leveraging of existing theoretical and design frameworks in the development of TaSPA and how the interplay of these frameworks addresses some of the shortcomings of the contemporary assessments. This diagnostic represents a paradigm shift in how assessments are envisioned and designed by the discipline-based education research community. I also complement the contemporary literature by theoretically exploring assessment task features that increase the likelihood of students sensemaking in physics. I identify the task features by first noting the salient characteristics of the sensemaking process as described in the science education literature. Existing theoretical ideas from cognitive psychology, education, and philosophy of science are then leveraged in unpacking the task features which elicit the characteristics of sensemaking. Furthermore, I leverage Conjecture Mapping -- a framework from design-based research -- to articulate how the proposed task features elicit the desired outcome of sensemaking. I argue that to promote sensemaking, tasks should cue students to unpack the underlying mechanism of a real-world phenomenon by coordinating multiple representations and by physically interpreting mathematical expressions. The proof of concept of this idea is then presented through analysis of students' reasoning about the tasks embodying the proposed features. The analysis is then extended to provide an explicit account of the intertwining between modeling and sensemaking processes. The analyses reveal that particular aspects of modeling and sensemaking processes co-occur. For instance, the priming on the "given'' information from the problem statement constituted the students' engagement with their mental models, and their attempts to resolve inconsistencies in understanding involved the use of external representations. I find that barriers experienced in modeling can inhibit students' sustained sensemaking. Major contributions of this work include: (i) elucidating a methodological approach in developing an RBA that promotes the "doing'' aspect of physics; (ii) demonstrating an agent-based perspective in exploring assessment task features; (iii) operationalizing conjecture mapping in the context of task design in physics; (iv) introducing a methodology extendable to unpack task features which can elicit other valued epistemic practices; and (v) an explicit framework-based unpacking of the association between modeling and sensemaking. This dissertation opens up avenues for future explorations such as extending the proposed methodology in developing RBAs for other upper-division physics courses such as quantum mechanics. The presented theoretical and methodological approaches can also be extended in exploring features of the assessment tasks that promote additional epistemic practices such as argumentation and modeling. Researchers can also explore expanding the proposed list of task features, and the accompanying constraints (if any). [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This retrospective quasi-experimental design research compared student achievement of students in two active learning environments. One is referred to as Student Centered Active Learning Environment with Upside-Down Pedagogies (SCALE-UP), and the other is referred to as traditional classroom environments. Student final course grades of physics courses taken between fall 2016 and spring 2019 (N = 265) were used to determine the effectiveness of instructional environments (Simpson & Fernandez, 2014). More specifically, this study investigated student achievement of engineering students and underrepresented minority students in the SCALE-UP and traditional learning environments. The statistical analysis resulted in no significant differences in student achievement between the two learning environments. These findings provide an empirical comparison of student achievement in physics courses across two learning environments. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The opportunity to innovate, experiment, and take chances in the classroom should be accessible to all students regardless of the social identities they hold; however, white women and women of color (WOC) in male-dominated physics, engineering, math and computer science (PEMC) learning environments, and STEM broadly, have been expected to take intellectual risks while also navigating potentially hostile, sexist, and racist environments. Despite several studies identifying the learning benefits of intellectual risk-taking, particularly in STEM, few have taken steps to understand whether the cited benefits are salient for women. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to better understand the role of risk-taking in PEMC higher education and to determine whether or not risk-taking produced a key benefit for women in PEMC: persistence. To do so, I ran linear regressions to identify relevant predictors of general "self-rated risk-taking" and "intellectual risk-taking" as well as conducted a binary logistic regression to identify predictors of PEMC persistence. Through the lens of the theory of gendered organizations, social identity threat theory, model of threatening academic environments, and intellectual risk-taking, I employed descriptive and regression analyses using longitudinal data from the University of California, Los Angeles Higher Education Research Institute's (HERI) The Freshman Survey (TFS) and College Senior Survey (CSS). Results from this study suggest that differences across self-rated risk-taking within gender and across racial/ethnic groups of women are informed by the social identities that students carry both at the beginning and end of college. Additionally, key differences emerged regarding the predictors of self-rated general risk-taking versus intellectual risk-taking that demonstrate the need for greater precision regarding what "risk-taking" means. Moreover, in understanding the persistence levels of women across racial/ethnic groups, Black and Latina women were found to have significantly lower PEMC persistence than their white and Asian counterparts which speaks to the long-standing literature underscoring the hostility and lack of support for Black and Brown women in STEM. Finally, this study did not find self-rated general risk-taking or intellectual risk-taking to predict PEMC persistence for white women and WOC, indicating the need to further investigate the purpose of "risk-taking" and if or how it should have a place in PEMC classrooms and STEM broadly. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Over the past 50 years physics education research (PER) has grown into a thriving subdiscipline of physics. PER grew out of a desire to approach education research and development from a disciplinary perspective, operating under the assumption that good physics education is deeply rooted in the disciplinary knowledge and practices of physicists. As a result of its disciplinary focus, many physics education researchers have informal education research or practice focused backgrounds, in addition to formal backgrounds in traditional physics sub-disciplines such as nuclear physics, AMO physics, condensed matter physics, etc. While there are institutions that offer graduate programs in PER, there are still many new and emerging PER researchers who do not have backgrounds in education research. In an effort to welcome these people to the field, and provide them some formal training in education research practices the professional development for emerging education researchers (PEER) program was born. Over the years, this program has expanded to include researchers from other STEM disciplines as well, making it one of a few programs in STEM available for discipline based education research (DBER) professional development. In this dissertation I will discuss the needs of emerging discipline based education researchers (EDBERs), and how we can better support them in their growth. I will approach this problem through the lens of the PEER program. I will present findings based on iterative thematic analysis of interviews with EDBERs (many of whom were PEER participants). The results of these thematic analyses will be presented across three different projects. The first project focuses on how the community can come together to support EDBERs, and how community connections and support can be built into professional development programs (using PEER as an example). This project covers a thematic analysis that turned up three roles which our EDBERs depend upon community members to fill in order to support their growth and engagement in education research. I begin by interpreting these roles through the lens of behaviour and decision making, in order to explain