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This qualitative phenomenological study was done with 13 adult women with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who had graduated from university or college. These women encountered many challenges throughout their lifetime. In response to those challenges, they developed strengths and virtues and used effective strategies to successfully graduate post-secondary education. This study used Alfred Adler's concept of early childhood memories in the interviews to elicit conscious and unconscious attributes of the participants to learn more about them. In this study, women with ADHD overcame many challenges by using their virtues and strengths of perseverance/persistence and positive self-esteem. They employed two main strategies to overcome deficits associated with ADHD: seeking support and connection, and improving executive functioning and self-regulation. The study results can inform programs and interventions to help more women with ADHD succeed in graduating advanced education. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Research on language learners' attention suggests that manipulating attention is beneficial in the language learning process as it facilitates the "noticing" of specific linguistic aspects. The current study investigated the effects of directing learners' attention to segments and prosody in English phonetic training. Korean learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) were divided into two groups: one received segment-oriented training focusing on coda voicing contrasts, and the other received prosody-oriented training focusing on low vs. high attachments in relative clauses. The results showed that both groups successfully acquired segmental contrasts, with no significant difference between the two groups, suggesting that segmental learning can occur through automatic processes without explicit attentional focus. However, the prosody-oriented group demonstrated significant improvement in prosodic contrasts, including pause duration, mean pitch, and mean intensity, which were maintained in retention tests. In contrast, the segment-oriented group did not show significant improvement in prosodic contrasts. The study also highlighted the critical role of cognitive factors, particularly attention and executive function, in prosodic perception. While cognitive characteristics did not significantly affect segmental perception, the Flanker test results positively influenced prosodic perception accuracy, emphasizing the importance of selective attention and inhibitory control in processing prosodic features. These findings underscore the necessity of explicit attentional focus and targeted training for acquiring prosodic contrasts in production. Prosodic contrasts require higher-level attentional processes and explicit focus to be effectively learned, whereas segmental contrasts rely more on automatic detection and less on such attentional processes. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying L2 learning and informs more effective pedagogical strategies for language educators. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of the mixed method explanatory-sequential study was to measure teacher confidence in instructing students with the specific learning disability of dyslexia and its related disorders of ADHD, anxiety, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, executive functioning, and speech and language disorders. Two surveys, the short form of the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) and the Teaching Students with Disabilities Efficacy Scale (Dawson & Scott, 2013) were used to survey Christian school teachers' self-perceptions as general education teachers and as general education teachers teaching students with dyslexia and related disorders in the general education classroom. Quantitative analysis used survey means for comparison, while qualitative interviews investigated teachers' feedback related directly to their experiences teaching students with dyslexia and related disorders in the general education classroom. Themes indicate teachers' desire safe learning environments and academic success for all students yet lack pre-service preparedness. More specialized pre-service and in-service training is necessary to equip teachers to engage and instruct students with dyslexia and related disorders in general education classrooms. Findings extend the body of research on dyslexia and related disorders in the field of special education and general education in public school classrooms as well as other non-sectarian private and Christian schools nationally and worldwide. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

According to cognitive psychologists, consistent practice (i.e., tasks with a high degree of similarity) of a skill leads to the development of automaticity, with the degree of automatization being increased if the practice also involves exact repetition. Practice is skill specific, meaning that practicing one skill does not automatize related skills. Once achieved, automaticity has been characterized as the ability to perform a primary task with little interference from performing a concurrent secondary task. A second key characteristic of skill automatization is that it involves a gradual decrease in executive working memory (EWM) demands. The primary purpose of this study is to examine whether such claims put forth by cognitive psychologists are transferable to the automatization of second language (L2) bottom-up listening skills. The secondary purpose of this study is to explore whether reading while listening promotes listening automaticity to a greater extent than listening only, as has been argued in the L2 literature (Chang, 2011; Chang & Millett, 2014; Chang and Millett, 2016; Chang et al., 2018). The third purpose of this study is to examine whether visuospatial working memory (VWM) is a predictor of listening automaticity growth and to what degree it is related to EWM. Although L2 listening is regarded as a cognitive skill, the automatization of L2 listening has not been researched as described by cognitive psychologists. That is, using dual tasks and a reduction in EWM involvement as indices of automaticity, and providing consistent practice with an exact repetition component. In addition, the existing research into the question surrounding what kind of practice is more effective in bringing about L2 listening automaticity--listening while reading or listening only--has methodological flaws that have led to an inconclusive answer. To fill these gaps in the literature, I designed a listening-while-reading and a listening-only intervention that blended elements claimed to be conducive to automaticity development in cognitive psychology and L2 research, namely consistent training and exact repetition of stimuli and time pressure, while taking into account the methodological issues of previous L2 research. Data were collected from 290 Japanese high school students, who were assigned to the listening-while-reading, the listening-only, or a control group. Participants in the listening-only intervention listened to texts composed of a narrow range of vocabulary and grammar structures, which warranted consistency, whose speech rates increased by 10 words per minute (wpm) over the sessions from 100 wpm to 180 wpm. The listening-while-reading intervention involved listening to the same texts while reading the transcripts. Exact repetition of the stimuli was provided in both interventions by playing the texts two consecutive times in each intervention session. After the second listening, comprehension was assessed using a Japanese summary of the texts and a set of five multiple-choice questions. Degree of automatization was measured at three time points (i.e., Pretest, Posttest 1, and Posttest 2) separated by two cycles of training, through two dual tasks at each time point. The dual tasks, which consisted of listening to a text delivered at 160 wpm while drawing a series of vertical lines on blank paper and were followed by the abovementioned comprehension measures, were used to construct measures of automaticity. Dual-task data were linked through a Rasch longitudinal design, keeping text difficulty invariant across the dual tasks, with Rasch person measures for comprehension for subsequent analyses computed by combining scores on summaries and multiple-choice questions, while giving double weight to the summaries. Regarding the memory constructs, EWM was assessed through a speaking and a listening span task, whose scores were combined into a global EWM Rasch measure that was used in the analyses to test if the participants' EWM costs diminished over time. Similarly, a single VWM Rasch measure was calculated by combining the participants' scores on the Mr. Peanut task (DeAvila, 1974), which assesses visual memory, and the Corsi block span task (Corsi, 1972), which assesses spatial memory, as additional predictors of L2 listening automaticity. To my knowledge, measures of VWM have not previously been employed as predictors of listening ability. Results from a repeated-measures ANOVA and a multi-group latent growth model indicated that both intervention groups automatized their listening skills to a greater extent than the control group with the listening-only group developing automaticity to the largest extent. Although a reduction of EWM demands was not observed, possibly because the participants were not complete beginners and might have started the study with some degree of automaticity, the fact that they could perform the dual tasks less effortfully over time evidenced automatization. Interestingly, VWM significantly predicted growth in listening automaticity, which was interpreted to mean that as listeners automatize their listening skills, they become able to see what they hear. This result was explained in terms of attentional capacity limits, where higher-level processes, such as visualizing input, cannot be achieved until the lower-level processes such as word recognition or grammatical parsing have been automatized. Follow-up qualitative interviews corroborated the quantitative findings and extended them by suggesting that a small number of training sessions might be sufficient to develop listening automaticity. Results of an additional correlation analysis further showed that VWM and EWM are not highly related as has been shown by some experimental evidence in the working memory literature. The finding that listening only was superior to listening while reading is important because it contradicts previous research and suggests that to automatize listening, one needs to practice in real-operating conditions. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed. First, listening to texts whose speech rates increase over the practice sessions promotes listening automaticity. Next, claims by cognitive psychologists regarding the development of skill automaticity are largely generalizable to the natural conditions of classroom-based research focusing on the acquisition of real-world skills such as L2 listening. Last, the multi-component versus the unitary view of working memory. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

