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Noting that there has been little research attention on the ability of foster children to form emotional attachments, this literature review looks at available research related to attachment and children in foster care. The review suggests that foster children are at risk for insecure attachment due to experiences of abuse and neglect, parental substance abuse, and repeated separations from primary caregivers. The review also maintains that there is sufficient evidence to indicate that these poor early attachments may lead to relational and other problems as foster children grow older. Despite limitations in experimental design such as inconsistent definitions of attachment and the use of nonstandardized measures, the review finds significant cause for concern, particularly in light of the increasing number of children entering the foster care system. The review concludes with a discussion of implications for foster care policy and recommendations for future research. (Contains 89 references.) (KB)

This study examines a non-profit foster care program's ability to teach youths ages 14 to 21 independent living skills. The agency, located in the northeastern United States, near a major urban area, did not have a successful transition of its youth to a Supervised Independent Living Program (SILP), which provides young men and women the opportunity to live in pre-independent apartments, experience "the real world" while receiving supervision, counseling, and life skills training. The most significant problem for the foster care program was that it was not preparing youths for life beyond the foster care system. This problem occurred primarily because the caseworkers and administrators focused their attention on infants and toddlers in the agency's care rather than independent living skills for older youths. A program was developed that encouraged youths to be as involved in the planning and implementation process as possible. The program was a hands-on, do-it-yourself experience for the youths, with the goal of helping them enter the SILP. The program used a group format for such things as: motivational presentations, guest speakers, life skills inventory exercises, and field trips to the Department of Labor and Neighborhood Legal Services. Though the program was considered a success, there were several obstacles--the most serious of which was the lack of cooperation from the agency with the exception of the chief executive officer. Future research is recommended. A Life Skills Inventory and a Calendar Plan are appended. Contains eight references. (KW)

This practicum sought to provide elementary school teachers with the skills and knowledge needed to teach students residing in foster care. The three specific goals of the practicum were: (1) to have all 30 of the teacher participants use teaching strategies appropriate to the education of foster care children; (2) to have at least 25 of the 30 teachers use at least 3 intervention strategies before referring a foster child for behavior problems; and (3) to decrease the number of foster care children referred for special education assessment. Inservice teacher training sessions were developed and conducted to achieve these goals. Teacher appraisal worksheets, behavior referrals, and suspension charts were used during the implementation phase to document the teachers' growth. A post-intervention assessment was completed by teachers to document their understanding of the needs of foster children. Analysis of the assessment data, classroom observations, and school records indicated that all three goals of the practicum were met. (Two appendixes contain strategies for healthy preschool and school-age child development and suggestions on how teachers can help children cope with stress. Contains 41 references.) (MDM)

Foster care cases involving an incarcerated parent can present unique challenges in planning and case management for caseworkers. Incarcerated parents are expected to maintain communication and contact with their children and caseworkers in order to prevent termination of their parental rights. Agency caseworkers are often not trained to navigate the obstacles to case management associated with an incarcerated parent. This paper presents a working model derived from the suggestions of agency caseworkers and of current literature to act as a reference and training tool for agency workers. A survey checklist composed of prominent suggestions from the working model is appended. The checklist was used to assess the number of suggestions used by the caseworkers who worked with such cases prior to and after the administration of the working model. Overall, there were more suggestions reportedly being used by caseworkers on the second administration of the survey checklist. Although only slight increases in the number of suggestions used in case management were noted in this project, the working model has promising potential for use as a training tool for case workers who have had relatively little experience working with foster care cases involving an incarcerated parent. (Author/JE)

This paper recounts the author's removal as an Indian child to a non-Indian foster home and consequent alienation and identity crisis, and presents survey results from Indian adults with similar childhood experiences. The problems in this particular case began when, at age 5, the author moved with her family from the reservation to an urban housing project. Family life deteriorated, her parents drank heavily or were absent, and the children were removed to foster homes. The author and her younger brother eventually were settled with a Mexican-American family. In the absence of any exposure to Indian people or culture, and in the face of constant negative comments about her family and the stigma of being a foster child, the author became ashamed of her origins and confused about her identity. In college, she was sensitive to the differences between herself and other Indian students and felt estranged from them. After she married and started a family, she felt the need to reconnect with her culture and her extended family, and both the family and the Indian community were very supportive. A survey of 35 adults in the Indian community, including 20 with similar childhood experiences, examine the development of their Indian identity and, where applicable, feelings about the foster care experience. Medical, legal, or substance-abuse problems were mentioned by 40-75 percent of those removed from families, compared to 27-40 percent of others. This paper includes survey questions and many excerpts from interviews. (SV)

This paper reports on a practicum designed to teach foster-care caseworkers how to improve the specificity and clarity of item definition on Individual Service Plans (ISPs) for children in foster care. Most agencies require that within 30 days of accepting a child for foster care, agency caseworkers must complete an ISP which establishes goals for the child to meet with the help of his or her foster parents and foster-care agency caseworker. Goals are also set for the child's birth parents in order to prepare for the child's eventual return to the birth-family home. The caseworker must devise the goals in a timely manner, stipulating measurable outcomes, but in one agency noted in the paper, caseworkers set ISP goals that were unclear, difficult to measure, and lacking in behavioral specificity. After studying the problem, it was proposed that a two-part program be developed to try to remedy these difficulties. In part one, an Individual Service Plan Evaluation and Instruction instrument was developed. Then, for part two, an Individual Service Plan Tracking Sheet was used. Workers were trained to use both instruments. Although these measures demonstrated that ISP goals can be written more clearly in more measurable terms, the project's specific goals were not met. (RJM)