how these roles fit into a professional development program. Afterwards, I go on to explain the next iteration of the thematic analysis which focused on how EDBERs develop a sense of belonging within the education research community. I tie their sense of belonging back to the roles that community members play in their development as education researchers. Having discussed how EDBERs are linked to the education research community, I move on to their access to the community. In the second project I examine themes around isolation, fear, and stigmatization that emerge in interviews with EDBERs. Here I characterize communities as networks of people, and use Barzilai-Nahon's theory of network gatekeeping to examine EDBERs access to the education research community, and how the community controls that access. I propose moving explicitly and thoughtfully towards a culture of groundskeeping to help mitigate the negative impacts of gatekeeping on EDBERs. Finally I will examine themes that emerged around the difficulty of engaging with theory in education research. Many faculty EDBERs lack a background in education research, and struggle with theory in interesting ways. In this project I first elaborate on how their struggle with theory manifests in my data. I then go on present case studies of EDBERs thinking explicitly about what theory is in research. In these case studies I present an example of an EDBER sensemaking about theory, a counter example of someone who already has strong but incomplete ideas about theory, and finally an example of an experienced education researcher's reasoning about theory within education research. These three projects come together to demonstrate the challenges faced by EDBERS, and the support they need from established education researchers in order to thrive. I examine their needs across issues of community support, community access, and understanding of community knowledge in order to provide a multifaceted picture of challenges faced by professionals engaging with a new (to them) field. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

To broaden participation in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education and continue building research capacity, this dissertation focuses on STEM professionals: those who take up education research later in their career and those who facilitate engagement in physics learning outside the formal classroom. Using agency, identity and motivation frameworks combined with qualitative research methodologies, we report on three projects that investigate how scientists integrate new research areas in their careers and engage with the public in order to gain a deeper understanding of their professional development needs. First, through a multiple case study analysis of three participants in a professional development program, we use Bandura's theoretical framework on agency to investigate how program activities affect emerging STEM education researchers' agency. Our analysis illustrates a mechanism by which professional development opportunities worked in favor of increasing self-efficacy and echoed more broadly into agency. Our study highlights the importance of agency when creating professional development activities to increase and sustain engagement in discipline-based education research (DBER) in different institutional contexts. Second, we use phenomenography grounded in Holland's figured worlds to identify the spectrum of ways emerging STEM education researchers identify or imagine themselves in DBER. We characterize three ways they conceptualize education research: to improve teaching, to join a new field of research or to negotiate their position and identity in DBER vis-`a-vis their home discipline. The nuanced experiences of these emerging STEM education researchers bring to the surface the challenges and opportunities of emerging STEM education researchers. Their experiences illustrate the need for a variety of professional development support including but not limited to nuanced and explicit discussions of the norms and culture of DBER within disciplinary science departments and discussions about DBER across STEM disciplines.Third, we use personas methodology and Ryan and Deci's self-determination theory to articula te the motivation, challenges, and needs in public engagement of physicists with a range of different experiences. We discuss our personas refinement process, our set of personas and implications for the development of user-centered resources for the informal physics community. Our personas consist of the physicist who engages in informal physics for self-reflection, the physicist who wants to spark interest and understanding of physics and the physicist who wants to provide diverse role models to younger students and inspire them to pursue STEM careers. Needs covered a range of resources including science communication training, community building among informal physics practitioners and mechanisms to recognize, elevate and value informal physics. Using personas not only expands our understanding of motivations and needs of practitioners in physics public engagement, it brings user-centered design methodology to a new topical area of physics education research. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study investigates the challenge faced by eighth-grade students at Southern State Middle School in grasping abstract concepts within the domains of physical science, physics, and chemistry. This difficulty is manifested in their poor performance on summative assessments. A comprehensive analysis of state-provided data, in conjunction with school assessment scores and insights from educators, reveals a striking learning gap specifically in areas related to atoms, molecules, laws of motion, and energy. Consequently, students consistently attain lower scores in eighth-grade physical science in comparison to their achievements in English, social studies, and mathematics. This research is not confined to the immediate school context but carries implications that resonate more broadly, potentially extending benefits to both students and educators at the county and state levels. It underscores the pressing necessity for targeted interventions aimed at enhancing students' comprehension of these intricate and abstract scientific concepts. The implications of this study are manifold. Firstly, it uncovers a systemic issue in science education that is not confined to Southern State Middle School but could likely be mirrored in other educational institutions. This finding is of vital significance as it prompts educators, policymakers, and stakeholders to consider more effective strategies for teaching and learning in the physical sciences. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of devising customized educational support systems that cater to students' distinct learning needs in this specific domain. The results of this research also suggest that there may be a broader issue concerning the curriculum or pedagogical approaches in eighth-grade physical science. This study serves as a clarion call for curriculum designers and educators to explore innovative methods and curricular adjustments that make these abstract concepts more accessible and engaging for students. Therefore, the study reveals a notable challenge in eighth-grade physical science education at Southern State Middle School. It prompts a broader conversation about science education strategies and curricular adjustments, urging targeted interventions to bridge the learning gap and improve students' comprehension of abstract scientific concepts. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The creation of new knowledge in the form of scientific models is a cornerstone of the process of science. In physics laboratory instruction, students are very often stuck in a confirmatory mindset; they have been conditioned to believe that the role of experimentation in the classroom and in the world is to verify known facts. This mindset is antithetical to the actual practice of science and detrimental to students' growth as scientific thinkers. Freeing students from such a mindset is a central challenge in the development and implementation of epistemologically authentic physics laboratory activities. This dissertation describes the exploration and implementation of a unique solution to this challenge: the complete removal of any and all traces of a "correct" answer through immersion in a different universe with its own laws of physics. The Novel Observations in Mixed Reality (NOMR) project simulates real and fictitious laws of physics in a virtual reality universe to create learning opportunities where the only right answer is the one that students can make the best case for. NOMR's physics focuses around field-mediated particle interactions: familiar ones such as electrostatics and Newtonian gravitation, and novel ones created for students to explore from scratch. This dissertation reports on the development of the VR software, fictitious physical phenomena, classroom implementation practices, and instructional materials comprising NOMR labs. These labs are implemented across four large-enrollment courses on two WA campuses, reaching over 2,000 students each year. Assessment of NOMR's effects on affective components of students' learning reveals that students become more expertlike in their epistemology and self-efficacy about experimental physics, and that they become more engaged with successive NOMR labs even beyond the expiration of the VR novelty effect. NOMR has been shown to be feasible and work as intended; it is primed for the next generation of developments and inquiry, building on the foundation presented here. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study aimed at developing a module in physics based on the assessment of the learning progression of students in physics and science teachers' formative assessment practices. The participants in this study were the Grade 11 students and Junior High School science teachers for the data gathering, science teachers for the design and development of the module, Grade 11 students and science teachers for the implementation of the module, and science teachers for the evaluation of the module. Two sets of instruments were utilized in Phase 1 of the study; these were: Learning Progression Test in Physics (LPTP) and Formative Assessment Practices Checklist (FAPC). Results revealed that the Grade 11 students had not mastered skills in inferring how the movement of particles of an object affects the speed of sound through it, investigating relationship between the angle of release and the height and range of the projectile, inferring the relationship between current and charge, describing the horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile, and inferring that the total momentum of the system before and after collision is equal. Meanwhile, the formative assessment strategies of science teachers were classroom discussion, problem solving, observation, rubrics, Venn diagram, multiple-choice, and self/peer assessments. Science teachers utilized the results of these formative assessments to elicit evidence about students' learning and to modify or adjust teaching and learning instruction. In Phase 2, the researcher designed a teaching module in physics based on the identified least-mastered competencies and science teachers' formative assessment practices. The development of the module was done though a seminar-workshop, participated in by secondary and tertiary physics teachers. The implementation of the final draft of the module was done through pilot testing. Overall, the developed module was rated excellent by the teachers in terms of objectives, content, activities, assessment, design, and presentation. Teachers' and students' evaluation of the module reveal that the objectives were suited to the particular topic, level, and needs of the learners and were clear and simple. The content of the module was good, easily understood, clear, and well-organized. The activities were interesting, enjoyable, self-motivating, within the context of the learners, and helped enhance students' knowledge, skills, and understanding of the lesson. The assessments challenged the students to think critically. Hence, the teaching module was developed as support instructional material for teachers to bridge the gaps in the learning progression of students in physics. With these results, it is recommended that students engage in daily instructional activities that would best move them to deeper learning and application of knowledge. Further, the developed module can be used as supplementary material for students towards progressive mastery of ideas, concepts, and skills in their physics lessons.

Student grades and motivational outcomes in introductory physics courses can influence their retention in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) disciplines and future career aspirations. In recent years, many research studies have focused on inequities in calculus-based introductory physics courses, e.g., by investigating gender differences in students' motivational beliefs such as self-efficacy, interest, and identity and how they change from the beginning to the end of a physics course or course sequence. However, these issues have not been investigated in introductory physics courses for bioscience majors, in which women outnumber men. Although women outnumber men in these courses, societal stereotypes and biases about who can do and excel in physics may impact women in these courses unless there is an intentional effort to create equitable and inclusive learning environments. In this dissertation I address the question of equity in introductory physics courses for students on the bioscience track by investigating the relationship between gender, motivational beliefs, and physics performance. Through my quantitative studies, I first analyzed gender differences in students' self-efficacy, sense of belonging, and recognition by others and how they predict course grade. Then, I investigated whether the relation between gender and physics identity was mediated by students' self-efficacy, interest, and recognition by others. Lastly, I investigated how students' perception of the inclusiveness of the learning environment including students' sense of belonging, interactions with their peers, and recognition by instructors and TAs predicts their physics identity and grades in the introductory physics courses. These findings can be invaluable for instructors striving to make these courses more equitable and inclusive. Throughout the thesis, there is discussion of how these findings can provide guidelines to improve women's experiences and achievement in these introductory physics courses. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Having discussions and working together in groups with other learners is the indicator of the collaboration aspect of engagement. Collaborative engagement can be fostered through active learning approaches, since they provide more opportunities for interaction among learners. In Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) classrooms, small groups of peers discuss and verbalize ideas with each other to reach a shared understanding. As students discuss ideas and share ideas with others, they can hear different viewpoints and develop understandings that may not have been possible individually. This dissertation considers this approach toward learning, focused on two big ideas: (1) the English Learner (EL) student population and their engagement in small group conversations; (2) the impact of converting a POGIL class to a hybrid format on students' engagement in small group conversations. (1) The English Learner (EL) student population and their engagement in small group conversations. Increasing numbers of immigrants in the United States have led to an increase in the number of ELs in American classrooms. A typical challenge for ELs in American science classes is that they are unfamiliar with the norms and expectations of class and may not feel valued and accepted. Instructors may also have lower expectations for them, affecting their learning and achievement. Due to these difficulties, English learners might have a different experience and engage in small group discussions differently than non-English learners in a POGIL-based. Our analysis indicated that ELs are less likely to engage in discursive moves that lead to shared understanding than non-ELs, which could indicate missed opportunities for knowledge construction. In addition, we provided evidence that EL populations may need to be redefined and subgroups within them considered. According to our findings, the EL population can be categorized into subgroups based on students' educational backgrounds. The defined subgroups of ELs engaged differently in small group conversations and those who spent more time in the US educational system participated more actively in conversations. (2) The impact of converting a POGIL class to a hybrid format on students' engagement in small group conversations. Nowadays, distance education plays an important role in the educational system. Transactional distance theory argues that distance education creates a psychological separation between students and their instructors, preventing students from interacting and being engaged. Studies suggest that distance education could benefit from active learning approaches to reduce transactional