As children develop the abilities to engage in more sophisticated forms of play, play serves as a context in which children can practice and develop skills in various domains including adaptive behavior and executive functioning. StoryCarnival is a tool designed over 39 sessions at a preschool, working with two groups of 3-5-year-old children, with the goal of setting up a specific type of developmentally beneficial face-to-face sociodramatic play similar to Tools of the Mind using 1) e-book stories on which to base play 2) a play-planning tool and 3) a teleoperated voice agent to engage children during play. My dissertation is the result of five years of work aiming to explore StoryCarnival's potential utility in contexts other than the one it was originally designed within. My overarching goal is to identify and make adaptations to the StoryCarnival system to make it more accessible to a broader group of children, more usable by adult facilitators other than the research team who designed it and begin to assess its potential to support holistic skill development in multiple contexts. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Special education teachers who provide educational opportunities for students in low-incidence programs within a Southern urban public school system in the United States faced challenges when trying to promote independence. The purpose of this project study was to understand the perceptions of teachers and the approaches they seek to best support their students in low-incidence programs in developing the independence necessary to engage in society. Maslow's theory of motivation was used as the conceptual framework for this project study. How special education teachers perceive their ability and the resources they need to support the independence of students in low-incidence programs constituted essential research questions for the study. A basic qualitative design method was used to collect data from 15 low-incidence special education teachers through semi-structured interviews. The data were analyzed by using the inductive coding method. Five themes emerged from the data: autonomy, functional instruction, desire, material, and professional development. The project study's findings may promote a positive social change by presenting special education teachers with the resources and support they require to encourage the independence of students in low-incidence programs and their participation in society as a whole. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Executive functioning has been a buzz word in education for a few years, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. The research around executive functioning is exploding, as teachers are seeking to support students entering their classrooms with what seems like a wider variety of needs and less independence than ever before. Many districts are technology rich, students often have their own computer, and teachers are looking for ways to support students in developing their working memory, cognitive flexibility, and response inhibition, the skills that make up executive functioning. These skills are of uppermost importance as students transition from elementary school to middle school, where students are suddenly expected to transition to seven or eight different classes in one day, learn seven or eight different teachers' expectations, shift between seven or eight different subject areas, and keep everything organized with increased independence. An almost impossible task, this can challenge even the highest achieving students. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived experience of middle school teachers supporting executive functioning development of the students in their classroom and to learn about the resources teachers access in this area. Six middle school teachers, teaching a variety of subjects, in grades six through eight participated in this study. Data were collected through a semi-structured three interview format along with classroom observations. Eight themes emerged from the data analysis: (1) Insufficient information in teacher preparation programs, (2) Understanding of executive functioning and brain development, (3) Lack of assessments, (4) Technology, (5) Supports are environmental in nature, (6) Limited instructional strategies, (7) Inconsistent family support and expectations, (8) The need for targeted professional development within the MTSS framework. Based on the findings of this study the researcher concluded that executive functioning supports must be embedded within schools already functioning MTSS processes. Grade level expectations for executive functioning must be set, informal assessment tools must be adopted, and universal support should be embedded into instruction across all content settings. Students who require additional support, based on the assessments should be provided targeted and intensive interventions which must consist of explicit instruction including modeling and think alouds. Overall, executive functioning is a necessary component of instruction and is a life skill that must be addressed and supported, especially in middle school where expectations increase significantly. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The beneficial effects of nature and natural environments have been extensively researched and the findings generally support that nature and natural environments can reduce stress and improve cognitive function. To evaluate if self-reported stress levels are reduced, or if cognitive functions are enhanced among adult learners in the presence of a natural environment as compared to an artificial environment, eighty-four adults, predominately between the ages of 19 and 25 (n = 69) were tested using a repeated-measures design in one of four experimental conditions (n = 21). Group 1 was first tested in an artificial environment and one week later in a natural environment, group 2 was first tested in a natural environment and one week later in an artificial environment, group 3 was tested at both time points in an artificial environment, and group 4 at both time points in a natural environment. The artificial environment was one of two rooms located in the same academic support building, and the natural environment was a garden composed of horticultural and other natural elements located in close proximity to an academic building. Four standardized cognitive testing instruments were used to test verbal memory and learning, working memory, spatial fluid intelligence, and executive function. To measure self-reported stress, a modified form of the Perceived Stress Questionnaire was used. No significant findings supported that cognitive function was enhanced in a natural environment. However, in group 1 (A1 -- N2), the effect size indicated a medium relationship existed between the natural environment and reduced stress (d = 0.42), and a trend of lower stress levels was observed in all groups when tested in the natural environment. The findings suggest that a natural environment positively impacts stress in adult learners. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study examines the role Google Calendar has in improving Self-Regulated Learning (SRL), planning, and time management in post-secondary students with intellectual disabilities (ID). Individuals with ID experience difficulties in executive functioning (EF) skills, such as reasoning, problem-solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. Adult learners with ID are a growing population on college and university campuses. Despite the increased awareness and acceptance, few studies have been published on EF and the transition into post-secondary education of adults with ID. The study was designed to answer the following research question: To what extent does the training in a calendar application support the improvement of SRL and time management for post-secondary students with intellectual disabilities? The data analysis did not find evidence that the intervention, as designed, improved time management and SRL in students with ID. Low statistical power, problems with implementation, and several confounding variables made it difficult to find any clear pattern of evidence concerning the efficacy of the implemented intervention. Even though the intervention developed here did not improve SRL and time management, the SRL framework remains promising in helping identify factors that could improve these skills in students with ID in post-secondary education. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant disruption to public school education particularly regarding the mode of instruction as it shifted from face-to-face to virtual. The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of this rapid and major change on the socialization, academic achievement, and application of executive function skills of Gifted and Talented elementary school students as perceived by the parents/guardians and teachers of those students. The data for this mixed methods longitudinal study was collected via pre-and post-surveys and one-on-one interviews of parents/guardians and teachers of Gifted and Talented students in Cecil County, Maryland. Of the 12 conditions examined in this study only two returned statistically significant results pertaining to differences in perception. The perceptions of parents/guardians pertaining to academic achievement changed over time and the difference in perception of executive function skills between parents/guardians and teachers was significant on the post-survey. Parents/guardians indicated socialization to be their most important consideration while teachers indicated academic achievement. Both groups indicated executive function skills to be third in importance. Study results imply that during an emergency switch in mode of instruction the effect on socialization, academic achievement, and application executive function skills as perceived by parents/guardians and teachers does not change to an appreciable extent. The study did indicate that the absence of continued specific gifted and talented services was a concern for both parents/guardians and teachers. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This study examined how faculty who teach in specialized undergraduate programs for autistic college students approach self-advocacy teaching. Test et al.'s (2005) conceptual framework of self-advocacy was used as a lens to investigate this topic. Through ten semi-structured interviews (faculty in specialized college autism programs), ten themes emerged to address three research questions: (a) supporting students in learning; (b) supporting students in career development; (c) supporting students with executive functioning skills; (d) supporting students with transition skills, (e) family and personal connection; (f) disability studies background; (g) career change; (h) supporting students develop self-awareness skills; (i) supporting students in skills development and (j) supporting students using flexible classroom. The discussions highlight the challenges, approaches, and conceptual implementations of the findings within the broader literature on faculty approaches to students' development of self-advocacy skills. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Reading comprehension is an extremely important skill that students need to be effective learners; however, a significant percentage of students are reading below grade level on a nationwide scale (National Assessment for Educational Progress, 2019; National Institute of Health as cited by Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2022). In order to address these deficits, it is important to understand the neurocognitive skills associated with developing reading comprehension to inform appropriate pedagogy and intervention. One such model is the Simple View of Reading (SVR; Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990), which explains reading comprehension as the product of decoding skills and language comprehension. However, more recently, the neuropsychological underpinnings of reading comprehension have been explored, including the role of executive functioning in developing these skills. This present study aimed to examine the role of executive functioning skills within the SVR framework in a clinically complex and economically disadvantaged sample. Mediation analyses indicated executive functioning skills--as measured by working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control--indirectly impacted reading comprehension through the development of decoding and language comprehension. Additionally, executive functioning was significantly lower in both groups of students with below average decoding skills and below average language comprehension skills, respectively. Thus, reading comprehension intervention for clinical populations should not only target decoding and language comprehension skills, but also include executive functioning remediation. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The shift to online learning management systems such as Canvas seemed to assume students would become more independent and self-regulated, yet little research has been conducted in this area, especially with school-age students. This study examined the ways middle school students engaged with an online learning management system (LMS) and their perceived impact of the LMS on building executive functioning learning behaviors. A mixed method explanatory sequential study was conducted at an independent Jewish school in the northeast region of the United States. A standardized online social-emotional assessment was used to determine the executive functioning profile scores (e.g., beginner, intermediate, and advanced) of 28 students in grades six and seven. These students also completed a Canvas engagement survey. Purposive sampling was then used to select 10 students representing all three levels of the executive functioning profiles for semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analysis revealed insignificant correlations between students' executive functioning profile levels and their Canvas engagement levels. Executive Functioning Beginners were found to have limited engagement in the LMS. Executive Functioning Intermediates were found to have most consistent use of the LMS, with 80% stating they used the LMS calendar and 50% stating they used the to-do list. Executive Functioning Advanced students seemed to choose to either actively engage or not engage at all with LMS. Qualitative analysis further revealed students felt the LMS made submission of assignments easier, helped to centralize all course materials and grades into one location, was a useful backup for their memory, and made completing make-up work easier. However, they communicated that the LMS became less helpful when teachers forgot to post some materials and when each teachers used it in different ways. These findings suggest middle school students' executive functioning level determines middle schoolers' engagement with the LMS and that teachers' use of LMS can help or hinder students' engagement with the LMS. Implications of the study for evaluation of new school technologies, and development of school curricula, systems and policies are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The post-pandemic return to school posed many challenges for educational leaders. Administrative teams had to come up with plans to close achievement gaps created by an extended period of remote learning. One suburban New Jersey high school identified at-risk students and created an Academic Mentoring Support (AMS) program as an intervention. Once students were identified by their mathematics grades, they were placed in the Academic Mentoring Support classes as part of their regular academic schedule. This study's research was conducted to determine the program's level of efficacy. Student success was measured using two qualitative methods to determine if the students across six AMS classes increased their overall achievement upon receiving additional support in the areas of social-emotional learning, executive function skills, and math reinforcement. Teachers (n=6) who facilitated the AMS intervention program's classes were interviewed regarding their perceptions of academic achievement among students engaged in this support program in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the research found that teachers perceived AMS classes as helpful in closing post-pandemic achievement gaps for at-risk students. Through qualitative methods, phenomenology, and the constant comparative method, common themes emerged among teacher responses to support this theory with evidence from first-hand experiences. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The Executive Functions are a collection of higher order brain functions. Nevertheless, there exists much confusion on what they are and how they function. This dissertation explores the history, theory, and application of the Executive Functions as they apply to school psychologists. Topics such as the current leading theories of the Executive Functions, tools used in assessment, how to communicate results, and current interventions and accommodations are presented. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this dissertation is to evaluate the effectiveness of graphic organizers, specifically flowcharts, as a tool to support decision-making during spelling for students identified with learning disabilities. This dissertation is composed of five chapters. The first chapter is an introduction about how graphic organizers support students with executive functioning difficulties, a common challenge for students with learning disabilities. The second chapter is a systematic literature review analyzing the current literature about the effects of reading, writing, and spelling interventions for students with learning disabilities. The third chapter is a research study that used single-case research methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of a spelling flowchart on outcomes for students with learning disabilities. The fourth chapter is a practitioner paper that provides educators with strategies for using flowcharts and multiple exemplars for incorporating them as decision-making tools in the classroom. Finally, the fifth chapter details my future career goals and research aims. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this phenomenological qualitative study was to provide a voice and perspective of the lived experiences of participants with executive function deficits and develop an understanding of its effect on their transition to a four-year university. The following research question guided the study: What support do students with executive function deficits transitioning to post-secondary education need to be successful? The problem addressed in the study was determining what support students with executive function deficits need for a successful transition to postsecondary education. The phenomenological qualitative study utilized a retrospective lens to interview students who were 18 years or older, in their second semester of college or beyond, and attended a northeast Arkansas university. Additionally, Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory was employed to understand the phenomenon and support the findings within the study. The research findings suggested students with executive functioning deficits needed support from both family and teachers, intervention and recognition of a disability at an early age, and access to resources and information as they transitioned to postsecondary education. The implications of these findings were students with executive dysfunction transitioning to postsecondary education needed extensive supports from all aspects of their bioecological system. This research should aid K-12 schools and postsecondary institutions to better understand the barriers students with executive function deficits face and develop the supports necessary for a successful transition to postsecondary education. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Previous research has found mixed results for a link between executive function and perspective-taking. One proposed reason for this is that perspective-taking during comprehension tasks may not be internally reliable. This dissertation presents two large individual differences experiments with multiple perspective-taking during comprehension and executive function measures. We aimed to see: (1) whether people were consistent in their ability to take perspectives during comprehension, (2) if the typical tasks used in this area were reliable, and (3) whether executive function measures predicted perspective-taking ability. We found a lack of reliability of some of the most commonly used perspective-taking during comprehension tasks, and no evidence that inhibition control or working memory predict perspective-taking ability. Sparse correlations between the perspective-taking tasks lead us to propose that perspective-taking during comprehension should be considered in a more granular way. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Unintentional Falls is the second leading cause of nonfatal injuries in the United States (U.S.). Sedentary behaviors are at an all-time high in schools leading to children not engaging in enough physical activity throughout their school day. Physical education and recess opportunities have decreased in school for the past ten years, leading to children having motor competence deficits and becoming victims of fall injuries due to the lack of physical activity exposure. A foreign motor competence assessment was identified that allows researchers and physical educators to evaluate motor competence abilities directly related to postural balance abilities called the "Korperkoordinationstest fur Kinder" (KTK). The KTK has been deemed a valid and reliable assessment tool in other countries but has not been used in the U.S. This raised whether the KTK can be a valid and reliable tool for physical education to evaluate typical and atypical school-aged children. Our first study examined if the KTK assessment tool is feasible and adaptable to administer in a U.S. physical education setting. We translated the scoring protocol, procedures, and scoresheet to be able to administer the KTK in a U.S. physical education setting. We found that the KTK was feasible to administer in a U.S. physical education setting by establishing a KTK implementation strategy, assessment time, and equipment availability. The KTK scoring protocol and procedures were used in Studies 2 and 3 to determine the fidelity of KTK in a U.S. physical education class and whether recess can impact children's MC abilities. In Study 2, we found that the KTK was a reliable assessment physical educators could administer with fidelity (validity), determining that the KTK is a valuable assessment tool to administer in a U.S. physical education class. In study 3, we found that when children are provided 60 minutes of recess a day can enhance their motor competence abilities compared to children receiving 30 or 20 minutes of recess daily. In conclusion, the KTK is a valid and reliable assessment tool in the U.S. The KTK can be used as an alternative tool to determine children's motor competence abilities related to postural balance abilities to identify children motor competence abilities. Additionally, recess can be used as an intervention to enhance children's motor competence abilities using the KTK assessment. For example, when children were given 60 minutes of recess daily, it allowed them to enhance their motor competence abilities compared to children receiving 30 or 20 minutes daily over an academic school year. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Elementary students transferring from traditional education classrooms to a Montessori school lack executive function skills (EFS) and struggle with academic performance and disrupt classes. The specific problem is the lack of strategies and support from school administrators to address an overwhelming number of new elementary Montessori students needing EFS improvement. The purpose of this qualitative exploratory case study was to explore teachers' and school administrators' perceptions of strategies to support teachers regarding EFS development among new Montessori students in grades first through sixth in a single Southwestern Montessori school. The theoretical framework was primarily Vygotsky's social constructionism. The research question involved: What are teachers' and school administrators' perceptions regarding strategies used to support teachers in developing EFS among new Montessori students in grades first through sixth in a Southwestern Montessori school? The sample included four administrators, eight classroom teachers, and four student support teachers. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted, and 2 focus groups were employed: 1 for administrators, and a separate 1 for teachers/support personnel. Findings indicated the need for improved vetting of potential students during the admission process, additional classroom resources, and improvements to the parental education module. Future research is needed to explore the potential for an issue-based strategic planning model to foster collaboration between school administration and teachers. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Learning in a multimedia environment puts many demands on a learner's limited working memory, but this can become even more demanding as the level of distraction increases in a lesson. What has not been investigated much in previous literature is whether higher levels of distraction in lessons are more harmful to some learners than others. This series of studies investigates how individual differences in the ability to manage incoming information (i.e., executive function) and the ability to hold incoming information (i.e., working memory capacity) play a role in learning across lessons with various amounts and types of distractions. Experiment 1 investigated the role that individual differences in managing and holding incoming information play in learning from online multimedia lessons with various amounts of verbal and visual distracting elements. In Study 1a, learners watched a lesson with a high degree of distractions, in Study 1b learners watch a lesson with a moderate degree of distractions, and in Study 1c learners watched a lesson with a low degree of distractions. This set of studies found that as the degree of distraction increased, the correlation between executive function and posttest performance increased; there was no significant relationship at low levels of distraction but there was a significant relationship at moderate and high levels of distraction, suggesting that better executive function was related to better posttest performance only when a lesson was distracting. Working memory capacity was not significantly correlated with posttest performance in any version of the lesson. Experiment 2 further investigated this relationship to see if this finding would be extended into media with an increased possibility of distraction, specifically immersive virtual reality (IVR). In Experiment 2, learners watched a lesson presented via IVR or as a slideshow. This experiment found that, although there were no differences in learning between the two conditions, the relationship between executive function and posttest performance was only seen in the IVR lesson, not the slideshow lesson, such that learners with better executive function had better posttest scores when learning in the IVR lesson than learners with worse executive function. Once again, working memory capacity did not significant correlate with posttest performance. Lastly, Experiment 3 investigated whether the novelty of the IVR learning environment increased the distractibility of learning in IVR. Experiment 3 had learners either play a game in IVR prior to the lesson or had participants only watch the lesson. This experiment found that reducing the novelty of IVR for learners did not impact learning and so novelty may not be the reason for increased distractibility in IVR lessons. This series of experiments suggests that it is vital to think about the role that individual differences in learners' skill at managing incoming information plays in learning, especially when using lessons with distracting information or distracting technology. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Executive functions are higher order mental processes individuals use during academic tasks (Diamond, 2013). Few studies examined executive functions in braille reading. Additionally, most studies located by the primary researcher were studies analyzing group differences between individuals with visual impairments and those who are sighted and showed mixed results. There were three goals of this study: (1) To determine the contribution of executive functions to braille reading, (2) To determine if these are the same (or different) from print, (3) to determine if group differences exist between those who are visually impaired and those who are sighted. Visually impaired and sighted participants were recruited for this study. All data was analyzed to ensure statistical assumptions were met. To address the first goal, a set of five regression equations were conducted with age, auditory discrimination and onset of visual impairment held constant. To address the second goal, a set of moderator analyses were conducted with age and auditory discrimination held constant. Lastly, to address the third goal, a set of ANCOVAs (with age as the covariate) were conducted. Results suggest that executive functions do not strongly relate to braille reading, although working memory relates to print reading more than braille reading. This is important, as working memory strategies and supports may not be as effective for braille readers. Additionally, the results of the ANCOVA suggest that there are no differences between visually impaired and sighted participants. However, many of these null results could be a function of the study being underpowered. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

High school physical education (PE) class offerings are on the decline, despite research that shows PE can contribute to overall academic success. Several factors contribute to academic success, particularly executive function, which is an umbrella term for the different cognitive and mental skills crucial for learning, and Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) which are skills people acquire and can use in school and later in life. The purpose of this study was to examine the perspectives of PE on SEL and the impact of executive function in high school students. A mixed methods approach was used to collect executive function data and student interviews on a 9th grade PE class. An interpretive qualitative research approach guided the focus groups regarding SEL self-competencies in high school students for a unique student perspective of SEL. Executive function was assessed through the completion of a mobile flanker task that students took on school iPads at three time points in the school semester. A repeated measures ANOVA was used with SPSS statistical software to determine significance. Post hoc analysis with paired samples t-tests were done for significant values. Findings revealed students were able to give specific examples of SEL competencies they were introduced to during PE class as described through the focus groups that they were unable to do before. Executive function results uncovered that congruent reaction time (RT) trials yielded significant results. An assumption can be made that those students did improve in their general cognitive processing of information but not inhibitory control. Study findings can potentially be used to help reduce the marginalization of high school PE by demonstrating that PE with an emphasis on SEL can provide a more equitable and inclusive learning environment (James, 2011). [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Low mathematics achievement in the United States has led to the recent advances in the development and evaluation of Tier 2 mathematics interventions designed to close gaps in mathematics that exist at school entry and prevent these gaps from widening. Because Tier 2 mathematics interventions are generally effective for improving mathematics outcomes for most, but not all, at-risk students, recent research has been focused on understanding for whom these interventions are most effective by examining student-level variables that may impact intervention effectiveness. One cognitive variable of particular interest has been executive function (EF). Using extant data collected for the Fusion Efficacy Project (Clarke et al., 2015), this dissertation examined: (1) whether there was differential response to the Fusion, a Tier 2 small-group first-grade mathematics intervention program, as a function of pre-intervention EF, measured by the Head Toes Knees Shoulders (HTKS) Task and (2) whether these differential effects varied by group size. Participants included first-grade students (n = 459) within classrooms (n = 53) randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions (a small group of two or five students) or the business-as-usual control condition. Proximal and distal mathematics outcome measures were collected at pretest and posttest. Results of the moderation analyses indicated that, compared to the mathematics gains of students in the control condition, gains in mathematics of students in the intervention condition did not differ as a function of pre-intervention EF. However, moderation analyses did reveal a differential response based on group size for one of the four mathematics outcome measures, such that students with lower initial EF gained greater benefit from the intervention delivered in the smaller group (2:1) compared to the larger group (5:1). Results are discussed in the context of implications for future research and practice. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sleep is important for child development. Sleep problems in early childhood are associated with negative outcomes across numerous domains, including executive control, internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, and social competence (Astill et al., 2012; Hysing et al., 2016; Spruyt et al., 2019). Little research has focused on moderators that may interact with sleep problems to exacerbate the risk for negative outcomes--a critical next step to facilitate the identification of and early intervention for children who may be particularly vulnerable to negative outcomes associated with sleep problems. Utilizing a sleep-specific developmental systems framework (El-Sheikh & Sadeh, 2015), four risk factors were examined as potential moderators of the associations between sleep problems and executive control and socioemotional outcomes: genetics (i.e., a dopamine polygenetic risk score), temperament (i.e., negative affectivity), maternal depression, and socioeconomic status (i.e., income-to-needs ratio). Data were collected from a community sample of 345 children across three time points during preschool and middle childhood. Children and their caregivers attended laboratory-based assessments and completed measures of sleep problems, executive control, socioemotional outcomes, and the identified moderators. In addition, teachers completed measures of socioemotional outcomes. Ten models were identified and tested using structural equation modeling. Controlling for biological and environmental risk factors, sleep problems at age five predicted components of executive control at age nine, specifically inhibition/flexible shifting but not working memory. Sleep problems at age five also predicted internalizing psychopathology. However, after controlling for risk factors, early childhood sleep problems did not predict later externalizing psychopathology, social competence, or social information processing. There were no significant interactions between sleep problems and any of the identified moderators (i.e., genetics, temperament, maternal depression, or socioeconomic status). These findings add to the literature documenting associations between early sleep problems and later developmental outcomes across cognitive and socioemotional domains and reinforce the need for better education surrounding optimal sleep practices, screening to identify children who may have sleep problems, and interventions for children with sleep problems. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Trauma can have deep impacts on children and the development of their frontal lobe. It is within the frontal lobe that executive functioning skills such as time management, work completion, and organization of materials are housed (De Bellis & Zisk, 2014; Kavanaugh et al., 2016). Symptoms outlined as executive functions are those that are also signifiers of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with deficits in cognitive functions such as weaknesses in following directions, organizing materials, regulation of emotions and patience (Miller, 2018; Su et al., 2019). While research has been done regarding childhood trauma as well as ADHD, the literature was void of known studies that explore evidence of trauma in the educational records of children identified with the academic diagnosis of ADHD. The proposed research looked at characteristics of childhood trauma (neglect, physical or mental abuse, divorce and death) and an academic diagnosis of OHI/ADD/ADHD in High School Students through a retrospective record review of Special Education records (2017-2018 Individualized Education Plans, Cognitive Assessments and Developmental Histories and Updates) through the theoretical framework of cognitive trauma theory, developmental trauma theory and executive function theory of ADHD, conclusions were drawn about the impact of the trauma and analyze how the IEP was written to support the student's need (Black et al., 2021; Goldstein & Naglieri, 2014). [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Sleep is a vital human function, critical to health across the lifespan. However, college students report significant disturbances in sleep quality and sleep hygiene (ACHA, 2019; Moulin & Chung, 2016). The consequences of poor sleep include lower cognitive and executive functioning abilities (Honn et al., 2019; Whitney et al., 2015) and poorer academic performance (Okano et al., 2019). Given the prevalence of these issues and the deleterious consequences, several sleep hygiene interventions have been developed for college students. However, the effectiveness of sleep hygiene education is not fully supported (Dietrich et al., 2016), and the role of individual characteristics that impact treatment effectiveness (i.e., executive functioning ability) has not been studied. The present study will examine the role of executive functioning in sleep quality and sleep hygiene, which may highlight the need for executive functioning supports within sleep educational programs. Executive functioning allows individuals to engage in health-promoting behaviors (Hall & Marteau, 2014), though limited research is available on its contribution to sleep-specific health behaviors. Given that executive functioning deficits (Sheehan & Iarocci 2019) and sleep problems (Hayley et al., 2017) independently predict lower academic achievement, it is crucial to understand the relationship among these three factors to better understand how to support college students and promote academic success. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The first year of college is a time of challenging transition for many. Students are adapting to a new way of learning as well as developing as adults. Using a mixed methods design, this action research study aimed to provide insight into the student experience for academically at-risk first-year students in a health professions program at a mid-size university in New England. Quantitative data showed that most students' academic performance met or exceeded the minimum requirement for their major with support from their advisor through this intervention. Further, quantitative data showed that student development did occur for participants. Qualitative data allowed for a deeper understanding of the participants' experience. Through student reflection activities, it was evident that executive functioning skill development, relationship building, and self-awareness are important components of personal development and academic achievement. An action plan was developed to suggest steps for moving forward following this study. Additional research is needed to understand the long-term effects of this intervention. Further, a deeper investigation into academic advisor training and development can improve the understanding of the impact of academic advisors on student success. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Cognition is the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and senses. Based on Embodied Cognition theory, physical activities are an important manifestation of cognitive functions. As a result, they can be employed to both assess and train cognitive skills. In order to assess various cognitive measures, the ATEC system has been proposed. It consists of physical exercises with different variations and difficulty levels, designed to provide assessment of executive and motor functions. This thesis focuses on obtaining human activity representation from recorded videos of ATEC tasks in order to automatically assess embodied cognition performance. Representation learning is a collection of methods that allows a model to be fed with raw data and to automatically encode the representations needed for downstream task like activity recognition. Both supervised and self- supervised approaches are employed in this work, But the emphasis is on the latter which can exploit a small set of annotated data to obtain an effective representation. The performance of different self-supervised approaches are investigated for automated cognitive assessment of children performing ATEC tasks. This effort is the first step toward building a comprehensive digital phenotyping framework that can collect multi-modal data from variety of sensors such as cameras, wearables, etc., for monitoring human behaviour. Digital phenotyping is the moment by moment, quantification of the individual-level human phenotype using data from personal digital devices. Digital phenotyping will close the loop between detecting clinical phenomena and taking action by using data to trigger and deliver personalized digital treatment or prevention interventions. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Learning to read is an important milestone in children's development. Factors in the home environment is been linked to the behavioral and neural correlates of reading, but further work is needed to unpack the underlying mechanisms. The home literacy environment (HLE) plays a role in children's reading and language development, while parental socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to children's reading outcomes and executive functions. Because these factors capture different variables in the home environment, they likely influence children's reading development in unique ways. The HLE and parental SES were found to commonly associate with children's word recognition and reading outcomes through the underlying (right) occipital-temporal cortex. Uniquely from parental SES, the HLE was associated with children's oral language abilities and the underlying temporal-parietal regions, which were in turn related to reading outcomes. Uniquely from the HLE, parental SES was related to children's executive functions and the underlying prefrontal and superior parietal areas, which were ultimately associated with reading outcomes. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Executive functions (EF) are important cognitive processing skills required for planning, reasoning, problem solving and self-monitoring. It is vital to various aspects of human development from behavioral, social-emotional to academic. There is an increasing interest in identifying and developing cognitive skills training interventions. Results have shown promising results using custom-designed games for cognitive skills training. Cognitive skills training games can enhance cognitive skills training performance and outcomes through motivating and engaging learners in repeated practice and progressive challenges. However, research focus on understanding the impact of game design on motivation and performance in custom-designed cognitive skills training games is limited. This study examined the impact of two specific game design elements (star system and motivational agent) in a cognitive skills training game on adolescents' intrinsic motivation and executive function skills. Four versions of Gwakkamole, a digital game designed to train inhibition skill, a specific subskill of executive function, were played by adolescents (aged 9-14; N = 103) for 20 minutes, (1) star system only, (2) motivational agent only, (3) star system and motivational agent, and (4) no star system and motivational agent. Three levels of transfer Game log data were used for measuring in-game performance. Two EF measures were administered before and after the interventions: the Flanker task (inhibition skill measure) and the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task (shifting skill measure) for understanding EF performances. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory was administered after the intervention for measuring intrinsic motivation. Controlling for pretest score, a significant higher in-game performance was found in the star system groups but no significant differences were found in executive functions performances. In addition, there were no significant differences in the level of intrinsic motivation across treatment conditions. These findings illustrate the potential of game design elements in improving game-based cognitive skills training outcomes. It provides a foundation for informing future research in designing and developing custom-designed cognitive skills training games. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive function (EF) difficulties exhibit numerous symptoms that contribute to their struggles in school. The purpose of this action research study was to investigate and improve the academic experience for high school students with ADHD and EF deficits at Bayside High School. Participants and data collected in Cycle 1 consisted of students with ADHD and EF deficits and teachers who offered their insights about the experiences of high school students with ADHD. Action steps included a 6-week program which was designed, implemented, and evaluated in Cycle 2 to educate teachers on the diagnosis and symptoms of ADHD as well as EF deficits, then discuss and develop strategies for helping these students to develop academic independence. Findings included: high school students with ADHD and EF have difficulty choosing strategies to address their academic difficulties and teachers should set aside time during class to help them with this, participants believe education is needed about the different ways that ADHD and EF manifests itself so they can better understand how to work with these students, and students with ADHD respond better when teachers establish a supportive relationship. Implications for the organization included an infographic of strategies that were discussed or developed, a continuation of the professional development program for teachers at the research site, and sharing information about ADHD and EF in the classroom and on social media to educate readers and support students with ADHD and EF. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

School models have been slow to evolve, however, expectations of students in terms of schoolwork and homework have increased year over year. These increased demands require a high level of Executive Functioning (EF). However, a disconnect between the demands of schools and children's developing EF system have led to increased incidences of academic-related stress in adolescents. Due to the impact EF deficits have on student achievement and affect and the key role teachers play in assessing and addressing EF deficits, it is critical to understand teachers' knowledge and beliefs about EFs and how this informs their instructional strategies. This study, through a quantitative design, explored New Jersey Association of Independent School member school teachers' beliefs and knowledge of Executive Function (EF), their knowledge of indicators of EF deficits, and the strategies they use to support students with EF deficits and whether there is correlation between these variables and their experience and training. Due primarily to small sample size and convenience sampling, no correlations, positive or negative, were found between teachers' experience and training and their knowledge/beliefs/practices about EF and the strategies they would use to support students with EF deficits. The study did, however, find a negative correlation between teachers' experience and their flexibility in terms of the instructional practices they would use to support students with EFs. This indicates that teachers earlier in their careers are more likely to differentiate their instructions to support students with diverse learning needs. This study includes recommendations for future research and implications for practice in this critical area. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Executive function (EF) skills are cognitive processes that include goal setting, organizing, prioritizing, flexibly shifting attention, accessing working memory, and self-monitoring behavior and progress (Meltzer, 2018). These skills are integral in promoting students' ability to self-regulate their learning, solve problems, and work independently. This study includes data collected from six students in a 5th-grade art class setting. An emphasis on building EF skills in early adolescent learners was applied in order to address diminished engagement, limited problem-solving skills, and lack of ownership. This study emphasizes the process of artistic creation and asks students to set a personal intention for each class to highlight the practice of planning and goal setting in art-making. Data for this study was collected through audio-recorded and transcribed individual and group interviews, written self-report rating scales, goal setting worksheets, and photographs of student work. Students were also asked to participate in metacognitive reflections at several stages of their design process to record changes in student disposition toward their ability and toward the importance of EF strategies to their work habits. These strategies were implemented and examined to determine how the introduction, utilization, and scaffolding of EF strategies could influence motivation, shape a growth mindset mentality, and help students begin self-regulating their learning in an elementary art class.