This practicum was designed to improve the level and quality of involvement of foster parents and social workers in the development of timely and compliant foster care plans at a child care agency in Ontario. The writer developed: (1) an agency policy that defined the unique relationship between foster parents and the child welfare agency and mandated the involvement of foster parents and the enhancement of the partnership relationship through a foster care plan; (2) an improved foster care plan format; (3) clear job descriptions for both social workers and foster parents; (4) a protocol for the development of foster care plans; and (5) tools for measuring the level and quality of foster parent involvement. A 4-hour training session was developed to train a group of 4 social workers and 10 foster parents. Also developed were exercises designed to obtain feedback from the social worker and foster parent after the completion of the foster care plan. Post-test results indicate improvements by those participating in the project with over 70% of the parents indicating a high "level" of involvement and 100% indicating a high "quality" of involvement. The appendices contain a statement describing the partnership relationship, a foster care plan format, and various instruments used to measure the level and quality of foster parent involvement. (SM)

Background and aims: Children in out-of-home care have usually experienced significant adversity in their lives, which may negatively affect their behavioral development. Problem behavior among children in out-of-home care are of particular concern given children's history of adverse caregiving as well as trauma resulting from maltreatment and system involvement, presenting increased risk of maladjusted problem behavior trajectories. Interventions have been developed to address this problem, but systematic reviews of the evidence find that understanding of interventions that work best for different subgroups of children is currently limited. Despite difficulties, some children in out-of-home care still make positive behavioral adjustment. Research suggests that understanding the processes underlying problem behavior development and identifying risk and protective factors that may benefit particular subgroups is needed (Shpiegel, 2016). This thesis speaks to this gap in the literature by investigating behavioral risk and protective factors for children in out-of-home care. Methods: This thesis comprises two studies. First, a systematic literature review (Study 1) of risk and protective factors for the longitudinal development of problem behavior for children in out-of-home care was conducted. It aimed to identify variables that have been examined in existing literature and provides evidence of risk or protective effects that may be targeted in behavioral interventions. The second study analyzed longitudinal secondary data, the National Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) I, on the problem behavior outcomes of 513 children who have been in long-term out-of-home care in the United States (Study 2). Specifically, the study used multiple-group latent growth curve models to explore whether there were any risk or protective correlates and factors for problem behavior development. Moderated mediation path analyses were then carried out to understand the specific relationship between severity of recent incident of abuse, caregiver involvement, responsibility skills, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and problem behavior outcomes 36 months later. Findings. Study 1 identified and synthesized 146 studies, which indicated that children's longitudinal behavior development is associated with a wide range of factors (individual characteristics, interpersonal relations, interventions, etc.). Challenges related to synthesis of heterogeneous methodologies, contexts, and findings were also highlighted. Findings: from Study 1 also informed the statistical approach of Study 2, by identifying variables that are key in the child welfare literature, as well as identifying gaps in the research that require further investigation. In Study 2, analyses identified several variables to be statistically associated with behavior problems. The identified variables were: type of caregiver (permanent/non-permanent), age at initial placement, daily living skills, school engagement, neighborhood community environment, trauma symptoms, caregiver involvement, socioemotional skills, and severity of recent abuse incident. Path analyses revealed that caregiver involvement and responsibility skills were not affected by recent incident of abuse, but significantly decreased later problem behavior outcomes, suggesting a protective relationship that buffers against the adverse effects of maltreatment experience. Conclusion: This thesis presents evidence that several individual and contextual characteristics may be risk and protective variables for children who have been in long-term out-of-home care, and that these variables vary according to children's age. Such findings suggest the need for future research and practice to consider children's ages to efficiently carry out research and provide services. Findings also highlighted the significant gap in the child welfare literature, suggesting that socioemotional skills are not well understood for children with long-term out-of-home care histories, and sheds light on how these variables can be studied further in the future. These findings may also inform future interventions to promote positive behavioral adjustment of children in out-of-home care, by identifying variables that correlate with positive or negative change over time.

As a population, children in care (CiC) are found to be at an increased risk of a range of negative outcomes associated with poor educational attainment and difficult early attachment relationships. Having access to educational interventions in key areas such as literacy and the opportunity to develop positive, stable and caring relationships is seen as crucial to overcoming many of these disadvantages. Professionals supporting CiC, including those within the area of special educational needs and disability (SENDs), are duty bound to work together towards this aim. Paired reading is an educational intervention that has been used within the researcher’s local authority (LA) for several years and is credited with helping children, including foster children, achieve significant improvements in their reading. In addition, feedback from participants and some research (Forsman, 2017; Osborne, Alfano & Winn, 2010) into the efficacy of this intervention has suggested that participation might also benefit the foster carer/child relationship. In this qualitative study, semi-structured interviews were used to obtain and explore foster carers and children’s views of a shared reading (SR) intervention with respect to its impact on their relationship. Additional techniques were also adapted and used to support the children to express their views. Thematic analysis identified five key themes supportive of previous findings which suggest SR interventions can enhance the relationship between foster carers and foster children. Results also suggest, however, that more needs to be done to emphasise the relational benefits to potential participants. This research makes an important contribution to the understanding of SR practices and informs the promotion, recommendation and delivery of future interventions and the work of Educational Psychologists (EPs) and other professionals supporting this particularly vulnerable group of children.