distance. In this study, a hybrid POGIL class with half of the students attending in person and the other half participating remotely was investigated to see how this particular active learning approach influenced students' interactions. Despite the active learning approach in this design, analysis of students' conversations showed that they were sometimes less engaged in group discussions when interacting remotely, suggesting that the transactional distance for remote students was present. Student participants and the course instructor attributed this pattern to more distractions in remote classes, difficulties in engagement caused by the nature of online courses, and less accountability. Upon analysis at the individual student level, we found that the patterns we observed for the entire class were not the same for each student. From student participants' and the instructor's point of view, sometimes students' personality (e.g., some people are comfortable sharing their ideas with others but some people do not) and their attitudes toward the course could have a greater impact on how they engaged in small group discussions than whether they were in person or remote. To understand the dynamic behind these observed patterns and optimize the learning experience in distance education, more research is needed on student characteristics, group dynamics, facilitation, and task types. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The work in this dissertation is presented in two parts. The first part (Chapters 3 and 4) details work relating to students' explanations of reaction mechanisms in organic chemistry. The second part (Chapters 5 and 6) details work relating to the evaluating the uptake of research-based instructional practices in introductory chemistry, mathematics, and physics courses. To evaluate learning of organic chemistry reactions, instructors must ask students to construct written explanations of reaction mechanisms. Written assessments should focus on what is happening and why it is happening to promote deeper student understanding. However, for instructors to gain insight into students' understanding, the time and effort to evaluate the explanations is prohibitive. Further, such evaluation is often not standardized or grounded in the research literature. Lexical analysis and machine learning algorithms can be used to score students' written responses to open-ended constructed response items to alleviate grading burdens. Specifically, lexical analysis and machine learning techniques can be used produce predictive models that aid with evaluating the quality of students' explanations. Rubrics are an additional tool that can help students and instructors formatively assess written explanations. In this work, a generalized predictive model using machine learning techniques was developed to evaluate students' understanding of acid--base reactions and properties of acids and bases through the correct use of the Lewis acid--base model (Chapter 3). Research on students' understanding of nucleophiles grounded the development of a generalized rubric to evaluate students' level of written explanation sophistication for nucleophiles (Chapter 4). Evaluating instructional practices in chemistry, mathematics, and physics, necessitates multidisciplinary, large-scale studies of the factors that influence teaching pedagogies. Data from a multi-institution, large-scale survey of postsecondary introductory-level chemistry, mathematics, and physics instructors in the United States was used to model two outcomes: percent lecturing (Chapter 5) and stages of research-based instructional strategy adoption (Chapter 6). These outcomes were modeled using multilevel modeling with contextual, personal, and teacher thinking factors as the explanatory variables. Multilevel models produced explanatory models of instructional practices, providing change agents with productive avenues for improving instructors' pedagogies. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The human brain is a byproduct of the natural process of evolution, as is the knowledge it contains. Like other natural resources fit for human consumption, knowledge can be modeled as a physical entity that can be sought after and acquired. In ancient times, knowledge was geographically constrained as a consequence of being a physical entity located inside the mind of an individual or in another physical form that could be transferred. These geographic constraints informed how education processes would evolve to satisfy relevant societal needs. The emergence of telecommunications technology in the second half of the 20th century have persistently eroded the legacy geographic constraints that have limited access to knowledge. The internet allows individual humans to access a seemingly infinite amount of information from nearly everywhere on the planet almost instantaneously. This unprecedented access disrupts legacy barriers to knowledge in the form of financial, cultural, or regulatory restrictions. Education processes optimized when access to knowledge was geographically constrained seem ill-suited for a modern ecosystem with ubiquitous access to global knowledge. Many of the systems used in the global telecommunications network that serve a critical role in modern society have been developed using principles of modern physics. Unfortunately, the pre-college system used to educate the general public for labor force considerations have not yet incorporated modern physics concepts due to the clandestine nature in which early modern physics-based technology was developed. The gap between widespread utilization of these technologies and the lack of sufficient labor force training has created the need for a novel education methodology that can teach certain STEM fundamentals efficiently and effectively. A novel framework for teaching modern physics fundamentals, referred to as Small-To-Big Physics has been developed. This novel framework is a combination of cognitive psychology theories coupled with a novel sequence of scientific theory introduction. The cognitive psychology portion of the framework informs how various scientific theories should be presented to students for the purpose of concept mastery. The scientific theory portion of the framework contains the minimally necessary concepts that will enable students to rapidly assimilate a broad range of STEM concepts in preparation for subsequent STEM careers. The Small-To-Big Physics Framework was developed in various military, private sector engineering, pre-college, and college educational environments. To the maximum extent practicable, cognitive psychology theories were tested in real-world learning scenarios. Where appropriate, empirical guidelines were developed to inform educational methodologies in instances where existing theories were not able to achieve desired outcomes. Experimental curricula developed using the Small-To-Big Physics Framework has been used in elementary and high school classrooms in New York and Connecticut respectively with overwhelmingly positive results. The feedback from those sessions has been useful in developing a long-term validation plan to incorporate Small-To-Big Physics methodologies into the existing education infrastructure. Several options for exploratory scientific research, identified using the Small-To-Big Physics methodology, have also been included for additional consideration. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

