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More than 24,000 members of the Professional Golfers Association (PGA) of America play important roles as business leaders in the golf industry. These PGA professionals occupy key managerial positions at private and public golf clubs, which are the core of the golf industry. However, because scholars have not considered them to be leaders we lack leadership studies about their role in the industry. To fill this gap, this study used Kouzes and Posner (2007) five leadership behaviors – modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, encouraging the heart – to explore PGA professionals’ leadership engagements at golf clubs. To examine whether there were differences in the five leadership behaviors between different types of golf clubs (private versus public golf clubs) and different types of job positions (i.e., general manager, director of golf, head golf professional, and assistant golf professional), a Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) was performed. Demographic characteristics such as gender, ethnicity, educational level, age, and employment status were controlled as covariates because these factors influenced the five leadership behaviors (Kouzes & Posner 1987, 2007; Posner & Kouzes, 1993; Posner, 2014, 2015). 144 PGA professionals from 19 out of 41 PGA sections in the United States participated in the survey.The study’s results showed that between the different types of golf clubs there was no difference in engaging the five leadership behaviors, even though organizational characteristics would differ in the two contexts (Brymer & Johanson, 2011). I assumed that the high level of homogeneity of PGA professionals was the source for this lack of difference. The majority of PGA professionals are Caucasian Males, and for the most part they follow the same educational path in their careers. In previous leadership studies, these factors (i.e., ethnicity, gender, and educational background) had an influence on differences in the five leadership behaviors (Kouzes & Posner, 1988; Posner, 2014, 2015). On the other hand, there were significant differences in engaging the five leadership behaviors across different job positions. Specifically, PGA directors of golf more frequently engaged in modeling the way than PGA assistant golf professionals. I assumed that age and work experience caused this difference. Older professionals were more engaged in leadership behaviors due to a legacy belief that motivated them to serve as good role models for the next generation (Zacher, Rosing, & Frese, 2011). Typically, PGA directors of golf are older and possess more work experience than PGA assistant golf professionals. In conclusion, in their organizations PGA professionals frequently engage in the five leadership behaviors. They are the industrial leaders. However, to be more effective leaders that can build a strong relationship with subordinates and make a difference with them, PGA professionals should keep practicing leadership behaviors because leadership is a thing we can practice. Practice takes time, but anyone can be more effective leader. Leaders are made not born!

Increasing global competition has led many business leaders to implement Lean methodologies to drive operational improvement and deliver increased customer satisfaction. However, not all business leaders have been successful in sustaining Lean implementation with the majority failing within the first three years. In addition, the challenge related to implementing Lean in multi-national companies is exacerbated by the cultural differences associated with the various business units involved. Recent research has suggested that business leaders who have sustained their Lean implementations have utilized specific behaviors to do so. Therefore, this study explored how leaders of multi-national companies utilized specific behaviors to sustain the implementation of Lean methodologies. Research for this study utilized case study methodology to investigate how three multi-national companies have sustained Lean implementation for more than three years. This approach consisted of open-ended interviews with leaders, on-site observations, and document reviews to develop a rich base of data for analysis. The findings of this study explain how leaders sustained the implementation of Lean. Also, the associated discussion explores the implications of these findings for the contemporary Lean leader and offers recommendations for future research and application. The intent of the recommendations is to contribute to the improvement of the rate at which Lean implementations are sustained.

The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify and compare differences in leadership behaviors of senior student affairs officers (SSAOs) based on their generational cohort (Baby Boomer, Generation X, Millennial). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was used to measure nine leadership behaviors and three leadership outcomes. Surveys were administered electronically to 3,361 individuals identified as a chief student affairs officer or director of student affairs in the Higher Education Online Directory (2014). The 449 respondents included 246 Baby Boomers, 192 Generation Xers, and 11 Millennials. Due to an uneven sample size, the Millennial group was removed from the data analysis. The total respondents consisted of 215 male and 219 female SSAOs with 260 employed at four-year private institutions and 170 employed at four-year public institutions. A MANOVA was utilized to determine whether or not statistical differences existed between the nine dependent variables (leadership behaviors) and independent group variables (generational group). The findings showed that whereas Generation X SSAOs exhibited more transactional leadership behaviors, Baby Boomer SSAOs were more transformational. The results of this study have implications for the field of student affairs in that research and practice support the need for more transformational leaders in senior administrative positions in higher education. If Generation X SSAOs who represent the next generation of administrators are more transactional in their leadership, college presidents and professional associations may need to develop a new, more transformational generation of SSAOs to replace Baby Boomers as they retire.