This study explored Scottish Senior Teachers experiences and understandings of their Corporate Parent role. The Corporate Parent role requires certain organisations and professionals to "work together to meet the needs of Looked After Children", and to "act as any good parent would". Looked After Children are children for whom the State has a statutory duty of care as their family circumstances are or have impacted on their development. Their educational and life outcomes are generally poor. Despite this, and other policy efforts since Scottish devolution (1999) these children's educational attainment showed little improvement, so a Parliamentary Inquiry (2012) was conducted to find the reasons why. A submission, from Education Scotland, said that "overall, staff in schools do not yet have a clear understanding of their corporate parenting responsibilities". This research sought to find out, through semi-structured interviews, Senior Teachers understanding and experience of the Corporate Parent role. Additionally, it was also able to establish their views on the purpose of school education for these pupils and whether they should be treated differently to their peers. The findings have indicated that Corporate Parenting is a contested term and that the policy context relating to it is complex; particularly in terms of social justice and the equity equality divide. They suggest a reconsideration of the policy is required, in particular, an alignment with teachers existing in-loco parentis role, an acknowledgement of teacher professionalism and a reexamination of the purpose of school education for some through the use of the capability approach as initially advocated by Sen. Overall, the interviewees viewed Looked After Children as one cohort amongst other vulnerable learners. Many questioned the robustness of the decision making of the authority (Children's Reporter Service) which confers the Looked After identity. The dual role of researcher and practitioner in this study required reflexivity.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to discover foster parent factors contributing to foster care disruptions. Disruptions of foster care children are detrimental to the safety and well-being of the children. There are implications of foster care disruptions producing short- and long-term negative outcomes for children and families. Research indicates the emotional trauma effects of placement instability negatively impact the child’s relationships, ability to form attachments, educational outcomes, and mental and developmental stability. Foster parent factors have been identified that predict the likelihood of the parents disrupting the child’s placement and strategies for increasing placement stability in various studies. Further exploration on understanding why foster parents disrupt placements should be considered in effort to increase placement stability and reduce foster care children’s negative impact of placement moves.

This qualitative transcendental phenomenology study explored the lived experiences of foster parents who care for traumatized children. Children in the foster care system are often exposed to trauma before and after entering the foster care system. Therefore, the trauma that foster children experience can impact them emotionally, psychologically, and cognitively. Unfortunately, foster parents are often unequipped to deal with these issues when these children enter their homes. The gap this study aimed to address was that foster parents did not have opportunities to share their experiences on what it was like to provide care for traumatized foster children. Husserl’s phenomenology theory guided this exploration and provided an in-depth, comprehensive description of foster parents’ experience in the foster care system. The study’s design and framework were used to address the research question, how does a foster parent describe their experience of providing care for children who have experienced trauma? In the rural region of Atlanta, Georgia, seven foster parents participated in semi-structured face-to-face interviews. The data were analyzed and coded. Four themes emerged: challenges in being a foster parent, the impact of fostering traumatized children, factors contributing to foster parents’ resilience, and recommendations for supporting foster parents. The themes provided insight into what it was like to provide care for foster children in the foster care system and shed light on foster parents’ challenges and needs in caring for traumatized children. The themes revealed that caring for traumatized children can be stressful. The foster parents did not receive sufficient communication about the children’s trauma background or training in managing the children’s trauma. Training and workshops were recommended because the foster parent can experience burnout without developing resiliency and support.

This study examined the experiences of one hundred foster mothers, who are also TANF recipients. A telephone survey was used to examine their experiences with, and perceptions of, TANF regulations, such as work requirements and time limits, with special consideration of their roles as caregivers to foster children. A structured instrument that included a variety of closed and open-ended questions was utilized. The sample was drawn from the foster parent population of three voluntary child welfare agencies in New York City. The sample was restricted to those foster mothers currently receiving public assistance and did not include a comparison group of foster mothers not on public assistance or measurement at various time frames in order to measure change over time, which limit the generalizabilty of the findings. Fifty-eight percent of the foster mothers stated that the regulations had made life more difficult, while 41 percent that the regulations had made being a foster parent more difficult. Difficulties centered around balancing care of foster children with the demands of TANF regulations, lack of access to education and training, negative experiences with the WEP program and frequent sanctions, which reduced their benefits. Numerous financial hardships and inability to afford basic necessities were cited. Foster children exhibited high levels of emotional and behavior problems, pointing to increased risks for foster children if foster mothers are obligated to work. Although the respondents, especially Latinas, reported many rewards as foster mothers and strong commitment to continue fostering, welfare reform stands to create further disincentives for foster parents. The foster mothers, particularly Latinas, presented numerous barriers to employment, and family-related values. Lack of child care is an additional obstacle. These factors will create greater challenges in reaching self-sufficiency for foster mothers and in caring for foster children in the future. Recommendations include improved economic support to foster mothers, including paid fostering; increased access to child care, education and training; and greater flexibility with time limits for foster mothers under TANF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ever since the passage of the Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-272), child welfare agencies seeking federal reimbursement for foster care services have been required to provide case review on a semi-annual basis for foster children. Periodic case review, as this requirement is called, is an independent evaluation of each child's written case plan to determine the appropriateness of the plan, compliance with the plan and the continued necessity for placement. Federal law allows case review to be conducted by the court, citizen volunteers, and/or an administrative panel whose members include the child's caseworker, supervisor and at least one additional person who is not directly involved with the case. Knowledge is limited on the periodic case review requirement of federal law, and this study was conducted to add to this knowledge base. The present study is a secondary analysis of data gathered from the case records of foster children in Louisiana in 1988 and in the District of Columbia in 1990. Data from the two case readings were combined for the present study. Three main relationships were studied, between case review and: (a) worker contact on children's cases; (b) efforts that workers make to place children for adoption, and; (c) services provided to families of children with goals of return home. Of these relationships, only worker contacts with family and children were shown to be related to case review. In addition, this study provides descriptive data on children who received case review and those who did not. The findings show that the majority of children were reviewed in the 6 months prior to the case reading. However the data also show a systematic bias in the cases that were not reviewed: children who, according to the literature, were less likely to be returned home or to be adopted were the ones whose cases were not reviewed. Questions about the effectiveness of case review as implemented are raised. Implications for practice and policy are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foster parents need to be trained in trauma-informed approaches and how to identify previous traumas in order to understand how their foster children’s past experiences of abuse or neglect manifest as mental disorders, social challenges, or behavioral concerns. Warning signs for depression or post-traumatic stress disorder should be noted, and youth should be taught how to foster healthy relationships in order to prevent substance abuse, irresponsible sexual activity, or academic failing. Foster parents can provide additional support by creating reasonable expectations for their foster children, teaching effective coping skills, and connecting with available resources.