It has been well-establishing in the field of educational research that traditional educational methods such as passive lectures and labs where students follow pre-designed procedures to verify information already told to them are not effective for promoting meaningful and lasting conceptual understanding. Alongside this knowledge have come a plethora of research-based instructional strategies, often centering the student as an active participant in their own learning, which have been shown to be significantly more effective than the traditional methods. Despite this, many professors still rely on outdated teaching methods. This dissertation consists of three papers which examine different aspects of institutional change within physics departments, all with the goal of looking at how courses can be reformed. The first paper investigates the results of a partial reform -- a course in which the laboratory component was reformed using the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) approach while the 'lecture' component of the course remained unchanged -- in order to see if some of the benefits of the ISLE-approach remain even when only implemented in this partial way. We found that students did indeed show some improvement, if not as much as has been found with a fully reformed ISLE-based course, over a single semester of this course. This suggests that a partial implementation of the ISLE approach, while not a substitute for a full implementation, may be an easier entryway for instructors wishing to reform their own courses than having to change all aspects of their course at once.The second paper in this dissertation follows four graduate teaching assistants assigned to teach a new ISLE-based lab course as part of the complete reform of the introductory physics program at Rutgers University -- Newark. These graduate teaching assistants had no previous teaching experience, which is typical of the kinds of instructors often assigned to teach introductory lab courses. Despite the lack of prior experience and the pedagogical difficulty of teaching an ISLE-based lab course we found that with regular trainings, observation, and mentoring all four of the graduate teaching assistants demonstrated some level of improvement across their first semester of teaching. In this paper we outline how their instruction changed and what training practices we found to be most effective. The third paper in this dissertation outlines the development of a rubric for measuring student performance on pen-and-paper physics problems. This rubric is meant to be used by students as a means of assessing their own work, by instructors to provide feedback to students, and by researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of a physics course in developing the skills students need to effectively solve these kinds of problems. In addition, we use data collected from our reformed courses at Rutgers University -- Newark to illustrate how this rubric can be used to analyze student performance across a semester of instruction. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Many efforts to reform science educational standards and structure have placed an emphasis on directing learners to communicate about concepts using external representations (ERs). Techniques to develop competencies with ERs often ask learners to develop understanding outside of a physical context while concurrently making connections back to the context--a very challenging task that often results in incomplete learning. This dissertation work is presented in part as a journal article and presents a study that compared the effectiveness of a computer simulation to an augmented reality (AR) simulation for developing magnetic field conceptual and representational knowledge. The AR technology provides a feature called a dynamic overlay that can present ERs in a real-world context. The study was done with six classes of ninth grade physics students and evaluated learning, proficiency of exploration, and intrinsic motivation to engage with the activity and technology. Results from this study show that contrary to expectations, students who used AR performed similarly to students who used the computer simulation conceptual and representational knowledge assessment. However, students who engaged with AR demonstrated worse exploration on average and had lower levels of intrinsic motivation. These outcomes provide evidence to the difficulty of using AR for teaching the ERs of challenging concepts and the complexities of implementing novel technologies into a standard classroom environment. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Different teaching and learning strategies have informed physics educators on addressing the cultural meanings and practices of physics that have sustained homogeneity within university programs. However, literature evidence physics learning environments are under-theorized in dismantling homogeneity and conceptually changes physics student learning for those struggling to learn physics. The purpose of this situational analysis grounded theory study was to explain a theoretical construct of inclusive physics learning environment strategies of eighteen college and university faculty, collected from interview data in a 2017 study. The research question guiding this study was to describe the sociocultural theoretical structure emergent in the inclusive physics learning environment interview data. Situational analysis grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014, Clarke et al, 2018) was used to analyze eighteen semi-structured interviews with university physics educators from multiple institutions and programs. During the analysis, two situated epistemic modes, physics as content and as a sociocultural orientation were found to act as an organizing center of the inclusive physics theoretical framework. Findings suggest that the foundation of the inclusive physics learning environment was that power, defined as the ability to negotiate and reify ideas and norms, functioned dialectically with the physics social world. Meaning, inclusive practices were acquired through the physics social world and were often reflective of an instructor's lived experience. Based on these findings, this study agrees with existing science education and learning science scholarship that questions the lack of a critical approach and an over individualized unit of analysis in sociocultural research regarding diversity and inclusion. The findings of this study go further by revealing the organizing process described as not passive or neutral, but intentionally formational, social, and structural. This study likely serves as a pilot framework for furthering the study of inclusion and physics, and the learning environments which may lead to unseating racialized and gendered physics. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This research was motivated by the lack of diversity in undergraduate and graduate level physics in the United States. The qualitative study explores the experiences of six female students who enrolled in advanced physics at a suburban charter high school in southern California. Three rounds of semi-structured interviews were conducted using the Zoom platform. Interview questions were crafted using an appreciative lens to highlight positive experiences with science, and to help the broader physics teacher community see what strategies are effective in attracting and retaining female physics students. The researcher coded the transcripts and used thematic analysis to identify six emergent themes from the participants' responses. The following six themes identify common factors that influenced these female students' decisions to enroll in advanced physics during their senior year of high school: preparation for college, personal connections with teachers, teachers as mentors, family support of STEM education, inspiration/motivation from peers, and early exposure to STEM. The findings from this study call for physics educators to make a dedicated effort to promote a positive and collaborative culture in and out of the physics classroom, to provide opportunities for female students to form strong peer connections and build their physics identities, and to involve and expose families to the relevance of physics as a field of study. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Teaching science concepts for conceptual understanding has its challenges. Promoting conceptual change in the science classroom can be difficult because most concepts are complicated and counter-intuitive. This dissertation research aimed to determine the effect of teaching for conceptual understanding models on pre-service teachers' conceptual understanding and grade 8 science students in five different countries. The analysis revealed a statistically significant correlation between the conceptual change model and the conceptual understanding of the pre-service teacher participants. The results supported the effectiveness of the conceptual change model, CCM, in addressing misconceptions and promoting conceptual understanding of forces and motion among the pre-service teacher participants that volunteered for this research. The second study investigated the effectiveness of the CCM in addressing pre-service elementary teachers' misconceptions and promoting conceptual understanding of electrostatics. The results showed that the CCM moderately correlated with participants' conceptual understanding of electrostatics. The third study examined the usage of teaching for conceptual understanding practices and its effects on students' science achievement scores across five industrialized countries. TIMSS 2015 and 2019 data were used to investigate eighth-grade science teachers' use of teaching for conceptual understanding practices. However, the statistical analysis showed that teaching for conceptual understanding had a negative effect on students' science achievement in most of the countries used in the study. This research contributes to the literature on the effect of the conceptual change model and teaching for conceptual understanding on learning science concepts. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This quantitative study sought to examine the role of self-efficacy on the enrollment decisions made by women for a second year of high school physics. Not enough information is known about why there is a significant decrease in the proportion of women in second year high school physics programs after their introductory year. This study took place in a suburban Midwestern high school. After screening for outlier data, logistic regression was used to develop three predictive models on enrollment decision. This study showed that only level of self-efficacy due to mastery experiences is a statistically significant predictor of second year high school physics enrollment among both men and women. This result was due solely to the significance mastery experiences plays for women. Based on the results, teachers and scholars could focus more on the number and quality of mastery experience opportunities in the classroom for women in courses like physics and possibly other STEM courses. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Students' motivational beliefs about physics can influence their engagement and performance in physics as well as retention in their majors and careers. Students from underrepresented groups in physics such as women may not have enough encouragement and role models to help them develop strong motivational beliefs in physics. The societal stereotypes and biases in physics may further undermine their motivational beliefs and lead to withdrawal from physics courses or careers. In addition to motivational beliefs, students' academic performance at the end of a physics course is also an important course outcome. Prior studies have shown that factors such as students' prior preparation, quality of teaching, and sociocultural factors can influence students' motivational beliefs and academic performance. However, very few studies have investigated the effect of students' perception of the inclusiveness of the learning environment on their motivational beliefs and academic performance. In this dissertation I address the question of what role is played by students' perception of the inclusiveness of the learning environment and its relationship to gender, motivational beliefs, and academic performance in introductory physics courses. I first investigated the relationship between different motivational beliefs using both quantitative and qualitative methods. I also examined how students' physics motivational beliefs predict their identity in physics-related disciplines such as engineering. Then I analyzed gender differences in students' motivational beliefs and academic performance at the end of introductory physics courses and how different components of perception of the inclusiveness of the learning environment predict these course outcomes. These findings suggest that instructors play an important role in developing a more equitable and inclusive learning environment, in which all students can thrive. Lastly, I discuss my work on the development, validation and in-class implementation of a multiple-choice questions sequence (MQS), which was designed to help advanced undergraduate students improve their understanding of quantum measurement. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The study consisted of three articles. Article one aimed to determine if there were any significant difference in science graduate students' (SGSs') conceptions of the "consensus tenets" of the nature of science (NOS) with respect to demographic factors -- the SGSs' academic and research characteristics. The participants were SGSs from biology, chemistry, geology/environmental science, and physics departments in a mid-western urban university. The first article constituted a NOS instrument of six sections, each with a Likert scale of four statements aligned with the consensus tenets to probe SGSs' conceptions of the NOS. Responses to an open-ended question in each section of the NOS instrument clarified or elucidated their Likert choices. The study used a Kruskal-Wallis test to determine if there were significant differences between SGSs' conceptions of the NOS with respect to their demographics. The Mann-Whitney U was used post hoc to assess the strength of any significant differences. Because only 21 students participated, the study clustered the demographics into categories to provide the minimum sample size for the statistical analysis. A few demographic categories showed any relationship to the SUSSI score levels. Among those was the Chemistry-Physics cluster, which overall scored higher on the SUSSI than the Biology cluster (p=0.020). The Chemistry-Physics cluster also scored higher than Biology on two sections of the SUSSI, section SUSSI 2, social and cultural influences on scientific research (p=0.048), and section SUSSI 5, the use of creativity and imagination in scientific research (p=0.018). Since the overall sample size of the study population was small, no generalizations were possible about the relationship of any demographic categories to the level of the SGSs' NOS understandings. Article two aimed to categorize and describe the SGSs' conceptions of the nature of science. Thirteen to 15 students completed all or most of the open-ended response portion of a NOS instrument consisting of six sections, equivalent to the consensus tenets of NOS. Students clarified, expounded on, and provided examples based on their Likert-scale responses. Students' responses varied, from brief phrases to several paragraphs of deep, nuanced thought supported by examples. These responses constituted a phenomenography with frequencies and percentages for each consensus tenet. Frequencies for some NOS tenets may exceed one if students' statements were placed in more than one category. NOS Tenet 1: Differences in observations and inferences reveals (n=13) four categories of conceptions: Individual differences (n=6; 0.46), Scientific lens (n=3; 0.23), A priori bias (n=3; 0.23), and human error (n=1; 0.07). NOS Tenet 2: The effect of society and culture on scientific research reveals (n=15) five categories: Public interest, needs, and funding (n=6; 0.40), cultural institutions--governments and religion (n=5; 0.33); academic (n=4; 0.27) and corporate cultures (n=2; 0.13), and no effect (n=1; 0.07). NOS Tenet 3: Change in scientific theories (n=15) revealed four categories of description: New information and evidence (n=8; 0.53), new technology (n=4; 0.27), critical reviews n=(2; 0.13), and new models (n=1; 0.07). NOS Tenet 4: The relationship between scientific theories and laws (n=13) revealed four descriptive categories: Theory becomes law (n=5; 0.38), theory explains law (n=3; 0.23), theory and law differ (n=3; 0.23), and theory constitutes less evidence (n=2; 0.15). NOS Tenet 5: The role of creativity and imagination in scientific research (n=14) revealed two descriptive categories: Integral to research (n=13; 0.93) and inapplicable to some research (n=4; 0.29). NOS Tenet 6: Scientists' adherence to the scientific method (n=12) revealed three descriptive categories: A guideline (n=6; 050), inapplicable for all research (n=4; 0.33), and applicable for all research (n=2; 0.17). The SGSs demonstrated a complex understanding of NOS closely tied to their lived experiences with science, particularly their research. Implications apply to research, SGS education, undergraduate science education, and university policy and practice. The study points to phenomenography as a way to develop descriptive categories from the open-ended questions in SUSSI, a quantitative instrument. Future researchers may use this research as a springboard to conduct individual interview studies with SGSs whose conceptions involve in-depth exploration through dialogue between a researcher and student. The descriptive categories can serve as the curriculum frameworks in graduate and undergraduate science education, as some phenomenographers advocate and practice in secondary science education. This research speaks to the science faculty so departments can take steps to nurture graduate students through coursework in NOS and research experience because often, they become teaching assistants to undergraduates who might eventually become scientists and science teachers. The science departments should support graduate student research by upholding NOS and should not ignore NOS in their teaching responsibilities. The study promises engaging postsecondary students in research experience throughout their university years can improve their understanding of NOS. This study suggests that the university policy