The interpretation of numerals has been traditionally debated across disciplines including, but not limited to, Linguistics, Developmental Psychology, and Philosophy. A big portion of the debate concentrates on the ontology of numerals, i.e., their basic meaning, and the mechanisms by which (non) exact interpretations (e.g., at least) are derived. While I adopt the Scopal Analysis of numerals where their semantic denotation is exact (Kennedy 2013, 2015), one question that remains rather underexplored is the relationship between our Number System and our Language System. In this dissertation, I propose the Lexical Refraction Hypothesis (LRH) in which numerals and other number-related morphemes, draw their denotative meaning from the Number faculty, with our language faculty mediating this process. Evidence from pre-verbal infants shows that humans, as well as non-human animals, possess a non-linguistic Approximate Number System (ANS) that allows us to make non-exact quantity judgments. What makes human vs non-human animals different? I propose that the natural lexicon is the vehicle by which the ANS representations are expressed as exact numerosities. Results from Experiment 1 confirm a relationship between Number and Language via Path Analysis. I then conducted a Mediation Analysis to determine if the lexical measure mediates between the two numerical systems. Results show that 75.5% was mediated by lexicon. The results are consistent with my hypothesis that the lexicon mediates between ANS and natural language quantifiers. In addition, I test whether children's estimation on the Number Line Task predict their interpretation of numerals. Unlike previous research (Musolino 2004), numerical cognition is a central variable in my dissertation not only to prove a connection between Number and Language, but also to determine whether our Number System has an impact in linguistic interpretations. As expected, children's numerical cognition significantly predicted their acceptance of numeral interpretations. While I adopt the Scopal Analysis of numerals, I also include Executive Function measures to rule out an implicature analysis of numerals. Based on previous literature, executive functions, such as inhibition, affect participants' interpretations in calculating scalar implicatures. If numerals have a basic exact semantic meaning, then we should not see a significant effect of executive function measures on numeral interpretations. In contrast to earlier work on conversational implicatures, results shows that neither lexicon nor the Executive Function measures were predictive of children's exact interpretations of numerals (p > 0.05). Finally, I test adults' interpretations of numerals in the absence of a modal. The between-subjects Truth Value Judgment Task experimental design consisted of three conditions: an Exact Condition (number of objects matches the target sentence), More Than Condition (number of objects is more than the quantifier in the target sentence), and a Less Than Condition (number of objects is less than the quantifier in the target sentence). Participants were equally divided into the three conditions Results from experiment 3 show that no adults were not willing to relax the exactness restriction in the absence of a modal, consistent with the proposal of Kennedy. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Social-emotional development is impacted in children exposed to chronic trauma (Neitzel, 2020). Children who do not learn how to express healthy reactions to their thoughts and feelings grow up to be adults with long-term health concerns (Loomis, 2018; Miller, 2019; Bartlett & Smith, 2019). The problem addressed through this study was that children who have experienced trauma often begin school ill-prepared to manage their emotions and impulsivities. These children struggle more than others with self-regulating thoughts, demonstrate poor executive functioning skills, and have difficulties forming positive relationships. The challenge was that social-emotional learning variations lead to problems measuring social-emotional competence. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand how trauma affects children in school. The study addressed the following: (a) In what ways do students in an early childhood setting demonstrate that they have experienced trauma before attending school, and what impact will an evidence-based social-emotional learning intervention program have on their behavior? (b) What will negative self-regulation issues, poor executive functioning skills, and self-regulation issues look like in a child who has experienced trauma versus a child who does not have a history of trauma? The theoretical framework for the study included Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Albert Bandura's social learning theory. Each of the eight participants was a parent or guardian of a four or five-year-old child registered in the Greater Amsterdam School District in New York State. A hand-coding system was used to analyze responses and transcripts. Braun and Clarke's six-step process was implemented to analyze the data. Three broad themes emerged from the analysis: childhood trauma, current trauma, and children's behavior. This study implied that an evidence-based intervention for social-emotional growth is essential for children exposed to trauma to tackle the impact of adversity. When a child begins school and has early exposure to social-emotional learning, the child will have the skills to manage impulses and emotions. The results of this study provide a clear view of how implementing an evidence-based social-emotional learning intervention program will help children develop strategies for coping with the effects of trauma. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Despite a 100-year-old history and the existence of schools in nearly every country in the world, Waldorf education is a little known and poorly understood educational model that was developed in Europe by Austrian philosopher Rudolph Steiner. For many years it existed in the United States in the form of private schools. Few of their teachers or administrators were interested in the opinions of others regarding the effectiveness of their pedagogy. As Waldorf-inspired charter schools have grown across the U.S., there is a greater need to understand the system. The Waldorf curriculum was created by Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner who was a contemporary of John Dewey and Maria Montessori, and who shared their belief in the advantages of active learning. Yet Steiner was unique among his contemporaries in his focus on an artistic approach to learning. Using interviews, observations, and student work, I identify the beliefs that Waldorf teachers hold around the idea of what it means to be a teacher and then describe the ways in which their beliefs influence the integration of the arts in the literacy curriculum. Interviews confirmed previous research asserting that the Waldorf pedagogy is understood by its teachers in a consistent way across wholly independent schools. All three teachers shared a common understanding of child development, as well as a wholistic view of teaching and learning. Their beliefs centered around three ideas: first, that each child develops at their own pace, second, that academic achievement is not superior to physical, social, or behavioral achievement, and third, that focusing on foundational skills in grades one through three was one of the most important ways they could affect academic achievement. The teachers saw it as their role to a) be a guide and authority who b) strove to "see" the students in front of them, and c) worked reflectively to improve themselves as teachers. Their beliefs in the wholistic nature of learning led them to approach teaching with an eye towards active experiences that focused strongly on the use of imagination to strengthen each child's connection to the academic content. Their learning of the letter B, for example, was not a simple explanation of its formation and sound. The students were introduced to a story that included 'B'utterflies and 'b'oots, which they drew into their books before proceeding to discover all the words that had a similar sound and practicing the writing of the letters. Individual growth is showcased through student work as it changed over time. The second study looked more deeply at the practices of the same teachers during a time of their teaching called "morning rhythmical work." Using mixed-methods design, I attempt to compare the executive function development of students in these private schools to other private schools in California. Specifically, I examine how the pedagogical practices that focus on movement, song, and playful teaching in these private schools might impact executive function development, as compared with other private schools throughout the United States. Using observations and interviews, I describe the ways in which Waldorf teachers integrate movement and games into their school day. Then I used data from the ECLS-K to compare the development of the private school Waldorf students to other matched students in private schools. Although there was much evidence to suggest that the activities the teachers are engaging in with their students do require executive function skill, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there was no evidence found in the second part of study two. Finally, study three used a quantitative, longitudinal, causal-comparative study design to examine the effectiveness of Waldorf education using annual state assessment scores for Waldorf-inspired charter school classrooms. This study addresses a gap in the literature as it relates to achievement among public school students in Waldorf-inspired classrooms, as compared to other non-Waldorf classrooms in grades three through eight. I found that by eighth grade students in Waldorf-inspired charter schools are performing similarly or better in ELA and math as compared to their non-Waldorf charter school and local public school comparison groups. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

High school graduates with language deficits often have poor emotion regulation (ER), enter the workforce unprepared to meet the emotional demands, and experience workforce outcomes that lead to a poor quality of life. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) teach ER, but little is known about ER-targeted speech-language therapy (ERSLT) for high schoolers with mild-to-moderate language impairments and ER deficits (MMLI/ER). This study was designed to explore SLPs' views and decisions about providing ER-SLT to improve career readiness and employability for students with MMLI/ER. Several studies, the evidence-based practice (EBP) model, and a thematic analysis approach informed this integrative interpretive description design and methodology. Dual analyses of interview data from seven experienced SLPs revealed views that SLPs can, should, and do provide ER-SLT to prepare students with MMLI/ER for future employment. SLPs reported integrating ER-SLT using standard language goals to best leverage their human capital. SLPs' ER-SLT paradigm included innovative and traditional language therapy that emphasized ER and executive functions through realistic scenarios, modeling, scripts, role-play, incidental teaching, and other EBPs. SLPs' views and decisions reflected EBPs influenced by (a) personhood, humanistic, and solution-focused themes; and (b) a strong reliance on SLPs' own expertise, experience, and preferences. Results from this study may inspire future research and contribute to positive social change through the development of advanced ER-SLT and other educational practices designed to increase the career readiness, employability, and quality of life for young adults with MMLI. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