Children living in out-of-home care (OOHC) are known to have special needs. Studies show that these children have increased physical, mental and developmental problems compared to other children not living in OOHC. Research has also shown that children in OOHC experience more oral health problems compared to their peers. Dental decay is the most common form of childhood oral health disease. It is known to negatively impact on the overall health and well-being of children, causing prolonged pain, swelling, eating and sleeping disturbances, psychological trauma and even hospitalisation for dental treatment requiring general anaesthesia. Although various preventive strategies have been implemented to decrease the burden of dental decay, poor oral health among children in OOHC is a persistent issue. Foster/ kinship carers are responsible for the day-to-day care of children in OOHC and thus are in a unique position to promote children’s oral health. However, no studies have explored the experiences of foster/ kinship carers in relation to the oral health of children living in OOHC or highlighted their potential role in promoting children’s oral health, particularly, in Australia. This thesis explores the knowledge and practices of foster/ kinship carers as well as the barriers and facilitators in relation to the oral health of children living in OOHC. A combination of convenience and purposive sampling was used to recruit participants. Foster and kinship carers were purposively sampled using well-established networks of the principal supervisor with the foster care agencies. 7 foster carers and 1 kinship carer were recruited for this study and their mean age was 40.8 years (Range 32 to 57 years). The thesis provides valuable insights into previously unexplored experiences of foster/ kinship carers related to the oral health of children living in OOHC in Australia. It highlights that even though foster/ kinship carers are primary caregivers, no studies to date have explored their role in oral health promotion of children living in OOHC. The study has also shown that despite foster/ kinship carers having knowledge on the importance of oral health and practicing good oral hygiene habits for children, the presence of barriers has affected the oral health status of children living in OOHC. Finally, it explains that foster/kinship carer’s efforts alone are not enough to promote the oral health of children in OOHC.

Managing birth family contact visits (BFCV) for children in out-of-home care (OOHC) following statutory child protection intervention whilst their case is being finalised in the Children’s Court is a complicated task with sparse empirical or clinical literature to guide stakeholders. Although the primary reason for such BFCV is to maintain parent chid relationship, assess parenting capacity, facilitate restoration, and/or to maintain child’s identity, there are multiple stakeholders with varied understanding of the purpose of BFCV involved in scheduling and implementing BFCV. The main purpose of this research was to examine if BFCV achieves these goals for the children. Using a multi method design, the researcher analysed the BFCV supervisors’ observational reports from contact and the OOHC birth family contact meeting records entered by Family and Community Services (FACS) caseworkers available on FACS client database for two different data sets, and interviewed 12 caseworkers, managers, and contact workers from FACS as well as 4 contact workers from a non-government organisation contact service provider. FACS managers and caseworkers were identified as having the most salience in BFCV scheduling and were identified as definitive stakeholders having all the three attributes of power, urgency, and legitimacy (Mitchell et al., 1997). However, document analysis results indicated the immense power that contact supervisors wield and depending on context could become a definitive stakeholder. Given the stakeholders attributes and network responded to the dynamic context and issues, the researcher had developed a Dynamics of Stakeholder Model to be used in conjunction with Mitchell et al.’s (1997) Stakeholder Identification. This allowed the interview participants in mapping stakeholders in BFCV. This model needs to be applied in other context and issues to determine its validity and generalisability. Data quality issues such as incorrect and incomplete data entry, inconsistent information, and lack of standardised reporting format impacted on this research. With the limited information, insights into parent child attachment, parenting capacity, and child’s ability to maintain identity could be gained albeit the numbers were small to make any significant conclusion. As a result, the researcher developed a standard template for BFCV supervisors to record their observations. Additionally, process, practice, and training recommendations were made so that the information presented in the BFCV observational reports could assist caseworkers and Children’s Court Magistrates in their decision making that are truly in the best interests of the children.