and practice grant time and funding for faculty and graduate students engage in NOS professional development and additional growth opportunities. If improved NOS understanding is indeed an educational and societal goal, investment in support measures is critical to that success. Article three aimed to narrate stories of SGSs' lived experiences in science using hermeneutic phenomenology as a methodology. Stories were developed by interpreting verbatim transcripts of in-depth individual interview data from four SGSs in an urban mid-western research university. The interpretation and representation of stories underpin the philosophical principles of hermeneutic phenomenological literature. Harper's spotlight sheds rays on 11 science spaces in his scientific story, which unfolds with evidentiary support. On Science Connection, Harper's work in genetics gives him a specific scientific lens through which he views scientific research, that is, seeing the world through a scientific lens. Harper's Science Orientation points to the following: people lacking meaning for "science," placing problem-solving at the root of science, explaining science is an evolving process -- always moving forward, connecting science to everything, critiquing the culture of research science involves ethics and trust, and comparing science to other fields depends on what counts as endpoints. Science Education, for Harper, is learning from mistakes is noble, defining educator responsibility, and using a project-based learning assessment. Ellis' spotlight sheds rays on ten science spaces as her scientific story unfolds with evidentiary support. Concerning Science Connection, Ellis is finding one's place in science. Ellis is looking through a geology lens concerning Science Orientation, which is as follows: seeing the bigger picture, comparing science and engineering perspectives, understanding uncertainty in science is typical, valuing quantitative and qualitative data, validating a new technique gives credibility and transportability, fostering trust -- replicating and agreeing is crucial within science, and playing by the rules of science. To Ellis, Science Education is living in the science circle, which involves answering questions. Sydney's spotlight sheds rays on ten science spaces. Considering Science Connection, Sydney connects his perceptions of science to the change in his career focus and his subsequent research experience at the undergraduate level inspired by his biology professor. Sydney's science orientation points to the following aspects: driving science grounds curiosity and interest, investigating science using research questions and methods, updating science with new data, finding patterns that determine different scientific perspectives, valuing no or negative scientific results, staying motivated in research, and returning to the science "drawing board," and making decisions using science as valuable. Sydney's passion for Science Education is getting excited and sharing science with his students. Avery's spotlight sheds rays on eight science spaces as her scientific story unfolds with evidentiary support. Concerning Science Connection, Avery used scientific data for answering the known in industry regulatory work. Avery's switch to graduate school enables searching for the unknown in academic ecology fieldwork. Avery's science orientation points to the following notions: Seeing the world differently, digging deep, and seeing what one expects to see. Science Education, according to Avery, is profiling dispositions and motivations in science, describing science to students and answering questions and explaining research parameters as scientific, and relating science and society. The third article spotlights SGSs' sensibilities of science and their implications for course development on the nature of science to graduate students and policy mandates. The study also argues that crafted stories are an acceptable and trustworthy methodological device that offers alternative possibilities to conventional ways of seeing qualitative data. The stories provide glimpses of graduate students' scientific development phenomenon that other forms of data analysis and presentation may leave latent. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Undergraduate physics laboratory curriculum has undergone significant modification in recent decades in response to research and recommendations from educational and professional organizations and stakeholders. These reforms address multiple issues, such as 1) lack of student agency in experimentation, 2) an incomplete framework for student experimental activity that does not prepare students for future scientific research, and 3) limited opportunities for students to engage in rich and complex sensemaking practices. Pedagogically, this dissertation introduces a new pedagogical framework, the Introductory Physics Labs for Life Sciences (IPL[superscript 2]S), that accounts for each of these pedagogical issues by engaging students in autonomous, student-driven experiments to investigate physical properties of biological phenomena. The "IPL[superscript 2]S" course sequence integrates research-based best practices from the Physics Education Research (PER) and Introductory Physics for Life Sciences (IPLS) communities as well as the Three-Dimensional Learning (3DL) framework from K-12 science education. Empirically, this dissertation investigates how this pedagogical framework 1) enacts epistemological shifts in students' perceptions of experimental agency in laboratory courses, 2) engages students in authentic laboratory experimentation that meets current recommendations for experimentation, and 3) engages students in dynamic and autonomous sensemaking during experimentation. I present cumulative course-wide results and case study analyses showing 1) that students in this lab environment engage in experimental activity that closely aligns with recommendations for experimental best practices, 2) how students individually and collectively frame opportunities to enact experimental agency, how this framing is negotiated among peers, and how students' interactions with the pedagogical structure impact their framing, and 3) that students engage in multiple forms of sensemaking related to various components of their experimentation. Results show that students in this learning environment can engage in rich and dynamic experimental activity synonymous with recommendations, take advantage of opportunities to act agentically in physics laboratory contexts to conduct authentic experiments, and engage in rigorous sensemaking about complex scientific phenomena using multiple reasoning processes. Concurrently, these results push the boundaries of empirical research in physics laboratory contexts, providing new understanding of how students engage in authentic experimentation, navigate autonomous experimental environments, and make sense of complex scientific phenomena using empirical evidence. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Students come to their high school physics classroom with experiences and knowledge that can be used to help explain physics concepts, but those experiences may not fully align with the scientifically accepted science concept. When there is a misalignment between a student's prior knowledge and the scientifically accepted concept a misconception can occur. Conceptual change theory explains that before a student shifts their prior understanding, they must be dissatisfied with their prior knowledge. The process of being dissatisfied with their prior knowledge requires the student to evaluate their current conception by engaging in metacognition. The purpose of this mixed methods study is to better understand how seven high school physics students use cognition, metacognition, and dissatisfaction while solving physics problems to address misconceptions and prompt conceptual change. Data collection included quantitative and qualitative measures of metacognition. The Physics Metacognitive Inventory (PMI) was used to measure participants' reported use of physics metacognitive problem solving strategies. A think aloud protocol was used to document participants' cognition and metacognition while solving physics problems. Analysis included descriptive statistics of the PMI, coding of the think aloud, a joint display comparing quantitative and qualitative analysis, a similarity matrix heatmap displaying the overlay of physics problem solving steps and metacognition processes, and a case for each participant. Results found that each participant had their own problem solving style and way of engaging with cognition, metacognition, and dissatisfaction while solving the problems. Overall, participants were most