This study examined differences in ministerial students’ leadership description, emotional intelligence, self-reported levels of satisfaction, and whether or not a participant experienced a forced resignation or termination (i.e., vocational status). Using a cross-sectional, non-experimental design, 110 Doctor of Ministry students at an evangelical seminary in the southeastern United States responded to the survey. Statistically, data was analyzed using ANCOVAs, Bonferroni corrections, and t-tests. Due to the sample’s small N=110, most comparative analyses showed no significant differences among groups. As a result, the present findings do not allow for definitive conclusions or inferences regarding differences in participants’ leadership description, emotional intelligence, satisfaction profile, and vocational status.

Hospitals are challenged to understand factors related to staff nurse retention in the context of the nursing shortage slowdown (Huselid, 1995; Mancino, 2008; Mancino, 2009). Leadership is a major factor in organizational success (Gandossy & Guarnieri, 2008; Gettler, 2003; Wooten & Crane, 2003) and nurse managers are the direct link between the executive nurse leaders and the registered nurses (RN) in the staff position (Taunton, Boyle, Woods, Hansen, & Bott, 1997). Studies show that nurse manager leader behaviors influence staff nurse job satisfaction (Blegen, 1993; Irvine & Evans, 1995; Lashinger & Finegan, 2005). A primary role of the nurse leader is to plan strategies for recruiting nursing personnel and to prevent rapid and frequent turnover of nursing staff (American Nurses Association [ANA] Nursing Administration Scope and Standards of Practice, 2009). Nurse managers are in a position to influence staff nurses' job satisfaction and retention through their leader behaviors. McGuire and Kennerly (2006) and Brown and Reilly (2009) conducted studies that show managers perceive their leadership behaviors different than those who reported to them. Bass and Avolio (2004) pointed out that leadership is in the 'eye of the beholder' and the leadership behavior ratings represented the people's perceptions of leaders (p. 9). Understanding the staff nurse perception of their nurse manager leadership behaviors that are related to staff nurse job satisfaction will contribute to improving staff nurse retention strategies. The Magnet Recognition program is one approach to improving staff nurse job satisfaction and retention. The Magnet Recognition program (Magnet) considers that the nurse leaders are the key to nursing excellence (American Nurses Credentialing Center [ANCC], n.d.). The sample population for this study was staff nurses in an acute care hospital applying for Magnet Recognition status. The purpose of this correlational research study was to describe the relationship between the staff nurse perception of their nurse manager leadership behaviors associated with both the facets of staff nurse job satisfaction (job satisfaction with: work on present job, pay, promotion, supervision, and co-workers) and staff nurse overall job satisfaction and the relationship between the facets of staff nurse job satisfaction and staff nurse overall job satisfaction in an acute care hospital applying for Magnet Recognition status (Magnet status). The intent to depart is conceptually and empirically shown to be a direct antecedent to actual turnover. Overall job satisfaction and turnover are inversely related. Brodke et al. (2009) reported overall job satisfaction was the best predictor of intent to quit. Many studies examined facets of staff nurse job satisfaction but the researcher identified that few if any studies examined nurse manager leadership behaviors related to facets of staff nurse job satisfaction and staff nurse overall job satisfaction in a hospital in the process of applying for Magnet status.

This study examines gender differences in leadership style and the influence of these differences on perceived leader effectiveness in higher education. Leadership style is defined in gendered terms, which include traditionally agentic styles for men and communal styles for women, and therefore transformational and transactional leadership styles are closely examined. Data were gathered from a two-stage national survey of college presidents and their senior-level leaders, faculty, and administrators from over 200 postsecondary institutions in the United States to analyze these differences in leadership style and leader effectiveness. Multiple block regression analyses demonstrate that gender has a mild correlation with perceived effectiveness, with female presidents being slightly more likely to be perceived as effective leaders. In addition, transformational leadership, which is often connected with communal leadership behaviors, is highly correlated with leader effectiveness. These findings are consistent with the literature in that transformational leaders that exert communal and relational leadership behaviors are usually viewed as more effective leaders than their transactional counterparts that enact agentic behaviors. Finally, institutional context also has a strong relationship with perceived effectiveness for both leaders and subordinates. The research results have implications for transformational leadership training, mentoring, fostering female leadership, and improving institutional context.