As procedural flexibility, previously understood as adaptive reasoning, emerges as an important consideration in math skill development, it is important to account for executive functioning in that process as well, as executive functioning a well-researched factor in math performance. The current study, a secondary data analysis, explores how students rate themselves on the Executive Skills Questionnaire -- Revised (ESQ-R), an informal executive skills measure, and how those scores relate to procedural flexibility scores, which accounts for students' efficiency in math problem solving. Using the factor structure relevant to the current sample, which varies significantly from the current ESQ-R, findings indicate that procedural flexibility is lower in seventh grade when compared to sixth and eighth grades. Perceived executive skills vary positively across sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, indicating more perceived difficulties with executive skills as students move up in grade. Additional analyses explored the relationships between procedural flexibility and ESQ-R scores. Although there was no evidence of a significant relationship between procedural flexibility and ESQ-R scores, the relationship varied across grade level, yielding a negative relationship for sixth grade, a neutral relationship fore seventh grade, and a positive relationship for eighth grade. This pattern indicates that procedural flexibility may become more readily demonstrated, and possibly more valuable, as students gain mastery of skills and procedures and students may become more critical of their executive skills. Procedural flexibility is also highly sensitive to context and curriculum, based on the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Two of every three students in the classroom today are affected by at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE; Perfect et al., 2016). Recently, researchers have used a neurodevelopmental approach to try to categorize and describe the connection between the neurological, cognitive, and academic success of children with ACEs and may have discovered a unique connection to math (Blodgett & Lanigan, 2018). The culmination of this research suggests that children who experience ACEs develop a stress physiology (as evidenced by differences in brain volume and cortisol levels) and this affects executive functioning. Because executive functioning, which is undergirded by the structural development of the brain (De Bellis et al., 2016), is related to mathematical academic achievement (Clark et al., 2010), children who have structural differences due to ACEs are hypothesized to have unique challenges in math. This study examined children drawn from an academic (rather than clinical) setting using behavioral measures of executive functioning as well as math grades obtained from their schools. Results suggest that for children drawn from a traditional academic setting, having been exposed to ACEs does not predict significant differences in EF skills or in school performance in math. Though the sample demonstrated a typical prevalence of exposure to ACEs, the maternal education of the children in the sample (a proxy for SES) was distinctly high. The interaction of these two aspects of this sample and their implications for the findings is discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Screen media has become increasingly pervasive in our everyday lives and has profoundly changed the way people communicate and interact with each other. However, we are still unclear about the long-term influence of screen media use on our physical health, mental health, and social wellbeing. Children and adolescents are in an important stage of brain development and are susceptible to the environmental influence that screen media possess. This dissertation pursued three aims to address research gaps related to screen media use among children and adolescents: 1) identify topics and knowledge gaps in screen media use research among children and adolescents in a large corpus of scientific literature using topic modeling 2) leverage machine learning techniques to assist systematic literature review on the association between screen media use and executive functions among children and adolescents. 3) analyze and classify the public sentiments expressed in the text referring to screen media use and screen media parenting on the Twitter platform. In the first aim, we identified some highly researched topics such as the use of social media platforms for health information and communication, screen media use and health behaviors (e.g., physical activity, sleep, smoking, eating, etc.), and computer-assisted intervention for disease diagnosis and treatment. The less explored topics were dietary management, healthcare-related screen media use for injury rehabilitation, and web information and body image concerns. The second aim found that overall screen media activity was inversely associated with executive functions among children and adolescents. However, the results for television and video games were mixed with positive, negative, and null findings when different content and context in these screen media activities and specific executive functions were examined. This work indicated that the association was nuanced by the type of device used and the nature of the interaction. In addition to the first two aims; the third study found that there was slightly more positive sentiment than negative sentiment related to screen media use and screen media parenting. Among the tweets with negative sentiment, video game violence and gun violence had been extendedly discussed and came out as the top concerns for screen media use among children and adolescents. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Anxiety in Children can develop into pervasive disorders in adulthood if not treated. Research shows dysfunctional Executive Function (EF) and anxiety are both shown to have a negative impact on math achievement in children and adolescents (Trezise & Reeve, 2018; Kalaycioglu, 2015; Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin & Norgate, 2012). Chung, Weyandt, and Swentosky (2014) found biological and neuropsychological support for EF as a unitary and multifaceted processor for regulating our emotional states as well as our daily procedures. Anderson's (2002) model of Executive Control System (ECS) allows the factors of EF to be examined usingM a developmental approach towards EF processes. He groups the EF skills into four domains: attentional control, cognitive flexibility, information processing and goal setting. The current study uses the factors inhibition, divided attention, verbal fluency, and planning to represent each domain, respectfully. We measured (n = 18) adolescent's EF skills, anxiety levels and math achievement by their scores from the DKEFs, BASC-2 and the BASC-3, the WIAT III and WJ IV- ACH, respectfully. With this small sample, the results suggest the EF domain attentional control via inhibition, as measured by the Color Work Interference Test (CWIT) from the DKEFs, mediated anxiety and math achievement. Future studies using a larger sample are necessary to replicate the current study's findings on the mediating relationship of EF between anxiety, and math achievement in adolescence due to the small sample size. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

College was already a stressful time for many individuals, and COVID has added another major stress to change college life, highlighting the importance of stress management skills and increased cognitive resilience. The goals of the current study included (1) comparing stress, executive functioning (EF), resilience, alcohol use, and school connectedness of students during the pandemic and normed data; (2) examining the relationship between resilience and stress; (3) investigating the effects of class standing, alcohol use, and stress on EF (self-report and performance-based measures) and resilience; (4) studying the interaction of class standing, alcohol use, and stress levels after the impact of an acute stressor on EF. Participants completed the Trail Making Test and Tower of London and the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test-Computerized followed by the Cued Go/No-Go Task. Data was collected from college students at Indiana University of Pennsylvania (n = 462). Current findings indicated that students reported significantly less problematic alcohol use, alcohol use to cope, premeditation, school connectedness, as well as more stress and planning abilities than students prior to the pandemic. When comparing association among the variables, self-reported and performance-based EF were associated with resilience and school connectedness measures. Lowerclassman college students who endorsed severe stress with high problematic drinking reported less impulsive behaviors (i.e., more premeditation) than upperclassman students who endorsed severe stress with high problematic drinking. Additionally, Lowerclassman students who endorsed low problematic drinking rated themselves as possessing greater resilience than upperclassman students with high problematic drinking group. Also, upperclassmen who endorsed problematic alcohol use and severe stress made fewer omission errors than the rest of the sample after the acute stressor was presented. The current results demonstrated the changes in students' experiences during the pandemic associated with more stress than in previous cohorts, emphasizing the importance of building resources to increase students' resilience and connectedness to campus. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Students who are qualified under the special education category of Emotional Disturbance (ED) have some of the highest academic deficits, behavioral problems, and negative life outcomes compared to other eligibility groups. The heterogeneous nature of students classified as ED makes it difficult for school personnel to understand their needs. Previous research with students in this category has been from other people's perspectives. This study examined junior and senior high school students labeled ED and their perspectives about school, identity, being labeled ED, and future expectations. Four female students participated in a qualitative interview about their lives. A case-by-case and thematic analysis revealed nine themes. Three themes addressed school experiences. Two themes addressed students' perceptions of themselves. Two themes inquired about students' perceptions of the ED label. Two themes were related to students' expectations of the future. The findings indicated that participants struggled throughout school with the exceptions the last 2 years. They expressed difficulties with executive functioning, peer relationships, and mental health. The participants reported feeling generally positive feelings towards their teachers and themselves. When it came to the future, the participants expressed excitement and uncertainty about life after high school. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Over two-thirds of youth participate in a structured sport, making it a vital context in which transactional relations with cognitive development can occur. Yet, little is known about how these constructs inform one another across childhood. Most previous studies have focused on health benefits of sport participation, or on demographic and family characteristics as predictors of participation. Though some previous literature has explored the cognitive impacts of sport participation during childhood, as well as whether early cognitive skills may predict later sport participation, critical gaps remain. Specifically, there is a need to investigate the extent to which there are longitudinal relations between these constructs as well as the nature of those associations throughout childhood. Thus, this dissertation examines whether: (1) participating in sports during preschool predicts kindergarten cognitive outcomes (i.e., executive functioning, math, language, literacy), (2) executive functioning and pre-academic skills (i.e., math, language, literacy) at 54 months predict participating in a structured sport (open-skilled, closed-skilled) in third and fifth grade, and (3) if there are bidirectional relations between executive functioning and academic outcomes (i.e., math, language, literacy) and structured sports (open-skilled, closed-skilled) in third and fifth grade. Findings from this dissertation indicated that associations between sport participation and cognition in children are complex, such that the direction of these associations likely depend on developmental period and conceptualization of sport. In particular, there may be positive transactional relations between early sport and cognitive skills, but not in middle childhood. Further, the results suggest that there may be bidirectional relations between open-skilled sport participation and executive functioning across childhood. In addition, almost all associations between closed-skilled sport participation and cognitive skills were nonsignificant. Thus, open-skilled sport participation may demand more cognitive resources than closed-skilled sport participation. Results from this dissertation reinforce the need to use intensive longitudinal data analysis to continue exploring transactional relations between sport participation, executive functioning, and academic skills. Finally, it is vital to reconsider how we evaluate sport participation in children and to include context-specific measures of participation that likely influence relations between these constructs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Schools increasingly use educational technology, such as laptop computers, as tools to enhance learning. However, the introduction of educational technology in the classroom can also interfere with the learning process by distracting students through multitasking. Multitasking, or switching back and forth between two different tasks, distracts the brain because of its limited processing capacity, resulting in decreased cognitive outcomes. In an educational setting, students who multitask demonstrate poorer learning and have worse academic achievement. Therefore, the use of educational technology in the classroom can have a significant drawback to learning if the device becomes a distraction. Prior multitasking research has almost exclusively focused on students in a university setting, but educational technology is often used by younger students. The growing popularity of one-to-one device programs in middle schools and high schools mean that many adolescents use educational technology on a regular basis. The multitasking behavior of adolescents and its impact on their learning is not well understood, so it is important for secondary schools to learn more and be able to guide adolescent students to use educational technology effectively. The findings of this study demonstrate differences between the beliefs and behaviors of sixth grade students who frequently multitask on their school laptop computer and students who rarely multitask. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study gathers in-depth evidence of how these students have different beliefs about multitasking and their self-efficacy, and also use different strategies to try to avoid distractions from multitasking. By better understanding how adolescent students successfully focus using educational technology, secondary schools will be better able to guide students to develop productive habits and intervene when digital distraction occurs. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the systems, structures, and on-going professional development that leaders of elementary schools in New York State provide to support students who struggle with ADHD and executive functioning skills. The study used interviews as a data collection tool. Sixteen participants, including principals and directors of special education, took part in the study to help understand the support plans their schools have implemented for students who struggle with ADHD and executive functioning and the ways in which their schools collaborate with parents of children diagnosed with ADHD. The study found that all school systems surveyed use a team approach to implement a tiered system of interventions through the MTSS/RTI process. A second finding was that neither school principals nor teachers are receiving professional development focused on either ADHD or executive functioning. Instead, the study found that school districts generally rely on other staff members to provide individual coaching to teachers of students with ADHD. A third finding was that teacher self-efficacy varies with the individual teacher's background, perceptions, and training. Additionally, the study found that parents' lack of knowledge, perceptions about ADHD, tension around medicine management, and lack of trust in the school system are all barriers to supporting students with ADHD. The study therefore recommends that education certification programs require training in ADHD and executive functioning, provide systemic support for teachers of students diagnosed with ADHD, and help to better educate parents of children with ADHD.Keywords: ADHD, executive functioning, professional development, self-efficacy. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

There is a well-documented association between developmental language disorder (DLD) and executive function (EF) deficits. These co-occurring deficits pose risks to students' short- and long-term academic and social outcomes. In the United States, school-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) are tasked to ensure that students with DLD are able to achieve academic success, and though EF generally lies within their scope of practice, it remains unclear the extent to which SLPs are equipped to address these deficits. This dissertation consists of three related studies, the sum of which shall provide insight into the SLPs' services. The first of these studies, Chapter 2, offers a systematic literature review of the evidence supporting intervention for children with co-occurring deficits, as well as a synthesis of the guidance for SLPs addressing EF deficits in their services. I found a dearth of empirical studies for interventions targeting this population, though a relative abundance of practitioner papers provides a foundation of best practices for direct and indirect services. Chapter 3 presents the second study, an exploratory latent profile analysis of 167 Kindergarteners' receptive language, expressive language, and working memory (WM), as well as follow-up analyses of variance which examine children's average behavior ratings by profile. I identified a suitably-fitted three-profile model of language and WM, and I found that low-performing children, on average, were rated lower in social competence. Finally, Chapter 4 contains a mixed-methods analysis of school-based SLPs' interventions for children with EF deficits. Following an explanatory sequential design, I first surveyed 350 SLPs, then followed up with eight interviews designed to explain and contextualize the survey results. I found that most SLPs support EF deficits through indirect services or embedded strategies, though fewer provide direct intervention. However, direct intervention is feasible, and SLPs' knowledge and confidence about EFs influence their service provision. Overall, the findings of this dissertation support the notion that SLPs can be active and involved service providers, addressing EF deficits that are abundant in children with DLD, and which may otherwise hinder students' education. However, to optimize these services, the field of SLP requires further empirical intervention research and improved SLP preparation to ensure that SLPs can meet all the needs of students with co-occurring deficits. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

This dissertation presents a series of case studies concerned with whether the signal in a given set of measurements that we take in the course of linguistic inquiry reflects grammatical competence or performance factors. We know that performance and competence do not always covary, yet it is not uncommon to assume that measurements that we take of linguistic performance do transparently reflect the underlying grammatical competence that is the target of inquiry. This has been a very useful and fruitful assumption in the vast majority of cases. Nonetheless, there are certain cases where more careful consideration of the linking hypothesis between the underlying competence of interest and the measurements of linguistic behavior (i.e., performance) that one takes might be warranted. This dissertation presents three case studies that try to model such consideration. How performance and competence might interact is highly dependent on the phenomenon being investigated as well as the method being used to investigate it, so there is no one-size-fits-all approach to these kinds of considerations. The goal of this dissertation is to model such consideration and to encourage more of it. In Chapter 2, we investigate English-acquiring children's non-adult-like productions of medial wh-phrases. On the basis of experimental data showing a correlation between an independent measure of cognitive inhibition and the production of such examples, we will argue that the best explanation of these productions is that children fail to inhibit the pronunciation of the wh-copy at the intermediate clause boundary due to an underdeveloped executive function and that children do have the target adult-like English grammar with respect to the formation of wh-dependencies (contra, e.g., Thornton 1990, McDaniel, Chiu, & Maxfield 1995, de Villiers, de Villiers, & Roeper 2011). Then, in Chapter 4, we investigate the status of island violations under sluicing (i.e., TP ellipsis). Sluicing apparently improves the acceptability of island violations contained inside the ellipsis site (see, e.g., Ross 1969). Whether we should understood this improved acceptability as indicative of such examples being grammatical is an open question (cf. Ross 1969, Chomsky 1972, Lasnik 2001, Fox & Lasnik 2003, Merchant 2005, 2008b, 2009, Temmerman 2013, Griffiths & Lipta´k 2014, Barros 2014a, Barros, Elliott, & Thoms 2014, 2015). We investigate the status of such examples with several 2 x 2 experiments, an experimental paradigm discussed in detail in Chapter 3. The idea of the experimental design is to use differences between acceptability ratings and subtraction logic afforded by the linking hypothesis between acceptability and grammaticality to try to more directly get at grammaticality. Our results from this chapter are ultimately somewhat inconclusive, but for potentially methodologically informative reasons. Finally, in Chapter 5, we use the same kind of experimental paradigm to investigate the status of Bulgarian examples with multiple wh-dependencies, where one of the wh-dependencies crosses an island and the other does not. Bulgarian is a language with multiple fronting of wh-elements, and it has been observed that examples where one of the wh-dependencies spans an island but not the other are improved in acceptability (see, e.g., Richards 1997, 1998, 2001). Such examples have thus been taken to be grammatical, though they do still exhibit some degree of unacceptability. We use the same sort of experimental paradigm to try to ascertain the grammaticality status of these examples. We find evidence that such examples are indeed grammatical, which reaffirms the importance of ensuring our syntactic theories can account for such examples. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Executive functioning (EF) is found to be a powerful predictor for children's school readiness and long-term school outcomes. However, the current research base indicates that children with autism may have an increased likelihood of experiencing deficits in EF or delayed developmental trajectories. Additionally, although there is ample evidence that neurotypical (NT) children undergo a "sensitive period" with high plasticity in EF development in early childhood, and continue to make progress up to early adolescence, it is unclear if such a window of opportunity applies to autistic children in the same way it does for their NT peers, and if the longitudinal trajectory of growth follows a parallel pattern. Study 1 used the Early Childhood Longitudinal Studies-Kindergarten Class of 2011 (ECLS-K: 2011), and unconditional latent growth models were built for working memory and cognitive flexibility to identify the period of high plasticity in EF skills in autistic children and how it differed from that of their NT peers. It further investigated the relationship between autistic children's initial status in EF skills upon entering kindergarten and their rates of growth throughout their elementary school life. Lastly, it examined how the degree of heterogeneity in autistic children in their EF performances changed over time, and how such changes differed from that of their NT peers. Findings from Study 1 indicate that both autistic and NT children make steeper gains during the first few years of elementary school, and the rates of growth slow down as they get older. However, autistic children appear to have a wider window for high plasticity than their NT peers. Further, autistic children's lower initial status on working memory upon entering kindergarten predicted a higher rate of growth during the last three years of elementary school only, while a lower initial status on cognitive flexibility predicted a higher rate of growth throughout their elementary school years. Lastly, while both autistic and NT children show greater heterogeneity in their EF performances when they are younger, the heterogeneity decreases as they approach their "plateauing" points. However, the overall degrees of heterogeneity were higher in the autistic children than their NT peers, which indicates some degree of continued heterogeneity in their growth during the later years of elementary school. As indicated in Study 1, EF in autistic children is highly malleable throughout their childhood, and current literature base supports that various student-level and environmental factors play important roles in their development. In Study 2, conditional latent growth models were built to identify possible predictors for autistic children's working memory and cognitive flexibility performance upon entering kindergarten and their relative growth throughout their elementary school years. Findings indicate that socioeconomic status (SES) and students' approaches to learning (ATL) positively predicted autistic children's working memory performance upon entering kindergarten. Having ADHD, receipt of special education services at school, and students' ATL positively predicted autistic children's rate of growth in working memory during the first three years of their elementary school years, while student-teacher relationship (STR) predicted their rate of growth in working memory during the last three years of their elementary school. In addition, STR and ATL positively predicted autistic children's cognitive flexibility performance upon entering kindergarten, while living in a bilingual home environment positively predicted their rate of growth in cognitive flexibility during the first three years of autistic children's elementary school years. Implications and future directions are discussed. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]