This thesis utilises a case study method with a small cohort of young people in foster care to generate an explanation of how leisure can be used beneficially to move to and through their transition from care to independent living at 18 years of age. The foster care environment, as a sub-set of Out-of-Home Care (OOHC), has been described as complex, regulated and one in which those in care have at times little or no control over important aspects of their lives. Indeed, it has been reported that young people in foster care are sometimes told by those in authority such as teachers that they need not concern themselves with ambition or aspiration because their life choices are already limited by their situation and their environment. Nevertheless, there are two sides to foster care and the second side involves supportive birth families, foster families, teachers, counsellors, case workers and friendships. As well, there is an inherent optimism among those in care reported by some authors. This inherent optimism, frequently expressed through leisure, was found to be well established in the great majority of the twelve case studies undertaken. This optimism is evident in the study as an underpinning of the willingness of participants to look to the future, to plan, to understand their leisure environment, to actively apply personally held cognitive skills and to generate outcomes and experiences that were useful to them. A number of interesting factors relevant to the use of leisure by young people in foster care have been articulated in the study. It is noted, for example, that the participants were using a range of cognitive resources to date unreported in the literature on foster care or OOHC and only reported as a limited allied concept in the leisure literature. However, the small amount of work in the leisure literature was not undertaken in regards to foster care. The use of personal cognitive resources was found to be widespread and multifaceted within the cohort studied. These resources were not leisure specific and while their application was, it does not need be. In effect then, participants were using, or creating and using, and practicing the use of sets of cognitive resources applicable to independent living after transition from care at the age of 18.

Pedagogical and existential problems of the foster child population were examined including the history of orphan management and current methods for care. Also examined was the increasingly popular practice of homeschooling as well as its most autonomous variant, unschooling. Utilizing the methodology of bricolage, I leveraged the literature spanning both foster care and homeschooling juxtaposed against my own unschooling practice (with my own children) and interviews with otherunschoolers to suggest a potential avenue for improvement to the education and subsequent life outcomes of the fostered population.

This work explores the correlation between the occurrence of mental illness in those individuals who have been through the foster care system as well as some potential causes for the discrepancy between the rate of mental illness in children within the general population versus children in the foster system. Research has found that mental health issues have been linked to individuals who have been through the system occurring at nearly twice the rate of the general population. Substance abuse, depression, PTSD, and attachment issues have all been common mental health problems among this demographic. This paper includes a qualitative study where foster care community workers, foster parents, and former foster children shared their stories. A total of 16 participants were interviewed and 6 narratives were used within the context of this study. The data was evaluated using the phenomenological method to gain access to meaning and themes that emerged from all participants. There were seven main themes that emerged including the foster care system as a “obstacle”, employee perception, peer support, chaos of foster home life, the importance of stability, generational trauma/healing, and training of staff and parents. The mental health of foster children seems to rely of the success or failure of these themes within the system. Further research needs to be conducted to access what steps can be taken to assuage the impact of mental illness on this population.

In this dissertation, I attempt to better understand the inner workings of the household: Do parents favor certain types of children? When do parents decide to have their children work? How can we identify inequality within the household? These issues are fundamental to economic development and closely related to individual welfare. However, studying these questions is difficult since the household is in many ways a blackbox to economists; consumption data is typically collected at the household level, and concepts like bargaining power are not observable. My research examines these questions in a variety of different contexts in the developing world. In Chapter 1, I test for consumption inequality between foster and non-foster children in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Chapter 2, I examine the relationship between child labor and fertility in Nigerian households. Lastly, I study the identification of intrahousehold inequality in collective households in Chapter 3. Chapter 1: In “Consumption Inequality Among Children: Evidence from Child Fostering in Malawi", I study how resources are allocated among foster and non- foster children in Malawi. Child fostering is widespread in parts of Africa and the wellbeing of these children, who may be particularly vulnerable to impoverishment, is not well known. However, identifying individual-level consumption is difficult, since goods are shared and consumption is measured at the household level. Recent work on intrahousehold resource allocation has inferred child consumption from household- level spending on child-specific goods (e.g., child clothing). This literature is often dependent on the existence of goods in the data that are consumed exclusively by a particular type of person in the household. These studies are therefore limited by the level of assignability of goods within the consumption survey. Stated differently, to identify inequality between foster and non-foster children using existing techniques, I would need to observe expenditure on a good that is consumed separately by foster and non-foster children. Because I do not, I develop a new methodology using the collective framework to measure consumption inequality between foster and non-foster children. I find little evidence of inequality between foster and non-foster children. I then divide foster children by whether the child is orphaned, and I find that orphan-foster child consumption is 23 percent less than non-orphan foster child consumption. The results of this paper suggest that policymakers should design programs to improve the relative standing of orphan-foster children in the household. The methodological contribution of this paper is applicable to other contexts as intrahousehold inequality among children is widespread. Chapter 2: In “Child Labor Laws and Household Fertility Decision: Evidence from Nigeria" I study the Child Rights Act of Nigeria (CRA). In 2003, the Nigerian National Assembly implemented this law, which codified existing child labor standards and dramatically increased the penalties for employing children. I exploit the Child Rights Act to both understand the employment consequences of a child labor legislation, and to analyze the effect of lowering the economic value of children on fertility rates. Identification comes from variation in the timing of when each Nigerian state adopted the law, and from variation in the law’s age restrictions. Consistent with recent theoretical and empirical evidence, I find the Child Rights Act increased child employment at both the intensive and extensive margins. I then model household fertility decisions to demonstrate that the demand for children is increasing in child wages and therefore influenced by changes in the child labor market. I empirically test the model implications by examining the effect of the Child Rights Act on fertility rates, but find little to no effect. Chapter 3: In “Identification of Resource Shares with Multiple Assignable Goods" (with Caitlin Brown and Rossella Calvi), we study intrahousehold inequality. We develop a new methodology using the collective framework to identify resource shares, defined as the fraction of household resources consumed by each household member. We build upon recent work by Dunbar, Lewbel, and Pendakur (2013) (DLP) who identify resource shares by observing how expenditure on a single private assignable good varies with household income and size. They achieve identification by making semi-parametric restrictions on preferences across either household members or household sizes. Because our data contain multiple private assignable goods, we are able to employ this additional data to weaken the DLP preference restrictions using a different approach, which we call “Differenced-Similar Across People" (D-SAP). Under D-SAP, preferences for the assignable goods are allowed to differ entirely across both household members. However, we introduce a weaker restriction that requires that preferences differ across people in a similar way across goods.