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Using a concurrent mixed method design, this study examined if there was a relationship between the education of nurses and their use of leadership behaviors. A purposive criterion sampling of 7 expert nurse managers from 7 different hospitals in Northwest Ohio was selected for the qualitative strand. Using a semi-structured questionnaire each of the 7 nurse managers was asked to identify behaviors they wanted in their leaders and behaviors they wanted in their staff nurses. Data analysis showed behaviors they wanted in their staff nurses including interpersonal skills, communication, compassion and caring, independent decision-making and critical thinking were similar to those they wanted in leaders. Purposive criterion sampling of 145 new graduate nurses who worked in medical surgical units completed the 40-item Self Assessment Leadership Instrument measuring leadership behaviors on a Likert scale of 0 to 4. A MSN and a PhD nurse ranked each leadership item for complexity. A t-test analysis showed no significant difference in the means of self-reported leadership behaviors by ADN nurses and BSN nurses, however, analysis of the percentage of nurses that reported doing each item more than half the time showed that BSN nurses reported using more complex items than ADN nurses. A second t-test analysis measuring past hospital work experience showed there was no significant difference in the number of leadership behaviors used and the amount of past hospital work experience the nurse had. The leadership behaviors identified by the 7 nurse managers were used to categorize the leadership items on the instrument. Analysis of this data showed that both ADN nurses and BSN nurses used the category compassion and caring the most often and the category of communication the least often. Further analysis of the data showed that BSN nurses reported using more items in the category of critical thinking than ADN nurses. While all nurses use leadership behaviors, communication is not one that is being used often and should be integrated more into the curriculum. Education of nurses does appear to have a positive effect on critical thinking, therefore differentiated practice should be considered for implementation in the hospitals.

This qualitative study examined the behavior of middle school principals as well as the various leadership behaviors and procedures that middle school principals utilize on a daily basis. A review of literature was completed concerning the areas of middle schools, middle school principals, and the history of leadership. The research question for the study was, What are the lived experiences of middle school principals in Richmond County, Georgia? The research design for the study was quantitative. Semi-structured interviews were completed. The data were disaggregated according to themes and patterns. The population for the study consisted of nine middle school principals in Richmond County, Georgia. After data collection, the researcher found nine common themes. Each of these themes was discussed in terms of supporting or not supporting the review of literature. The majority of the findings of the study supported the findings of previous studies as outlined in the review of literature. A major contradiction in the findings was the fact that none of the principals in the study felt a need for more professional development concerning the middle school principalship and community involvement. Additionally, none of the principals in the study saw paperwork, lack of staff, funding, space, facilities, and planning time for teachers as obstacles.

The purpose of this study was to determine the odds of school organization features predicting schools meeting district or state performance goals. The school organization features were organizational complexity, shared decision making, and leadership behavior. The dependent variable was school performance, operationally defined as a principal's yes response or no response to the question, "did your school meet district or state performance goals." The independent variables representing organizational complexity were school size, diversity of role, span of control. The independent variables representing shared decision making were curriculum influence, policy influence, and professional development influence. The leadership behavior feature was a composite variable. The percent of school lunch was the covariate, as determined by the percentage of students receiving free lunch and reduced price lunch. The sample for this study was taken from the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Surveys (SASS) Public-Use Data (NCES: 2004-372) collected by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). The sample consisted of 5,312 public schools and 5,312 public school principals. Data from the SASS Public School Questionnaire and the SASS Public School Principal Questionnaire were used for the data analysis. The methods of data analysis consisted of the identification of indicator variables from SASS, the development of scales, and the fitting of a parsimonious logistic regression model. A principal components analysis was used to extract patterns of association among the indicator variables, shared decision making and leadership behavior. The logistic regression analysis revealed that the best model for predicting the odds of whether schools would meet district or state performance goals consisted of the variables curriculum influence, policy influence, professional development influence, size, diversity of role, span of control, and the covariate, percent of free lunch. The significant variables were curriculum influence, policy influence, professional development influence, and span of control. The odds of school organization features predicting whether schools would meet performance goals was estimated to be .7243, which was less than one or less than chance. There were several limitations of this study that need to be considered when interpreting the results.

