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The socio-economic attainment of migrants and their descendants has been a pressing subject of research for scholars and policy makers. Educational outcomes attract particular attention, as education is a means for social advancement and achieving better occupational status. As the largest migrant group in Europe, Turks are of special interest in the discussion of migrant incorporation. However, assimilation theories dominate research, with limited interest, if any, in the true impact of migration on educational attainment. Using the unique 2000 Families dataset, this thesis compares the educational outcomes of Turks in European countries to their non-migrant comparators in Turkey across three generations. The 2000 Families dataset includes information about complete lineages of nearly 2000 persons born in Turkey between 1920 and 1945 in five high-sending regions; 80 per cent of these 'ancestors' migrated to Europe as 'guest workers' between 1960 and 1974, and 20 per cent stayed in Turkey. In this work, I first compare measurements of educational outcomes theoretically and their implications to international comparisons. methodologically. Next, I study the educational outcomes of Turks in Europe across two generations by comparing them to Turks in Turkey. I then focus on the direct effect of grandparents' socio-economic characteristics on educational outcomes and explore mobility patterns. Finally, I look at Turks in Europe and discuss country differences in their education as a positional good and note the effect of parental ethnic capital on educational outcomes. Existing research typically compares migrants to natives or other migrant groups in the destination countries. Therefore, it often overlooks changes migrants and their descendants go through relative to their comparators in the origin countries. Migrants' outcomes should be seen in reference to not only the groups in the destination but also those in the origin. Only then can a more complete picture of incorporation be drawn.

The aim of this thesis is to determine the ground deformation and stress distribution around highway tunnels at various stages of excavation and for several support conditions using finite element modelling techniques. When ground is excavated and material removed the subsequent redistribution of stress in the remaining surrounding material needs to be treated by one of three methods. These are the gravity difference method, the stress reversal technique and the relaxation approach. The first two methods were chosen for the simulation of excavation in this study. The tunnel data are in the form of the dimensions of the tunnel, heights of the rock layers, details of the shotcrete lining and tunnel support systems. A pre-processing program was written to transform this information into a finite element mesh in a format suitable for use by PAFEC-FE software. This enables different tunnel models and meshes to be produced with minimum error and time. The lack of adequate post-processing facilities available in PAFEC-FE dictated that computer programs needed to be written in order to reformat the textual output files and process the mesh stress and displacement outputs for graphical display using UNIRAS. In this way repeated use could be made of PAFEC-FE without time-consuming and error-prone manual retrieval of data. The tunnels were modelled at various stages of excavation and with such support provided at those stages as to allow the computed displacements to be compared with measurements made on highway tunnels in Turkey. The stresses generated in the tunnel supports and surrounding ground were also calculated to enable the possibility of damage or failure of the support structure or ground to be assessed and the selection of an optimal support system. Insertion of a support system into the model has a marginal effect on the development of rock strength around an excavation boundary.