The number of children entering foster care has increased significantly in recent years, leading some to categorize the foster system as being in a state of crisis. More foster parents are needed, as are better retention methods. It is pertinent to understand the experiences that foster parents have that affect their decision to continue or cease fostering. The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study was to understand the needs of foster parents based on their experiences and perceptions. The overarching research question sought to determine the lived experiences of foster parents who were navigating through, or taking part in, the foster system. Seven foster parents living in California, who had been fostering for at least six months and who had had a child in their home participated in the study. Data was collected via one-on-one interviews using open-ended questions. Responses were analyzed and revealed four themes: 1) parents decide to foster for a variety of reasons, the most common being altruistic purposes and the awareness of the need for good foster parents; 2) parents find fostering to be a life-enhancing experience; 3) fostering involves significant challenges, the most common being handling a child who had been through traumatic experiences prior to being in the foster care system; and 4) parents felt strongly motivated to continue fostering. The findings from the current study aligned with previous literature regarding the overall positive feelings associated with fostering, and the descriptions of challenges faced by foster parents. The experience of being a foster parent could be improved if the foster care system underwent internal changes to lighten the burden for social workers so they can better respond to foster parents. This Dissertation is available in Open Access at AURA: Antioch University Repository and Archive, http://aura.antioch.edu and OhioLink ETD Center, http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd

This research explored the perspective of foster parents on the educational experiences of foster children and experiences of communication patterns with other key stakeholders (social workers, and teachers). Factors focused on were educational experience of foster children, communication patterns, the impact of communication patterns on the educational experience, and barriers to effective communication. Five individuals who were, at the time of the study, foster parents to at least one child were interviewed. Participants openly shared a variety of positive and negative experiences. This study adopted the theoretical framework of Bronfenbrenner’s cultural-ecological theory. Participant interviews were transcribed verbatim and inductive coding was used for analysis of transcriptions. Central themes that emerged included past experiences of foster child impacts the educational experience, the teacher-student relationship impacts the educational experience, and communication patterns impact the consistency of expectations across systems. Results from the study showed that foster parents are generally satisfied with the communication patterns they experience with key stakeholders. Consistency of expectations and modeling of help seeking behavior were identified as the key impacts communication patterns have on the educational experience of foster children. A unique experience of the impact of communication with biological parents of the foster child was also revealed.

Children who live in foster care are an educationally vulnerable population. They often experience academic challenges, emotional instability, and behavioral difficulties. Classroom teachers who instruct these children often feel under-informed and unsupported in serving the needs of foster students. The present study examined how teachers are informed of a student’s foster care status, the supports and services available to teachers in working with children, and the supports and services teachers feel they need in order to provide an appropriate education to this population. Ten teachers were interviewed to gain insight into their experiences educating foster children. Results indicated there is inconsistency in how teachers are informed of a child’s foster care status and that teachers are dissatisfied with the lack of background information provided regarding a child’s foster care status. Participants reported feeling supported by the school when designing and implementing behavioral interventions, however many expressed a need for more collaboration among the school, home, and social service agency. Suggestions are made for school systems and social service agencies to provide more information, training, and collaboration to teachers of students who live in foster care.