This exploration of the personal constructs of principals was intended to reveal the transparent templates they create and attempt to fit over the realities of their world. This study sought to go beyond externally imposed descriptions of the leadership behavior of principals by exploring their personal constructs to discover the meaning that principals ascribe to their leadership behavior in anticipation and interpretation of events. Kelly's (1955) personal construct theory provided the conceptual framework for this study. The research questions were addressed through qualitative inquiry. Data were collected in a process that began with full context elicitation, laddering, and triadic analysis, and proceeded to full grid quantitative analysis. Findings from this study may increase the awareness level in the professional community of the meaning that principals ascribe to their leadership behavior. It was recommended that results from this study lead to the development of a process that can be implemented in principal leadership preparation and professional development programs to develop more self-aware, productive, and effective principals (Petri, Lindauer, & Tountasakis, 2000).

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The relationship between perceived leader behavior and work group behavior was examined. Archival survey data was used in the analyses. The company that developed the survey randomly selected 595 employees to complete the survey. Results suggest there is a strong and significant relationship between leader and subordinate behavior. Group members who report that their leader demonstrates a particular behavior also report that their work group demonstrates the same or similar behavior, suggesting that subordinates may be modeling the behavior of their leader. Leadership behaviors related to trust, availability, respect, conflict, and support seem to be the best predictors of work group behavior. Furthermore, whether or not group members have received team training appears to have an effect on their perceptions of their leader and work group. The challenge for leaders is to understand modeling principles so that they can facilitate the modeling of functional rather than dysfunctional behaviors.

This study is designed to explore a three dimensional Chinese leadership behavior model - Initiation, Consideration, and Guanxi. The Initiation-Consideration model has dominated leadership behavior research in Western literature (e.g., Yukl 1994), whereas this study recognizes that Guanxi behavior is an important concept in Chinese values and that it should be employed to develop a model of Chinese leadership behavior. This study also examines whether Guanxi is the most frequently exhibited leadership behavior, as perceived by Chinese employees, and how this type of leadership behavior, along with Initiation and Consideration, contributes to leadership effectiveness within the Chinese culture.Data is collected from 166 subordinates at 15 KFC restaurants in Beijing. The empirical data collected demonstrates that Initiation, Consideration, and Guanxi are not distinctive leadership behaviors. Instead, they are highly correlated with each other. Other main findings related to the study's hypotheses are: 1) among Initiation, Consideration, and Guanxi, Initiation is the most frequently used leadership behavior, as perceived by subordinates at those restaurants; and 2) subordinates perceive that all these three forms of leadership behavior are positively related to leadership effectiveness. However, this thesis does not have enough confidence to make any conclusion based on the above findings because of the sample's response bias and a multicollinearity problem in the empirical data.

The objectives of this study were to record the history of the college and to describe and interpret the leadership behavior of various people in the college in order to determine where the leadership, power, and authority resided at various times throughout the history; record and interpret the marker events that punctuated the birth, growth, and development of the college during its 50-year history; analyze the interrelationship of marker events and leadership behavior in the growth and development of the college; and, describe the distinguishing characteristics that make MiraCosta College MiraCosta College. An historical research design, focusing of local history, was utilized including the use of primary sources, comprised of written documents and twenty oral history interviews, as well as secondary sources. Established in 1934 as a junior college department of Oceanside-Carlsbad Union High School District with an enrollment of 115, MiraCosta College today is a comprehensive, public, two-year college with an enrollment of over 9,000. A single campus district, MiraCosta College is governed by a seven-member Governing Board, each person elected at large but representing one of the seven trustee areas in which he or she resides. Among the major marker events in the college's history were the vote by the electorate in 1934 which officially established the college: the decision by the Governing Board in 1946 not to annex the college to the newly formed north county junior college district; the first accreditation by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges in 1955; the purchase of the site for the new campus in 1961; the establishment of the Academic Senate in 1962; moving the college to its present location in 1964; the appointment of John MacDonald as superintendent/president in 1964; the annexation of the San Dieguito district in 1976; and the passage of Proposition 13 in 1978. Throughout MiraCosta's history a stability of leadership has existed. For almost a quarter of a century four members of the Governing Board worked together and since 1937 only six men have served in the position of president, one of those for 18 years. Other threads which have occurred throughout the history are those of conservatism, close identity with the community, and the concept of collegiality. An analysis of the leadership indicated that administrative leadership throughout MiraCosta's history has focused on the development and growth of the college in terms of construction and organization. Curricular development and improvement and the fostering of collegiality have come about as a result of faculty leadership beginning in the 1960s. The research revealed that the history of the college's leadership is an uneven path from a stage just short of autocracy to a stage that involves the Board, superintendent, and faculty in a joint venture. Because of the presence of a strong academic senate and the willingness of Board, administrators, and faculty to work together, the college has developed a pattern of shared governance not often observed in other colleges.

