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Several theorists have proposed that attachment theory provides a good grounding for the understanding of the development of Personality Disorders (PD). As a result many studies have now used adult attachment measures with this clinical group. The relevance of attachment theory to the development of psychopathology and more specifically of personality pathology has been outlined and the main findings from the research to-date reviewed. The most consistent finding in the literature is the association between Personality Disorder diagnosis and insecure attachment types. Most research has focused on Borderline PD (BPD). Early studies show an association between preoccupied and fearfully preoccupied attachment types and BPD. High rates of lack of resolution with respect to trauma are also seen in Adult Attachment Interviews (AAI). However, the results of more recent research are less conclusive and suggest that sub-types within the BPD diagnosis may be associated with different attachment styles. There is less research on other Personality Disorders, and much of this looks across categories rather than at specific Personality Disorders. However, there is some evidence to suggest that Personality Disorders might be divisible along dimensions of attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety. The range of different attachment measures used in studies makes comparison across studies difficult and the classification of AAI interviews as 'cannot classify' is over- represented in this population. Difficulties in administration of interview based methods and inconsistencies in findings across studies have led to the concern that assessment methods designed for use with normative samples may have reduced reliability and validity with Personality Disorder samples. It is proposed that future research focuses on the development of measures of attachment that draw on specific constructs relevant to attachment in Personality Disordered populations. 1.0 Introduction Literature on attachment theory and Personality Disorder was found by conducting literature searches using the Psychinfo and Medline data bases. The search terms used were: attachment and personality, Personality Disorder or specific Personality Disorders such as Borderline. Additional papers were found in the reference sections of key studies reviewed. All papers that had used either interview or self-report adult attachment measures with either Personality Disordered clinical participants or with Personality Disorder features in non-clinical samples were included. Papers that were excluded included papers that considered clinical symptoms associated with personality functioning such as sex offending or spousal abuse, but not Personality Disorder specifically. 2.0 Attachment theory The origins of attachment theory come from the joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Bretherton, 2000). Bowlby proposed that all organisms display a range of instinctive behaviours that in more complex organisms may be goal-directed and organised into complex plan hierarchies. The functions of these 'behavioural systems' are to promote survival and procreation (Bretherton, 2000). Bowlby viewed atachment as an innate behavioural system that is responsive to environmental demands. He defined attachment behaviour as that which has the intended outcome of promoting the infant's proximity to the attachment figure and therefore has the evolutionary function of protecting the child from danger (Bretherton, 2000). Throughout the course of infancy these behaviours become focused on the primary caregivers who are the most responsive to the child's needs. By the time the child is able to move around and explore its environment the infant is able to use the attachment figure as a 'secure-base' from which to explore and to return to for protection or comfort (Ainsworth, 1967). From these early attachment relationships in infancy it is hypothesised that the young child comes to construct internalised or mental working models (IWMs) of the interaction patterns that they have experienced with principal attachment figures (Bretherton & Munholland, 1999). These internal working models are 'operable' models of the self and attachment partner formed on the basis of experience and serve to regulate, interpret and predict the attachment figure's and the self's attachment related behaviour, thoughts and feelings (Bretherton & Mulholland, 1999). From this theoretical perspective Ainsworth (1978) devised a classification system to measure attachment patterns in young toddlers (12-20 months of age). This is a laboratory based procedure designed to capture the balance of exploratory and attachment behaviours under conditions of gradually increasing stress (Solomon, George, 1999). The procedure involves two periods of brief separation. During these separations and subsequent reunions with the attachment figure the infant is coded into one of four categories, securely attached (B), Anxious: Avoidant (A), Anxious: Ambivalent/resistant (C), and Disorganised/Disorientated (D).

The Early Bronze Age Aegean (hereafter EBA) is a period for which direct evidence for large-scale sailing ventures is limited. However, cultural, social and economic developments seem to occur between areas separated by the Aegean Sea. The aim of this thesis is to address the question: To what extent can interconnections be identified with the Cyclades in the EBA Aegean through the burial record? Burials are a good measure of interaction because unlike artefacts they represent social processes deeply embedded in systems of social order, cultural meaning and daily habituation. This is important as settlement evidence and domestic assemblages are often unavailable for the EBA period. Burial practices all imply direct experience, contact and extended interaction in a way that cannot be so easily presumed for other, more portable forms, for example, material culture. These elements are enduring and cannot be traded and so provide a good source for determining interconnections in the EBA period. Cemetery evidence will be presented from the Cyclades, Crete and mainland Greece, organised by three main themes of grave architecture, burial and the treatment of the dead and ritual practices. The evidence from these three core geographical areas suggests that interconnections were clearly established through the spread of Cycladic burial customs in addition to the known evidence for trade in material culture. In particular Cycladic influence in burial intentionally provokes ideas of memory, identity, visibility, performance and destruction. The burial practices highlighting periods of sustained co-presence between people from the Cyclades and elsewhere in the Aegean. These practices are indicative of high levels of mobility that involved extended stays away from the Cycladic islands. For some this journey would be their final one resulting ultimately in burial in a location away from home. The ritual practices carried out within the burial arena are only reproduced by individuals who see these elements as their own thereby unequivocally demonstrating clear evidence for Cycladic interconnections in the EBA.

This thesis investigates lifeways of medieval Christian communities from Portmahomack, Northeast Scotland and Norton Priory, Northwest England, to ascertain the extent to which skeletal indicators of diet, disease or trauma reflect religious or social influences. Osteology and palaeopathology methods on human adult and sub-adult skeletons from Portmahomack (6th to 17th century) and Norton Priory (12th to 16th century) was undertaken to provide evidence relating to the four key themes proposed in this study: ‘biological or familial affinity’, ‘the living environment’, ‘trauma and conflict’, and ‘diet and nutrition-related stresses’. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen from adult humans from Portmahomack (including and a sub-sample of sub-adults) and Norton Priory were measured for dietary reconstructions. Faunal bone collagen was also analysed from Portmahomack and Norton Priory (plus a selection of fish bones from Chester Cathedral) to provide isotopic baselines to reconstruct human diets. The results suggest past lifeways of Christian communities from Portmahomack and Norton Priory can indeed be successfully reconstructed through bioarchaeology. The evidence from this study has found that skeletal traits, alongside burial evidence, can elucidate familial affinities, especially from Norton Priory, and that differences in cultural and religious practices are reflected within the living environment of ecclesiastic and lay groups. Evidence of violence, reflecting interpersonal conflict and vulnerability was found from both Portmahomack and Norton Priory, which was inconsistent with the role of ecclesiastic and lay communities that were expected to follow strict Christian doctrines. Stable isotope data revealed a diachronic change in diet at Portmahomack; no fish were consumed during the monastic period, whereas significant amounts were consumed by layfolk in the later periods, suggesting Christian dietary practices changed over time. The isotope data from Norton Priory reflected a more homogeneous diet that did not change greatly over time, suggesting conformity to the same fasting practices. Overall, this study has demonstrated that adopting a multidisciplinary bioarchaeological approach, integrating skeletal, chemical, archaeological, and historical evidence, results in a powerful research tool that enables reconstructions of medieval Christian lifeways and interpretations of religious and social influences therein.