Purpose: This study explored through the perception of foster children and caregivers, the importance, quality, and content of their shared relationship in Treatment Foster Care (TFC). Children at TFC level of care due to emotional/behavioral disturbance (EBD) evidence a persistent and severe degree of EBD and are at risk of placement in a more restrictive setting, i.e. psychiatric hospitalization or residential treatment. TFC seeks to improve child safety, permanency, and well-being outcomes through therapeutic care within the context of normalized family life (Dore & Mullin, 2006). The body of knowledge of the condition of children served within TFC level of care outpaces the body of knowledge of how these children can and need to be effectively cared for. Much is known about the antecedents, their behavioral and emotional presentation, and relationship difficulties, however only a few interventions or outcomes specific to these foster children or foster families have been rigorously studied (Craven & Lee, 2006). No standard of care exists for foster care of EBD children, and theoretical models and treatment methods of TFC vary widely (Farmer, et al, 2002). Although therapeutic relationship has been demonstrated as an instrument of adaptive change for children in other contexts, it is yet to be thoroughly explored within TFC. Methods: This study utilized qualitative research methods in an interpretive description study design. Through purposeful sampling subjects were identified within a statewide TFC program. Data collection included semi-structured interviews with foster parents and children in their care, and agency child case-file document review. Data analysis, informed by attachment theory, resilience, and clinical knowledge, occurred concurrently with data collection. Through the analysis process, themes and patterns were identified among subjective perspectives, while also accounting for variations between individuals, and to led to clinical application implications Results: Analysis yielded descriptive information about the quality, process, and importance of TFC child-caregiver relationships. Relationship process and importance for children centered on being helped, being known, being comfortable, choosing to connect. For TFC parents this centered on providing consistent care, valuing and respecting kids, figuring kids out, modeling parenting/lifestyle. Connectedness to foster family as a whole and connectedness long term (formally and informally) was prevalent. Description of TFC relationship: therapeutic relationship utilizing reflective and responsive parenting as the technique of change. Conclusions/Implications: This research contributes knowledge for direct application to social work practice within TFC and to guide further inquiry regarding this vulnerable, high-risk population. It offers detailed description of adaptive relationship processes and perception through the insight of foster youth and their caregivers.

The Australian child protection system is responsible for promoting the health and well-being of children. However, despite early involvement to support and maintain vulnerable families, a significant number of children are unable to remain with their biological families and are placed into foster care. These children are known to experience an increased incidence of health related issues compared to the general population and are thus likely to have frequent contact with the health care system. As the day-to-day care providers for these children, foster carers are an essential component of the child protection system. Despite their importance, literature investigating the experiences of foster carers is scarce. This paucity of literature provides limited guidance to health and social service professionals in understanding the experiences, challenges and needs of this important group. To address this gap, this study sought to explore women’s experiences of providing long-term foster care in Australia. Twenty women participated in interviews that were conducting using a storytelling design informed by feminist principles. Data were collected using face-to-face, telephone and online interviews. Verbatim transcripts were subject to thematic analysis using a feminist narrative technique. Three main themes emerged from the data. A number of sub-themes were also identified. In the first theme; Mothering revealed the women reveal that they identify themselves as mothers, not foster carers, when caring for a child on a long-term basis. They justify this on the depth of their commitment to and emotional investment in the children. The second theme; Seeking recognition: Stigma and misconceptions explains how the women’s maternal identity was challenged and negated by the widely held belief that only the woman who gives birth is the "true" mother. As a result, the women felt stigmatised. The third theme; Mothering in the system, illuminates the women’s attempt to resolve the discontinuity between their perceived maternal identity and their social and legal limitations as foster carers. The findings of this study have revealed women providing long-term foster care are a vulnerable population. The data has provided insight into the women’s perception of self and the detrimental impact of having that perception challenged or unrecognised by others. Further, this research has revealed women providing foster care experience social isolation, to varying degrees, particularly when unable to develop friendships with other long-term foster carers. The findings of this study suggest current policy and practice which privileges biological identity over socially constructed filial ties should be reviewed. Further, greater insight has emerged into the difficulties long-term foster carers experience negotiating their role in foster children’s lives. Factors which can mitigate the experience of stigma, such as the development of friendships with other long-term foster carers, have been identified. The findings of this study are useful for the retention and recruitment of foster carers.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to determine the factors which helped these foster care alumni to persevere and to succeed. The intent was to provide a framework for equipping youth in foster care more effectively by building on their strengths and the resources available in foster care. The study’s method incorporated the interviewing of ten ethnically diverse individuals who had experienced the foster care system. Based on their insights and the themes which emerged, the WARRIORS Model was created. This acronym represents the key themes derived from the interviews: Wounded, Advocacy, Reality of Belonging, Resources, Inspired to Succeed, Obtain Life Skills, Resilience and Spirituality. A Wounded past was the reality of every participant yet many found purpose and meaning in their Advocacy roles. The Reality of Belonging was vital in each of their lives in addition to accessing Resources for post-high school educational and housing options, both implicating the significance of foster parent involvement. All were Inspired to Succeed both personally and educationally and were receptive to Obtain the Life Skills necessary for their future independence and success. They demonstrated such hopeful countenance and profound Resilience, in addition to accessing and benefitting from their chosen avenues of Spirituality. Finally, while navigating through both the negative and positive aspects of their lives, these youth have revealed the strength of the human spirit which has given them every right to be identified as WARRIORS. The WARRIORS Model can be utilized by clinicians and professionals involved in the systems addressing the needs of youth in foster care and training foster parents. Greater opportunities are needed for youth in foster care to advocate for themselves and others with the hope of gaining a sense of worth as their opinions are valued by the adults claiming to represent them. Finally, further research is needed concerning the spiritual development of youth in foster care and ways in which we can assist in this promising aspect of cultivating resilience as evidenced in this study and other established research. The electronic version of this dissertation can be found at the OhioLink ETD Center, www.ohiolink.edu/etd.