The problem of this study was to determine the nature of the perceptions of leadership behavior held by deans and directors of student development/student personnel services in Texas community/junior colleges. The directors were further identified as directors of counseling and guidance, student activities, admissions and records, financial aid, job placement, and health services. Deans and directors from all Texas community/junior colleges constituted the population for this group and were selected from college catalogs and a professional directory. Ranking and correlation techniques were used in the statistical analysis of data. Results indicated that leadership behaviors exist which are common to the field of student development/student personnel services, and that jurors generally agreed with deans and directors on those leadership behaviors which they perceived to be the most and least important to leadership. In addition, deans and directors agreed on those behaviors which they perceived to be the most and least important to leadership in their position and area of responsibility. Data revealed that deans and directors placed a high priority on collaborative-interactive type behaviors and a low priority on administrative-related behaviors.

Leadership behavior has been a popular research topic for many years. Much of this research has focused upon the identification of leader behavior that is interactional or determined by the situation which influences leadership style. Current leadership theories raise the question of the relationships between leadership behavior and personal work values. The problem of this research is to investigate the relationship of leadership style with an individual's values for working. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between variables which characterize leadership styles and variables related to working values. The hypotheses hold that work values will correlate positively with leadership style. Data were collected through the administration of three research instruments to ninety-two managers of five business firms. The instruments were the participant cover letter providing demographic characteristics, Leader Behavior Analysis II identifying style of leadership, and Values for Working identifying personal work values. Coefficients of determination were calculated to identify possible relationships between leadership style and personal work values. No significant statistical correlation was found. The conclusion is that leadership style appears to be a function of something other than an individual's work values.

The purposes of this study were to determine, based on the perceptions of teachers and principals, during the first year of operation in new elementary schools: (1) the extent of change in organizational climate, (2) the extent of change in principal leadership behavior, (3) the difference between teachers' and principals' perceptions of climate and principal leadership behavior, and (4) the relationship between the openness factor of climate and the principal leadership behavior factors of consideration and structure. The major findings of the study included: 1) Both teachers' and principals' perceptions of the organizational climate in the school changed during the course of the school year. 2) Both teachers' and principals' perceptions of principal leadership behavior changed during the course of the school year. 3) The differences in teachers' and principals' perceptions of climate and principal leadership behavior as measured by the openness score of the OCDQ and the two dimension scores of the SBD were not statistically significant. 4) For the scores for the total group of subjects, the calculated correlation coefficients for the relationship between openness and consideration were all positive.

This study investigates the relationship between the school climate, as perceived by the professional staff, and specific leadership behavior, as reported by the school principals in a selected school district in the state of Washington, The purpose of the study is to determine the extent to which the leader behavior of the principal correlates with- the total school climate as well as with the individual factors comprising the school climate. There are no statistically significant relationships among the variables studied. The hypothesis that the higher the leadership skills of the principal the more beneficial would be the climate of the school is not supported. The results suggest that the school climate is independent of the leadership behavior of the principal. Since no difference was found when the factors of climate were considered cumulatively, the individual factors were analyzed for significance. The seven factors of climate, identified by James Tunney and James Jenkins from the CFK Ltd. School Climate Profile, were independent of the leadership ability of the principal.