likely to engage in metacognition during the planning phase of problem solving with comprehension monitoring being the most used metacognitive process. Participants were categorized in two ways. First, they were categorized as conceptual, computational, or hybrid based on what type of physics knowledge they relied on while solving the problems. Second as either an arrow or iterator based on how they moved through the problems. There were two types of dissatisfaction statements shared in the seven think aloud interviews, internal dissatisfaction and external dissatisfaction. Each of the seven participants expressed at least one statement of dissatisfaction during their think aloud interview. Participants were most likely to be in the planning phase of problem solving prior to and immediately following their statement of dissatisfaction, specifically choosing a concept or equations. Emergent themes from the think aloud address how participants used (a) teacher influence and expectations, (b) problems as assessments, and (c) common sense and logic as part of their cognition and metacognition while solving physics problems. Implications and future research will be discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The effect of class size on student learning has numerous policy implications and has been a major subject of conversation and research for decades. Despite this, few studies have been done on class size in the context of university settings or physics courses. This dissertation helps address that gap in the literature by quantitatively analyzing the effect of class size on students' understanding of physics concepts in active-learning based introductory physics courses for bioscience majors at a large, R1 university. In the process, this dissertation also discusses the reasoning and methods behind three-level basic Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM), which is a particular form of statistical regression, along with analyzing the effects of several additional, non-class-size related, student and class-level characteristics on student understanding of physics concepts. In this study, a student taking a given course is part of a section which is itself part of a larger Lecture. It was found that Grades, which were used as a proxy for students' understanding of physics, varied a lot between individual students and also between Lectures, but varied relatively little between different sections within the same Lecture. Furthermore, these Grades were affected substantially by the student-level factors which were part of this study, including academic factors like GPA and repeating a course, as well as demographic factors like race and ethnicity. These Grades were also impacted greatly by Lecture-level factors that were part of this study, like academic term and Lecture instructor. However, these Grades were not consistently impacted by any of the section-level factors that were part of this study, including start times and mean GPA. On class size specifically, within the ranges studied here, class size did not have much of an effect on Grades in the courses that were part of this study. There were some signs that larger Lecture sizes lead to lower Grades, but there was not enough evidence to be definitive, and there were no consistent trends in the impact that section size had on Grades. However, the relatively low variation in Grades between sections, together with a variety of other questions, issues, and limitations, means that this study is certainly not the end of the story. In particular, there are still open questions around the nature and meaning of Grades, as well as how class size and other student and class-level characteristics impact non-Grade related aspects of student, as well as teacher, well-being and success. There is still much work to be done and plenty of discussions to be had, both theoretically and empirically, when it comes to the types of courses that were part of this study and the factors that affect student understanding of the material covered by these courses. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Measurement errors attributable to cultural issues are complex and challenging for educational assessments. We need assessment tests sensitive to the cultural heterogeneity of populations, and psychometric methods appropriate to address fairness and equity concerns. Built on the research of culturally responsive assessment, this dissertation explores the conceptual, analytical, and methodological aspects of culturally responsive and equitable testing. To that end, three coordinated studies were conducted to gather validity evidence based on cultural characteristics of contextualized items, students, and multigroup fairness from empirical and simulated datasets. The first study contributed to the understanding of culturally valid and equitable contextualized items, by implementing a coding rubric of item contexts followed by an illustrative analysis of science assessment items. The rubric of fifteen attributes was developed to represent context domains of cultural equity, context representation, and knowledge construction. The mixed methods, including item response theory, clustering profiles, and discourse analysis were conducted to explore context codes and student responses, along with qualitative analysis of item contexts. The results found various associations of contextual characteristics such as cultural bias, linguistic bias, and others with item difficulty and differential item functioning (DIF) parameters. The second study implemented a Bayesian hierarchical explanatory item response model on a physics contextualized assessment. It examined the statistical relationships between the sociocognitive and sociocultural aspects of item contexts and student performance. Context features were systematically and iteratively coded, modified, and analyzed based on their feature importance. Results showed the statistical associations of context codes, including sociolinguistic familiarity, length of context, cognitive demand, and sociocultural bias on students' success probability given their latent proficiency. Conditional context effects accounting for students' racial backgrounds were also discussed. The third study considered context features as item attributes in general and explored the methodological issues of DIF in cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing (CD-CAT) through a simulation study. Results revealed the performance of uniform and nonuniform DIF detection using different item selection algorithms, DIF-contaminated banks, and other various simulated conditions of the CD-CAT. Classification accuracy, exposure rate, and overlap rate were also explored. In summary, this dissertation demonstrated the significance and relevance of fair, culturally valid, responsive, individualized, and adaptive items and algorithms in educational measurement and testing. Practical and methodological implications were discussed for test and item development, validity, science knowledge, and fairness. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study investigated the factors influencing students' performance in science subjects at different schools in a school district in the midland area of South Carolina. For the convenience of the study and to maintain confidentiality, the school district is named Midland School District 2022. The population of this study included students in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology courses. The study used students' data who graduated in 2018. Students' names and data information were not revealed in any part of the study. The study examined students' science scores considering gender, race, and socio-economic status. The study's findings showed that students' performance in science subjects differs significantly with race, gender, and socioeconomic status. The performance of Caucasian students was found to be higher than Afro-American students in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. The performances of Chemistry and Biology related to socio-economic background were found to be statistically significant but not in Physics. Regarding gender, the study showed that boys performed better than girls in Chemistry and Biology. The researcher offered a critical suggestion based on the findings from the data. The study also communicated about associated factors and status components that must be explored to develop effective interventions that reduce the disparities in science achievement. The researcher recommended further research to address the issues related to the underperformance of science subjects in schools around midland areas of South Carolina. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]