The purpose of this study was to explore the potential benefits of a therapeutic horsemanship program for children adopted from foster care and their adoptive mothers. Standardized measures, open-ended interviews and surveys were administered to determine effects on external child behavior, child self-esteem and parenting stress. The Child Behavior Checklist was administered to measure behavioral challenges in the children in this sample. There were no statistically significant changes on any of the CBCL scales. Qualitative data from the mothers, Instructors and researcher observations show some affect on behavior. The Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory-3 was administered to measure self-esteem of the nine children in the sample. The decrease on the Global Self-Esteem Quotient of the CFSEI-3 was statistically significant using. Of the nine children, only three of them scored in the clinical range at pre-test. Of these three, two moved into the normal range and the third improved her score to be very close to the normal range. Qualitative data from the mothers, Instructors and researcher observations support this finding. The Total Stress score of the Parenting Stress Index -- Short Form for the mothers in the sample did not show a statistically significant decrease. Six of the nine mothers' pre-test and post-test scores were in the clinical range and only three had decreased post-test scores. The Qualitative data obtained through interviews, surveys and observations did not support a direct impact of the program on stress levels but rather an impact on level of support. Many mothers reported that they liked spending time with the other mothers to share resources and discuss their children. The data collected in this study does not provide sufficient evidence to make any causal statements about therapeutic horsemanship programs and children adopted from foster care. It does, however, provide support for the need for future research. The findings from this study have implications for meeting the needs of a variety of children adopted from foster and their adoptive parents.

Despite the incorporation of managed care and performance-based contracting models by public and nonprofit agencies in many state child welfare sectors, little empirical evidence exists concerning whether and how service provision to foster children and families responds to these different market environments. This thesis sought to answer the following research questions concerned with foster care service provision: (1) Is service provision different in performance-based, managed care versus fee-for-service contracting environments? (2) Does variation in service provision exist among nonprofit agencies? (3) Does variation in service provision exist within a single nonprofit agency? and (4) Should differences exist, what factors explain differential service patterns? These questions were examined using data from an evaluation of a performance-based, managed care initiative in the Wayne County, Michigan foster care system. In particular, the thesis examined variation in service provision to a sample of foster children and families that were served by nine nonprofit agencies in Wayne County. Six agencies (pilot agencies) contracted with Michigan's public welfare agency to provide foster care services under a performance-based, managed care reimbursement system that contained bonuses for the movement of foster children into permanent placements and the sustainment of these placements. The other three nonprofit agencies (non-pilot agencies) contracted to provide foster care under a fee-for-service reimbursement system. Because foster children are assigned to nonprofit agencies in Wayne County using an alphabetical queue of service providers as opposed to client-related factors, this thesis drew its sample from a research design that controlled for the characteristics of children and families. Using various multivariate econometric models, this thesis suggests that the intensity of nonprofit foster care service provision is diminished in the performance-based, managed care contracting environment. This thesis also finds dramatic differences in agencies' service intensity, even among agencies within similar contracting regimes, and even after controlling for time in care, various types of allegations of maltreatment, and child, primary caregiver, and caseworker characteristics. Yet the variation in service provision to foster children and families is due only in part to whom these children and families or their caseworkers are. The intensity of foster care service provision is somewhat influenced by whom children and families are, why they have come into foster care, and whom their caseworkers are; but it is much more heavily influenced by which agency is serving children and families and the institutional environment the agency has chosen. The implications of these findings and conclusions for research and practice are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether: 1) Southwest Region TRIO high school students between the years 1991 - 2001 continued to college immediately after high school at rates significantly different than similar population students on national and state levels; and 2) immediate college continuation for this group was a function of social and economic characteristics including race, gender, parental education, and home-care environment. The sample included 414 TRIO program participants from Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Arkansas. Data on the 414 participants were gathered using an existing database containing demographic and post-secondary enrollment information on study participants. The findings of this study reveal Southwest Region TRIO students during this ten-year period continued to college immediately after high school at rates not significantly different than the national low-income population of students. Results indicate that when compared to all students in the five-state southwest region, the majority low-income, first-generation TRIO population continued to college at rates not significantly different than all-income students in the region. Findings of this study also revealed select social and economic characteristics were not predictors of immediate college continuation for this group. Finally, the study showed out-of-home care environment students continued to college at significantly higher rates than in-home care Southwest Region TRIO students.

This study examined associations between foster mothers' state of mind in regards to attachment (as measured by the Adult Attachment Projective [AAP]) and foster mothers' descriptions of their foster children (as measured by the Parent Development Interview [PDI]) for 37 foster mothers. Sixteen foster mothers were classified as secure-autonomous while twenty-one were classified as insecure in regards to attachment. Approximately sixty percent of the insecure foster mothers were classified as unresolved with regards to attachment. It was hypothesized that there would be differences between secure and insecure foster mothers on the 13 PDI subscale scores. Results indicated that the two groups (secure and insecure foster mothers) differed significantly on 7 constructs in the PDI; namely pleasure, business of caregiving, achievement, comfort/safe haven, perspective taking, enmeshment, pleasure and pain. Findings suggest foster mothers' attachment status is related to their representations of their foster children. The distributions of attachment classifications in the current study are consistent with those found in other studies and suggest that foster mothers are unresolved in regards to attachment. It is suggested that focus should be on further research and the development of intervention programs related to quality foster parenting. The implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

2031-01-01

It was the purpose of this study (1) to determine the needs of foster-home children; (2) to discover if an how needs of foster-home children are being met in the school; (3) to determine how the placement agency, the school, and the home are working to meet these needs; and (4) to recommend a program of procedure to meet the discovered needs on the basis of the findings. Specifically it will attempt to answer, "What are the needs of foster-home children in some California elementary schools?"