The problem of this study is to determine if school climate perceptions are stable among the departmental subgroups of the high school. In addition, the study seeks to determine if the subject area of the department or patterns of leadership behavior of the department head (as perceived by teachers in the department) have a significant relationship to how teachers within a department perceive the climate of their school.

The major purpose of this study was to determine whether a relationship exists between cerebral laterality dominance and leadership behavior and traits. An additional purpose was to determine whether a relationship exists between cerebral laterality dominance and gender, ethnicity, and educational position.

The first-line supervisor appears to be caught in a dilemma between the demands of his superior and the needs of his subordinates. This study focuses on the dilemma by describing and analyzing the leadership behavior of most and least effective first-line supervisors as perceived by superiors, subordinates, and by the supervisors themselves. Two basic dimensions of leadership behavior, power-structure and consideration-sensitivity, were investigated by using a leadership rating questionnaire. Participating plants, listed in the Directory of Arkansas Industries, were twenty-three small manufacturers employing five or more production supervisors and 100 to 500 production workers. Participants in each plant were the plant manager, three first-line supervisors, and a random sample of five employees reporting to each participating supervisor. Nonparametric statistical techniques, consisting of chi square and the Goodman-Kruskal measures of association, were used. The results of this study indicate that there were significant differences in the leadership behavior of most and least effective supervisors. The most effective supervisors were consistently perceived more favorably by both superiors and subordinates than were the supervisors designated as least effective. Compared to the perceptions of the most effective supervisors, there was considerably greater distortion between the way the least effective supervisors perceived themselves and the way they were perceived by their superiors and subordinates. Most effective supervisors tended to perceive themselves in close agreement with how they were perceived by both their plant manager and their subordinates. This finding indicates that accurate self-insight may be significantly related to effective leadership. There also tended to be more consistent association between the self-perceptions of plant managers and their most effective supervisors than between the self-perceptions of the plant managers and their least effective supervisors. The most effective supervisors were characterized by a perceived balance of emphasis on both of the primary dimensions of leadership behavior, power-structure and consideration-sensitivity. The least effective supervisors perceived themselves as much more oriented toward consideration-sensitivity, although their plant managers and subordinates perceived them as more oriented toward power-structure. Thus, the most effective supervisors were characterized by balanced and successful leadership behavior, while the least effective supervisors were characterized by unbalanced and less successful leadership behavior. The study confirms previous findings on the existence of measurable differences in the behavior of more and less effective supervisors. It analyzes such differences on dimensions which parallel the initiation of structure and consideration classifications used in the early Ohio State studies. It suggests the use of the reported perceptions of superiors and subordinates to focus on possible leadership problems in the industrial setting. The implications of this study would seem to suggest the need for organizations to consider modifying their present rating systems to include perceptions of performance from above and below as well as self-ratings. The perceptions of the supervisor from three perspectives might provide the supervisor with a more comprehensive understanding of his total performance on the job. This multi-level rating system could help reduce conflict situations and lead to better management practice. This study, although limited to the first-line supervisory level in manufacturing plants, would also seem to have implications for other levels of management and other types of organizations.

Purpose: This study aimed to assess job satisfaction of nurses working at hospitals in South Kordofan State, Sudan and its relationship with transformational and transactional leadership behaviors.Design: Cross-sectional survey research.Methods: This study collected data from 184 nurses working at four hospitals in South Kordofan State, Sudan, using self-administered questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and Pearson’s correlation was used to analyze general characteristics and association between transformational and transactional leadership behaviors and job satisfaction.Main findings: Almost half of the nurses (46.2%) had low levels of job satisfaction. They also predominantly reported low levels of transformational leadership (38.6%) and transactional leadership (52.2%). Job satisfaction was positively correlated with both transformational (r = .75; p < .001) and transactional leadership behaviors (r = .71; p < .001).Conclusion and recommendations: Strong correlations between leadership behaviors and job satisfaction of nurses in Sudan suggest a solution to help alleviate the nursing shortage problem in South Kordofan State, Sudan. With good leadership behaviors, nurses would be more likely satisfied with the working conditions and would not only be willing to stay, but also perform their best to provide high quality care to their patients.